Liquid-Phase Laser Induced Forward Transfer for Complex Organic Inks and Tissue Engineering

Laser induced forward transfer (LIFT) acts as a novel alternative to incumbent plotting techniques such as inkjet printing due to its ability to precisely deposit and position picoliter-sized droplets while being gentle enough to preserve sensitive structures within the ink. Materials as simple as screen printing ink to complex eukaryotic cells have been printed with applications spanning from microelectronics to tissue engineering. Biotechnology can benefit from this technique due to the efficient use of low volumes of reagent and the compatibility with a wide range of rheological properties. In addition, LIFT can be performed in a simple lab environment, not requiring vacuum or other extreme conditions. Although the basic apparatus is simple, many strategies exist to optimize the performance considering the ink and the desired pattern. The basic mechanism is similar between studies so the large number of variants can be summarized into a couple of categories and reported on with respect to their specific applications. In particular, precise and gentle deposition of complex molecules and eukaryotic cells represent the unique abilities of this technology. LIFT has demonstrated not only marked improvements in the quality of sensors and related medical devices over those manufactured with incumbent technologies but also great applicability in tissue engineering due to the high viability of printed cells.

Controlled synthesis of polyethylenimine coated gold nanoparticles: Application in glutathione sensing and nucleotide delivery

Synthesis of functional gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) justifying selectivity in biochemical interaction along with biocompatibility suited for in vivo biomedical applications has been a challenging issue. We report herein the role of polyethylenimine (PEI) in controlled synthesis of AuNPs under ambient conditions which has potentiality for sensing glutathione and selective interaction with DNA binding proteins facilitating endosomal escape for the nucleotide delivery. The choice of organic reducing agents like formaldehyde/acetaldehyde/acetyl acetone/tetrahydrofuran hydroperoxide and other similar compounds allow rapid conversion of PEI capped gold cations into AuNPs at room temperature thus controlling the functional ability of nanoparticles as a function of organic reducing agents. Both small and higher molecular weight PEI facilitates fast synthesis of AuNPs controlling cytotoxicity during in vivo biomedical applications. The AuNPs have been characterized by UV-Vis and transmission electron microscopy revealing excellent polycrystallinity and controlled nanogeometry. The cationic polymer coating enhances the electrocatalytic performances of nanoparticles. The typical biomedical application on glutathione (GSH) sensing based on peroxidase mimetic ability of as made AuNPs is studied. The as synthesized AuNPs are extreme salt and pH resistant and have potentiality for both homogeneous and heterogeneous biocatalysis. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part B: Appl Biomater, 105B: 1191-1199, 2017.

Microneedle-based sensors for medical diagnosis

The field of microneedle sensors is reviewed discussing current trends and future applications.

Laser 3D printing with sub-microscale resolution of porous elastomeric scaffolds for supporting human bone stem cells

A reproducible method is needed to fabricate 3D scaffold constructs that results in periodic and uniform structures with precise control at sub-micrometer and micrometer length scales. In this study, fabrication of scaffolds by two-photon polymerization (2PP) of a biodegradable urethane and acrylate-based photoelastomer is demonstrated. This material supports 2PP processing with sub-micrometer spatial resolution. The high photoreactivity of the biophotoelastomer permits 2PP processing at a scanning speed of 1000 mm s(-1), facilitating rapid fabrication of relatively large structures (>5 mm(3)). These structures are custom printed for in vitro assay screening in 96-well plates and are sufficiently flexible to enable facile handling and transplantation. These results indicate that stable scaffolds with porosities of greater than 60% can be produced using 2PP. Human bone marrow stromal cells grown on 3D scaffolds exhibit increased growth and proliferation compared to smooth 2D scaffold controls. 3D scaffolds adsorb larger amounts of protein than smooth 2D scaffolds due to their larger surface area; the scaffolds also allow cells to attach in multiple planes and to completely infiltrate the porous scaffolds. The flexible photoelastomer material is biocompatible in vitro and is associated with facile handling, making it a viable candidate for further study of complex 3D-printed scaffolds.

Two-photon polymerization of polyethylene glycol diacrylate scaffolds with riboflavin and triethanolamine used as a water-soluble photoinitiator

AIM

In this study, the suitability of a mixture containing riboflavin (vitamin B2) and triethanolamine (TEOHA) as a novel biocompatible photoinitiator for two-photon polymerization (2PP) processing was investigated.

MATERIALS & METHODS

Polyethylene glycol diacrylate was crosslinked using Irgacure(®) 369, Irgacure 2959 or a riboflavin-TEOHA mixture; biocompatibility of the photopolymer extract solutions was subsequently assessed via endothelial cell proliferation assay, endothelial cell viability assay and single-cell gel electrophoresis (comet) assay. Use of a riboflavin-TEOHA mixture as a photoinitiator for 2PP processing of a tissue engineering scaffold and subsequent seeding of this scaffold with GM-7373 bovine aortic endothelial cells was also demonstrated.

RESULTS

The riboflavin-TEOHA mixture was found to produce much more biocompatible scaffolds than those produced with Irgacure 369 or Irgacure 2959.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that riboflavin is a promising component of photoinitiators for 2PP fabrication of tissue engineering scaffolds and other medically relevant structures (e.g., biomicroelectromechanical systems).

Stereolithography in tissue engineering

Several recent research efforts have focused on use of computer-aided additive fabrication technologies, commonly referred to as additive manufacturing, rapid prototyping, solid freeform fabrication, or three-dimensional printing technologies, to create structures for tissue engineering. For example, scaffolds for tissue engineering may be processed using rapid prototyping technologies, which serve as matrices for cell ingrowth, vascularization, as well as transport of nutrients and waste. Stereolithography is a photopolymerization-based rapid prototyping technology that involves computer-driven and spatially controlled irradiation of liquid resin. This technology enables structures with precise microscale features to be prepared directly from a computer model. In this review, use of stereolithography for processing trimethylene carbonate, polycaprolactone, and poly(D,L-lactide) poly(propylene fumarate)-based materials is considered. In addition, incorporation of bioceramic fillers for fabrication of bioceramic scaffolds is reviewed. Use of stereolithography for processing of patient-specific implantable scaffolds is also discussed. In addition, use of photopolymerization-based rapid prototyping technology, known as two-photon polymerization, for production of tissue engineering scaffolds with smaller features than conventional stereolithography technology is considered.

Cytotoxicity of cultured macrophages exposed to antimicrobial zinc oxide (ZnO) coatings on nanoporous aluminum oxide membranes

Zinc oxide (ZnO) is a widely used commercial material that is finding use in wound healing applications due to its antimicrobial properties. Our study demonstrates a novel approach for coating ZnO with precise thickness control onto 20 nm and 100 nm pore diameter anodized aluminum oxide using atomic layer deposition (ALD). ZnO was deposited throughout the nanoporous structure of the anodized aluminum oxide membranes. An 8 nm-thick coating of ZnO, previously noted to have antimicrobial properties, was cytotoxic to cultured macrophages. After 48 h, ZnO-coated 20 nm and 100 nm pore anodized aluminum oxide significantly decreased cell viability by ≈65% and 54%, respectively, compared with cells grown on uncoated anodized aluminum oxide membranes and cells grown on tissue culture plates. Pore diameter (20–200 nm) did not influence cell viability.

The Effects of Geometry on Skin Penetration and Failure of Polymer Microneedles

Microneedles are small-scale devices that may be used for drug delivery and biosensing. In this study, the forces required for mechanical failure, the modes of mechanical failure, as well as the mechanisms for microneedle penetration into porcine skin were examined. Microneedles produced from the acrylate-based polymer e-Shell 200 using an indirect rapid prototyping approach involving two-photon polymerization and poly(dimethylsiloxane) micromolding were found to possess sufficient strength for penetration of porcine skin. The failure forces were an order of magnitude greater than the forces necessary for full insertion into the skin. Bending was the most common form of failure; an increasing aspect ratio and a decreasing tip diameter were associated with lower failure forces. Video captured during skin penetration revealed that microneedle penetration into the skin occurred by means of a series of insertions and not by means of a single insertion event. Images obtained during and after skin penetration confirmed microneedle penetration of skin as well as transdermal delivery of lucifer yellow dye. These findings shed insight into the mechanisms of microneedle penetration and failure, facilitating design improvements for polymer microneedles.

Biomedical applications of carbon-nanotube composites

The unique physical, chemical and mechanical properties of carbon nanotubes make them attractive for a variety of biomedical applications. Carbon nanotubes have been used to modify conventional biomedical materials to enhance mechanical properties, biocompatibility, or to impart other functionalities. New multifunctional composite materials using carbon nanotubes have been developed by combining them with inorganic, polymeric or biological materials. The biomedical applications for which novel carbon nanotube composites have been investigated include antimicrobial coatings, neural implants, tissue engineering scaffolds and electrochemical biosensors. In this paper, research on development and application of carbon nanotube composites for biomedical applications has been reviewed.

Defect mediated photocatalytic decomposition of 4-chlorophenol on epitaxial rutile thin films under visible and UV illumination

We show that pure rutile TiO(2) can be photo-responsive even under low energy visible light after annealing in vacuum where we envisage that the point defects, i.e. oxygen vacancies and titanium interstitials, serve an important role. In this study, single crystal rutile films were grown by the pulsed laser deposition technique and then vacuum annealed under different oxygen pressures to introduce defects into their lattices. 4-chlorophenol was selected as a model material and decomposed by the annealed TiO(2) films where the maximum photocatalytic reaction rate constants were determined as 0.0107 and 0.0072 min(-1) under UV and visible illumination. Epitaxial growth along the [200] direction was confirmed by φ-scan and 2θ-scan XRD and the epitaxial relationship between the rutile film and the c-sapphire substrate was explained as (100)[010](R) [parallel] (0001)[12[combining overline]10](S). The formation of atomically sharp interfaces and the epitaxial growth were ascertained by annular dark-field STEM imaging. Based on the XPS, UV-vis and PL spectroscopy results, it was found that the defect concentration increased after annealing under lower pressures, e.g. 5 × 10(-6) Torr. In contrast, more perfect crystals were obtained when the films were annealed under high oxygen pressures, namely 5 × 10(1) Torr. The morphology of the films was also investigated by employing an AFM technique. It was observed that increase of the annealing pressure results in the formation of larger grains. It was also found that the electrical resistivity of the rutile films strongly increased by about three orders of magnitude when the annealing pressure increased from 5 × 10(-4) to 5 × 10(1) Torr.

Hollow microneedle-based sensor for multiplexed transdermal electrochemical sensing

The development of a minimally invasive multiplexed monitoring system for rapid analysis of biologically-relevant molecules could offer individuals suffering from chronic medical conditions facile assessment of their immediate physiological state. Furthermore, it could serve as a research tool for analysis of complex, multifactorial medical conditions. In order for such a multianalyte sensor to be realized, it must be minimally invasive, sampling of interstitial fluid must occur without pain or harm to the user, and analysis must be rapid as well as selective. Initially developed for pain-free drug delivery, microneedles have been used to deliver vaccines and pharmacologic agents (e.g., insulin) through the skin. Since these devices access the interstitial space, microneedles that are integrated with microelectrodes can be used as transdermal electrochemical sensors. Selective detection of glucose, glutamate, lactate, hydrogen peroxide, and ascorbic acid has been demonstrated using integrated microneedle-electrode devices with carbon fibers, modified carbon pastes, and platinum-coated polymer microneedles serving as transducing elements. This microneedle sensor technology has enabled a novel and sophisticated analytical approach for in situ and simultaneous detection of multiple analytes. Multiplexing offers the possibility of monitoring complex microenvironments, which are otherwise difficult to characterize in a rapid and minimally invasive manner. For example, this technology could be utilized for simultaneous monitoring of extracellular levels of, glucose, lactate and pH, which are important metabolic indicators of disease states (e.g., cancer proliferation) and exercise-induced acidosis.

Indirect rapid prototyping of antibacterial acid anhydride copolymer microneedles

Microneedles are needle-like projections with microscale features that may be used for transdermal delivery of a variety of pharmacologic agents, including antibacterial agents. In the study described in this paper, an indirect rapid prototyping approach involving a combination of visible light dynamic mask micro-stereolithography and micromolding was used to prepare microneedle arrays out of a biodegradable acid anhydride copolymer, Gantrez(®) AN 169 BF. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, energy dispersive x-ray spectrometry and nanoindentation studies were performed to evaluate the chemical and mechanical properties of the Gantrez(®) AN 169 BF material. Agar plating studies were used to evaluate the in vitro antimicrobial performance of these arrays against Bacillus subtilis, Candida albicans, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus. Large zones of growth inhibition were noted for Escherichia coli, S. aureus, Enterococcus faecalis and B. subtilis. The performance of Gantrez(®) AN 169 BF against several bacteria suggests that biodegradable acid anhydride copolymer microneedle arrays prepared using visible light dynamic mask micro-stereolithography micromolding may be useful for treating a variety of skin infections.

Fabrication of microscale medical devices by two-photon polymerization with multiple foci via a spatial light modulator

Two-photon polymerization is an appealing technique for producing microscale devices due to its flexibility in producing structures with a wide range of geometries as well as its compatibility with materials suitable for biomedical applications. The greatest limiting factor in widespread use of two-photon polymerization is the slow fabrication times associated with line-by-line, high-resolution structuring. In this study, a recently developed technology was used to produce microstructures by two-photon polymerization with multiple foci, which significantly reduces the production time. Computer generated hologram pattern technology was used to generate multiple laser beams in controlled positions from a single laser. These multiple beams were then used to simultaneously produce multiple microstructures by two-photon polymerization. Arrays of micro-Venus structures, tissue engineering scaffolds, and microneedle arrays were produced by multifocus two-photon polymerization. To our knowledge, this work is the first demonstration of multifocus two-photon polymerization technology for production of a functional medical device. Multibeam fabrication has the potential to greatly improve the efficiency of two-photon polymerization production of microscale devices such as tissue engineering scaffolds and microneedle arrays.

Novel approaches to bone grafting: porosity, bone morphogenetic proteins, stem cells, and the periosteum

The disadvantages involving the use of a patient's own bone as graft material have led surgeons to search for alternative materials. In this review, several characteristics of a successful bone graft material are discussed. In addition, novel synthetic materials and natural bone graft materials are being considered. Various factors can determine the success of a bone graft substitute. For example, design considerations such as porosity, pore shape, and interconnection play significant roles in determining graft performance. The effective delivery of bone morphogenetic proteins and the ability to restore vascularization also play significant roles in determining the success of a bone graft material. Among current approaches, shorter bone morphogenetic protein sequences, more efficient delivery methods, and periosteal graft supplements have shown significant promise for use in autograft substitutes or autograft extenders.

Modification of microneedles using inkjet printing

In this study, biodegradable acid anhydride copolymer microneedles containing quantum dots were fabricated by means of visible light dynamic mask micro-stereolithography-micromolding and inkjet printing. Nanoindentation was performed to obtain the hardness and the Young's modulus of the biodegradable acid anhydride copolymer. Imaging of quantum dots within porcine skin was accomplished by means of multiphoton microscopy. Our results suggest that the combination of visible light dynamic mask micro-stereolithography-micromolding and inkjet printing enables fabrication of solid biodegradable microneedles with a wide range of geometries as well as a wide range of pharmacologic agent compositions.

Atomic layer deposition of titanium dioxide on cellulose acetate for enhanced hemostasis

TiO₂ films may be used to alter the wettability and hemocompatibility of cellulose materials. In this study, pure and stoichiometric TiO₂ films were grown using atomic layer deposition on both silicon and cellulose substrates. The films were grown with uniform thicknesses and with a growth rate in agreement with literature results. The TiO₂ films were shown to profoundly alter the water contact angle values of cellulose in a manner dependent upon processing characteristics. Higher amounts of protein adsorption indicated by blurry areas on images generated by scanning electron microscopy were noted on TiO₂ -coated cellulose acetate than on uncoated cellulose acetate. These results suggest that atomic layer deposition is an appropriate method for improving the biological properties of hemostatic agents and other blood-contacting biomaterials.

Integrated carbon fiber electrodes within hollow polymer microneedles for transdermal electrochemical sensing

In this study, carbon fiber electrodes were incorporated within a hollow microneedle array, which was fabricated using a digital micromirror device-based stereolithography instrument. Cell proliferation on the acrylate-based polymer used in microneedle fabrication was examined with human dermal fibroblasts and neonatal human epidermal keratinocytes. Studies involving full-thickness cadaveric porcine skin and trypan blue dye demonstrated that the hollow microneedles remained intact after puncturing the outermost layer of cadaveric porcine skin. The carbon fibers underwent chemical modification in order to enable detection of hydrogen peroxide and ascorbic acid; electrochemical measurements were demonstrated using integrated electrode-hollow microneedle devices.

In situ collagen polymerization of layered cell-seeded electrospun scaffolds for bone tissue engineering applications

Electrospun scaffolds have been studied extensively for their potential use in bone tissue engineering applications. However, inherent issues with the electrospinning approach limit the thickness of these scaffolds and constrain their use for repair of critical-sized bone defects. One method to increase overall scaffold thickness is to bond multiple electrospun scaffolds together with a biocompatible gel. The objective of this study was to determine whether multiple human adipose-derived stem cell (hASC-seeded electrospun, nanofibrous scaffolds could be layered via in situ collagen assembly and whether the addition of laser-ablated micron-sized pores within the electrospun scaffold layers was beneficial to the bonding process. Pores were created by a laser ablation technique. We hypothesized that the addition of micron-sized pores within the electrospun scaffolds would encourage collagen integration between scaffold layers, and promote osteogenic differentiation of hASCs seeded within the layered electrospun scaffolds. To evaluate the benefit of assembled scaffolds with and without engineered pores, hASCs were seeded on individual electrospun scaffolds, hASC-seeded scaffolds were bonded with type I collagen, and the assembled ∼3-mm-thick constructs were cultured for 3 weeks to examine their potential as bone tissue engineering scaffolds. Assembled electrospun scaffolds/collagen gel constructs using electrospun scaffolds with pores resulted in enhanced hASC viability, proliferation, and mineralization of the scaffolds after 3 weeks in vitro compared to constructs using electrospun scaffolds without pores. Scanning electron microscopy and histological examination revealed that the assembled constructs that included laser-ablated electrospun scaffolds were able to maintain a contracted structure and were not delaminated, unlike assembled constructs containing nonablated electrospun scaffolds. This is the first study to show that the introduction of engineered pores in electrospun scaffolds assists with multilayered scaffold integration, resulting in thick constructs potentially suitable for use as scaffolds for bone tissue engineering or repair of critical bone defects.