An experimental study on bioremediation and photolysis of enrofloxacin

Recent studies have identified the occurrence of a vast number of pharmaceuticals into the municipal wastewater through excreted urine and feces. Some of these pharmaceutical compounds are degraded in the environment. However, there have been reports on the presence of pharmaceutical active compounds in drinking water. Concerns have been raised over the potential adverse effects of these pharmaceuticals on public health and the aquatic environment. In order to investigate the removal process of pharmaceutical enrofloxacin, a unit consisting of a structured packing rotating biological contactor (spRBC) was designed and constructed as a biological treatment unit. The removal rate reached a maximum of 70% in this biological unit. In the meantime, the effect of photolysis process on the effluent of the biological unit was also studied. In the direct photolysis, the removal performance reached 51% and by adding H2O2 the removal efficiency was increased to 87%. The removal efficiency for the entire system including spRBC and an ultraviolet radiation unit was 94%.

Biotransformation of the antibiotic agent flumequine by ligninolytic fungi and residual antibacterial activity of the transformation mixtures

Flumequine, a fluoroquinolone antibiotic, is applied preferably in veterinary medicine, for stock breeding and treatment of aquacultures. Formation of drug resistance is a matter of general concern when antibiotics such as flumquine occur in the environment. Thus, biodegradation of flumequine in solution was investigated using five different ligninolytic fungi. Irpex lacteus, Dichomitus squalens, and Trametes versicolor proved most efficient and transformed more than 90% of flumequine within 6 or even 3 days. Panus tigrinus and Pleurotus ostreatus required up to 14 days to remove >90% of flumequine. Analyses of the metabolites by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry suggest different transformation pathways for the different fungal strains. Structure proposals were elaborated for 8 metabolites. 7-Hydroxy-flumequine and flumequine ethyl ester were identified as common metabolites produced by all ligninolytic fungi. The largest variety of metabolites was formed by D. squalens. Residual antibacterial activity of the metabolite mixtures was tested using gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. While for the less efficient P. tigrinus and P. ostreatus cultures the antibacterial activities corresponded to the residual concentrations of flumequine, a remarkable antibacterial activity remained in the D. squalens cultures although flumequine was transformed to more than 90%. Obviously, antibacterially active transformation products were formed by this fungal strain.

Uptake of zwitterionic antibiotics by rice (Oryza sativa L.) in contaminated soil

Antibiotics, including members of the tetracycline and fluoroquinolone families, are emerging organic environmental contaminants. Uptake from soil by plants is a means for antibiotics to enter terrestrial food chains. Chemical exchange between plant and the soil/water matrix occurs simultaneously with degradation in the soil/water matrix. In this study, the comparative temporal behaviour of rice (Oryza sativa L.) towards the zwitterionic antibiotics oxytetracycline, chlortetracycline and norfloxacin at initial soil/water concentrations of 10, 20 and 30 μg g(-1) (dry weight) is investigated. This is accomplished within the framework of an activity-based mass-conserving dynamic model. Plant antibiotic concentrations are observed to increase to a maximum then decline. Maximum concentrations in rice are compound-dependent linear functions of initial soil/water concentrations, but the relationships are not related to the compound octan-1-ol/water distribution ratio (DOW). The times required to attain maximal concentrations are independent of initial soil/water levels for a given antibiotic, but again vary between antibiotics and are not related to DOW values. Translocation from root to other tissues is not observed. The magnitudes of Root Concentration Factors (RCFs), the ratio of root and soil/water concentrations, are consistent with significant sorption to soil and consequent relatively low concentrations in interstitial water.

The FLT3 inhibitor quizartinib inhibits ABCG2 at pharmacologically relevant concentrations, with implications for both chemosensitization and adverse drug interactions

The oral second-generation bis-aryl urea fms-like tyrosine kinase 3 (FLT3) inhibitor quizartinib (AC220) has favorable kinase selectivity and pharmacokinetics. It inhibits mutant and wild-type FLT3 in vivo at 0.1 and 0.5 µM, respectively, and has shown favorable activity and tolerability in phase I and II trials in acute myeloid leukemia, with QT prolongation as the dose-limiting toxicity. Co-administration with chemotherapy is planned. We characterized interactions of quizartinib with the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) proteins ABCB1 (P-glycoprotein) and ABCG2 (breast cancer resistance protein). Its effects on uptake of fluorescent substrates and apoptosis were measured by flow cytometry, binding to ABCB1 and ABCG2 drug-binding sites by effects on [¹²⁵I]iodoarylazidoprazosin ([¹²⁵I]-IAAP) photolabeling and ATPase activity, and cell viability by the WST-1 colorimetric assay. Quizartinib inhibited transport of fluorescent ABCG2 and ABCB1 substrates in ABCG2- and ABCB1-overexpressing cells in a concentration-dependent manner, from 0.1 to 5 µM and from 0.5 to 10 µM, respectively, and inhibited [¹²⁵I]-IAAP photolabeling of ABCG2 and ABCB1 with IC₅₀ values of 0.07 and 3.3 µM, respectively. Quizartinib at higher concentrations decreased ABCG2, but not ABCB1, ATPase activity. Co-incubation with quizartinib at 0.1 to 1 µM sensitized ABCG2-overexpressing K562/ABCG2 and 8226/MR20 cells to ABCG2 substrate chemotherapy drugs in a concentration-dependent manner in cell viability and apoptosis assays. Additionally, quizartinib increased cellular uptake of the ABCG2 substrate fluoroquinolone antibiotic ciprofloxacin, which also prolongs the QT interval, in a concentration-dependent manner, predicting altered ciprofloxacin pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics when co-administered with quizartinib. Thus quizartinib inhibits ABCG2 at pharmacologically relevant concentrations, with implications for both chemosensitization and adverse drug interactions. These interactions should be considered in the design of treatment regimens combining quizartinib and chemotherapy drugs and in choice of concomitant medications to be administered with quizartinib.

Comparison of different advanced oxidation processes for the degradation of two fluoroquinolone antibiotics in aqueous solutions

In this study a comparative assessment using various advanced oxidation processes (UV/H(2)O(2), UV/H(2)O(2)/Fe(II), O(3), O(3)/UV, O(3)/UV/H(2)O(2) and O(3)/UV/H(2)O(2)/Fe(II)) was attempted to degrade efficiently two fluoroquinolone drugs ENR [enrofloxacin (1-Cyclopropyl-7-(4-ethyl-1-piperazinyl)-6-fluoro-1,4-dihydro-4-oxo-3-quinolonecarboxylic acid)] and CIP [ciprofloxacin (1-cyclopropyl-6-fluoro-4-oxo-7-(piperazin-1-yl)-quinoline-3-carboxylic acid)] in aqueous solutions at a concentrations of 0.15 mM for each drug. The efficiency of the applied oxidation processes (AOPs) has been estimated by the conversion of the original substrate (X(ENR) and X(CIP)) and the reduction of chemical oxygen demand (COD), total organic carbon (TOC). Special emphasis was laid on the effect of varying reaction pH as well as of the applied oxidant doses on the observed reaction kinetics for each advanced oxidation processes. High degradation efficiencies, particularly in terms of rates of TOC and COD abatement, were obtained for photo-Fenton assisted ozonation [O(3)/UV/H(2)O(2)/Fe(II)], compared to other advanced oxidation processes. At pH 3 and 25°C best results for the degradation of both investigated drugs were achieved when 10 mM H(2)O(2), 0.5 mM Fe(II) and an initial dose of 8.5 mg L(-1) ozone were applied. In addition, the evolution of toxicity of the reaction mixtures for different AOPs has been studied by the bioluminescence test (LUMIStox 300).

Interaction between holo transferrin and HSA-PPIX complex in the presence of lomefloxacin: an evaluation of PPIX aggregation in protein-protein interactions

Human serum albumin (HSA) and holo transferrin (TF) are two serum carrier proteins that are able to interact with each other, thereby altering their binding behavior toward their ligands. During the course of this study, the interaction between HSA-PPIX and TF, in the presence and absence of lomefloxacin (LMF), was for the first time investigated using different spectroscopic and molecular modeling techniques. Fluorescence spectroscopy experiments were performed in order to study conformational changes of proteins. The RLS technique was utilized to investigate the effect of LMF on J-aggregation of PPIX, which is the first report of its kind. Our findings present clear-cut evidence for the alteration of interactions between HSA and TF in the presence of PPIX and changes in drug-binding to HSA and HSA-PPIX complex upon interaction with TF. Moreover, molecular modeling studies suggested that the binding site for LMF became switched in the presence of PPIX, and that LMF bound to the site IIA of HSA. The obtained results should give new insight into research in this field and may cast some light on the dynamics of drugs in biological systems.

Determination of sparfloxacin concentrations in chicken serums and residues in chicken tissues and manures using self-ordered ring fluorescence microscopic imaging technique

Based on the self-ordered ring (SOR) fluorescence microscopic imaging technique on a hydrophobic glass slide with Zn2+ and cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide (CTMAB) as sensitizer, and poly (vinyl alcohol) 124 (PVA-124) and NH3-NH4Cl (pH 10.00) as the medium, a method has been developed for determining sparfloxacin (SPFX) concentrations in chicken serum and residues in chicken tissues and manures. When the droplet volume was 0.20 microL, SPFX was determined in the range of 1.38 x 10(-13)-2.03 x 10(-12) mol x ring(-1) (or 6.90 x 10(-7)-1.02 x 10(-5) mol x L(-1)), and the limit of detection (LOD) was 14 fmol x ring (or 6.90 x 10(-8) mol x L(-1)). The recoveries of SPFX at all different spiked levels are in the range of 90.74%-106.61% when the methanol or acetonitrile were used as extracting agent, respectively, and the relative standard deviations (RSDs) are less than 3.0%. This study expands the applied fields of SOR technique in drug concentrations and residues determination.

Correlation among the toxicity profiling (28-days repeated oral dose toxicity), toxicokinetics and tissue distribution data of ulifloxacin, the active metabolite of prulifloxacin in Wistar albino rats

This experiment was designed to investigate correlation among 28-days repeated oral dose toxicity, toxicokinetics and tissue distribution data of ulifloxacin (active metabolite of prulifloxacin) in Wistar albino rats. Prulifloxacin was administered for 28-days in rats at 0, 100, 200, 400mg/kg/day followed by 14-days recovery period. Simultaneously different toxicokinetic parameters and tissue distributions of ulifloxacin was examined by LC-MS/MS method. Plasma levels and tissue concentrations of ulifloxacin were increased with dose-related manner. Ulifloxacin was also distributed to many tissues, and concentration in lungs nearly equivalent to the plasma concentration. Based on these results it was concluded that long-term repeated dose of prulifloxacin may produce different blood parameters abnormality, liver damage, stomach ulcer, joint damage and dysfunction of lungs in rats which relates to high tissue distribution and accumulation of ulifloxacin in these tissues. These findings help in management of prulifloxacin induced adverse effects by appropriate dose selection in clinical practice.

A competitive chemiluminescence enzyme immunoassay for rapid and sensitive determination of enrofloxacin

With alkaline phosphatase (ALP)-adamantane (AMPPD) system as the chemiluminescence (CL) detection system, a highly sensitive, specific and simple competitive chemiluminescence enzyme immunoassay (CLEIA) was developed for the measurement of enrofloxacin (ENR). The physicochemical parameters, such as the chemiluminescent assay mediums, the dilution buffer of ENR-McAb, the volume of dilution buffer, the monoclonal antibody concentration, the incubation time, and other relevant variables of the immunoassay have been optimized. Under the optimal conditions, the detection linear range of 350-1000 pg/mL and the detection limit of 0.24 ng/mL were provided by the proposed method. The relative standard deviations were less than 15% for both intra and inter-assay precision. This method has been successfully applied to determine ENR in spiked samples with the recovery of 103%-96%. It showed that CLEIA was a good potential method in the analysis of residues of veterinary drugs after treatment of related diseases.

Effect of protein on the detection of fluoroquinolone residues in fish meat

Using fish serum albumin (FSA) as the model protein, molecular fluorescence spectrometry and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) were applied to study the effect of protein on the extraction of fluoroquinolone (FQ) residues in fish meat. There was a strong interaction between FQs and protein through hydrogen bonds, which could be broken as protein degenerated with 60-100% (v/v) acetonitrile acid solution, and FQs bound with protein were released in various degrees. On the basis of the results, a novel sample preparation procedure loosely based on QuEChERS (Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged, and Safe) methodology was developed for the determination of FQ residues in fish muscle samples, using 90% (v/v) acetonitrile acid solution as the extractant, combined with a dispersive solid-phase extraction (DSPE) cleanup step. Mean recoveries of four FQs from spiked samples at a concentration range of 50-200 ng g(-1) were 73.3-95.9% with relative standard deviations (RSD) lower than 10.7%.

Occurrence and fate of quinolone and fluoroquinolone antibiotics in a municipal sewage treatment plant

This study developed a method for analysis of nineteen quinolone and fluoroquinolone antibiotics (FQs) in sludge samples, and investigated the occurrence and fate of the FQs in a municipal sewage treatment plant (STP) with anaerobic, anoxic, and aerobic treatment processes. Eleven compounds, including pipemidic acid, fleroxacin, ofloxacin, norfloxacin, ciprofloxacin, enrofloxacin, lomefloxacin, sparfloxacin, gatifloxacin, moxifloxacin, and sarafloxacin (only in sludge), were detected in the STP. The predominance of ofloxacin and norfloxacin, followed by lomefloxacin, ciprofloxacin, gatifloxacin, and moxifloxacin, were found in wastewater, suspended solids, and sludge. The total concentrations of FQs were 2573 ± 241 ng/L, 1013 ± 218 ng/L, and 18.4 ± 0.9 mg/kg in raw sewage, secondary effluent, and sludge, respectively. Extremely low mass change percentages were observed for FQs in anaerobic, anoxic, and aerobic treatment units, suggesting biodegradation to be of minor importance in the removal of FQs in STPs. 50-87% of the initial FQs loadings (except for pipemidic acid (36%)) were ultimately found in the dewatered sludge. Mean removal efficiencies of FQs in the STP were 56-75%, except for new generation drugs such as moxifloxacin (40 ± 5%) and gatifloxacin (43 ± 13%). A significant positive correlation was found between removal efficiencies and K(d) of FQs. The major factor in the removal of FQs in the STP was sorption to sludge, which was not governed by hydrophobic interactions. The long-term cycling and persistence of FQs in the STP has made activated sludge as a huge reservoir of FQ antibiotics.

Docking studies on novel analogues of 8 methoxy fluoroquinolones against GyrA mutants of Mycobacterium tuberculosis

BACKGROUND

Fluoroquinolone resistance is a serious threat in the battle against the treatment of multi drug resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) and extensively drug resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB). Fluoroquinolone resistant isolates from India had shown to have evolved several mutants in the quinolone resistance determining region (QRDR) of DNA gyrase A subunit (GyrA), the target of fluoroquinolone. In view of high prevalence of mutations in the 'hot spot' region, a study on combinatorial drug design was carried out to identify better analogues for the treatment of MDR-TB. The gyrA subunit 'hot spot' region of codons 90, 94 and 95 were modeled into their corresponding protein folds and used as receptors for the docking studies. Further, invitro tests were carried using the parent compounds, namely gatifloxacin and moxifloxacin and correlated with the obtained docking scores.

RESULTS

Molecular docking and in vitro studies correlated well in demonstrating the enhanced activity of moxifloxacin, when compared to gatifloxacin, on ofloxacin sensitive and resistant strains comprising of clinical isolates of MDR-TB. The evolved lead structures targeting against mutant QRDR receptors were guanosine and cholesteryl esters of gatifloxacin and moxifloxacin. They showed consistently high binding affinity values of -10.3 and -10.1 kcal/mol respectively with the target receptors. Of these, the guanosine ester showed highest binding affinity score and its log P value lied within the Lipinski's range indicating that it could have better absorptivity when it is orally administered thereby having an enhanced activity against MTB.

CONCLUSIONS

The docking results showed that the addition of the cholesteryl and guanosine esters to the 'DNA gyrase binding' region of gatifloxacin and moxifloxacin enhanced the binding affinity of these parent molecules with the mutant DNA gyrase receptors. Viewing the positive correlation for the docking and in vitro results with the parent compounds, these lead structures could be further evaluated for their in vitro and in vivo activity against MDR-TB.

Dissipation of atrazine, enrofloxacin, and sulfamethazine in wood chip bioreactors and impact on denitrification

Wood chip bioreactors are receiving increasing attention as a means of reducing nitrate in subsurface tile drainage systems. Agrochemicals in tile drainage water entering wood chip bioreactors can be retained or degraded and may affect denitrification. The degradation of 5 mg L atrazine, enrofloxacin, and sulfamethazine under denitrifying conditions in wood chips from an in situ reactor was determined. The impact of these chemicals on denitrifying microorganisms was assessed using the denitrification potential assay, most probable number (MPN), and quantitative polymerase chain reaction targeting the gene of the denitrifiers. Initial half-lives for these chemicals in the aqueous phase were 0.98 d for atrazine, 0.17 d for enrofloxacin, and 6.2 d for sulfamethazine. Similar rates of disappearance in autoclaved and nonautoclaved wood chip solutions during the first 48 h suggested sorption was the dominant mechanism. The presence of atrazine did not impair denitrification potential, the MPN, or the copy number. The denitrifier MPN and copy number in sulfamethazine- and enrofloxacin-treated microcosms were less than the control within the first 5 d after chemical addition, whereas the denitrification potentials were not affected. However, after 45 d the denitrification rate, MPN and gene copy numbers for sulfamethazine and enrofloxacin were similar to that of the no-chemical control, indicating that acclimation of the denitrifier population to the antibiotic or reduced bioavailability over time allowed recovery of the denitrifier population.

Detection of antibacterial-like activity on a silica surface: fluoroquinolones and their environmental metabolites

BACKGROUND, SCOPE, AND AIMS: Antibacterial fluoroquinolones (FQs) are third-generation antibiotics that are commonly used as therapeutic treatments of respiratory and urinary tract infections. They are used far less in intensively farmed animal production systems, though their use may be permitted in the veterinary treatments of flocks or in medicated feeds. When used, only a fraction of ingested parent FQ actually reaches the in vivo target site of infection, while the remainder is excreted as the parent FQ and its metabolized products. In many species' metabolism, enrofloxacin (EF) is converted into ciprofloxacin (CF) while both FQs are classified as parent FQs in human treatments. It is therefore likely that both FQs and their metabolic products will contribute to a common pool of metabolites in biological wastes. Wastes from intensive farming practices are either directly applied to agricultural land without treatment or may be temporarily stored prior to disposal. However, human waste is treated in sewage treatment plants (STPs) where it is converted into biosolids. In the storage or treatment process of STPs, FQs and their in vivo metabolites are further converted into other environmental metabolites (FQEMs) by ex vivo physicochemical processes that act and interact to produce complex mixtures of FQEMs, some of which have antibacterial-like activities. Biosolids are then often applied to agricultural land as a fertilizer amendment where FQs and FQEMs can be further converted into additional FQEMs by soil processes. It is therefore likely that FQ-contaminated biowaste-treated soils will contain complex mixtures of FQEMs, some of which may have antibacterial-like activities that may be expressed on bacteria endemic to the receiving agricultural soil environment. Concern has arisen in the scientific and in the general community that repeated use of FQ-contaminated biowaste as fertilizer amendments of nutrient-impoverished agricultural land may create a selective environment in which FQ-resistant bacteria might grow. The likelihood of this happening will depend, to some extent, on whether bioactive FQEMs are first synthesized from the parent FQs by the action and interaction of in vivo and ex vivo processes producing bioactive FQEMs in biowastes and biosolids. The postulated creation of a selective environment will also depend, in part, on whether such bioactive FQEMs are biologically available to bacteria, which may, in turn, be influenced by soil type, amendment regime, and the persistence of the bioactive FQEMs. Additionally, soil bacteria and soil processes may be affected in different ways or extents by bioactive FQEMs that could possibly act additively or synergistically at ecological targets in these non-target bacteria. This is an important consideration, since, while parent FQs have well-defined ecological targets (DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV) and modes of bactericidal action, the FQEMs and their possible modes of action on the many different species of soil bacteria is less well studied. It is therefore understandable that there is a lack of conclusive evidence directly attributing biosolid usage to any increase in FQ-resistant bacteria detected in biowaste-amended agricultural soil. However, a lack of evidence may simply imply that a causal relationship between biosolid usage programs and any detection of low levels of FQ-resistant bacteria in soils has yet to be established, rather than an assumption of no relationship whatsoever. Based on results presented in this paper, the precautionary principle should be applied in the usage of FQ-contaminated biosolids as fertilizer amendments of agricultural land. The aim of this research was to test whether any bioactive FQEMs of EF could be synthesized by aerobic fermentation processes using Mycobacterium gilvum (American Tissue Culture Collection) and a mixed culture of microorganisms derived from an agricultural soil. High-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) and bioautography were tested as screening techniques in the detection and analysis of bioactive FQEMs.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

FQEMs derived from M. gilvum and mixed (soil) culture aerobic ferments were fractionated using preparative HPTLC. A standard strain of Escherichia coli was then used as the reporter organism in a bioautography assay in the detection of bioactive-FQEMs on a mid-section of the HPTLC plate. Plate sections were reassembled, and a photograph was taken under low-intensity ultraviolet (UV) light to reveal regions that contained analytes that had UV chromophores and antibacterial-like activities.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Many fractionated FQEMs displayed antibacterial-like activity while bound to silica gel HPTLC plates. These results also provide evidence that sufficient quantities of biologically active FQEMs were biologically available from a silica gel surface to prevent the adherent growth of E. coli. Six to seven FQEMs derived from EF using aerobic fermentation processes had antibacterial-like activities, while two FQEMs were also detectable using UV light. Furthermore, similar banding patterns of antibacterial-like activity were observed in both the monoculture (M. gilvum) and mixed culture bioautography assays, indicating that similar processes operated in both aerobic fermentations, either producing similar biologically active FQEMs or biologically active FQEMs that had similar physicochemical properties in both ferments. The simplest explanation for these findings is that the tested agricultural soil also contained mycobacteria that metabolized EF in a similar way to the purchased standard monoculture M. gilvum. Additionally, the marked contrast between the bioautography results and the UV results indicated that the presence of UV chromophores is not a prerequisite for the detection of antibacterial-like activity.

CONCLUSIONS

A reliance on spectrophotometric techniques in the detection of bioactive FQEMs in the environment may underestimate component antibacterial-like activity and, possibly, total antibacterial-like activity expressed by EF and its FQEMs. The described bioautography method provides a screening technique with which antibacterial-like activities derived from EF and possibly other FQs can be detected directly on silica gel HPTLC plates.

RECOMMENDATIONS

It is recommended that both bioassay and instrumental analytical techniques be used in any measurement of hazard and risk relating to antibacterial-like activities in the environment that are derived from fluoroquinolone antibiotics and their environmental metabolites.

Environmental metabolites of fluoroquinolones: synthesis, fractionation and toxicological assessment of some biologically active metabolites of ciprofloxacin

BACKGROUND, AIM, AND SCOPE

Biowastes produced by humans and animals are routinely disposed of on land, and concern is now growing that such practices provide a pathway for fluoroquinolone (FQs) antibacterial agents and their environmental metabolites (FQEMs) to contaminate the terrestrial environment. The focus of concern is that FQs and FQEMs may accumulate in amended soils to then adversely impact on the terrestrial environment. One postulated impact is the development of a selective environment in which FQ-resistant bacteria may grow. To find evidence in support of an accumulation of antibacterial-like activity, it was first necessary to establish whether any biologically active FQEMs could be synthesized by physicochemical factors that are normally present in the environment. However, many FQEMs are not commercially available to be used as standards in such studies. FQEMs were therefore synthesized using well-defined processes. They were subsequently analyzed using spectroscopy (UV-vis) and high performance liquid chromatography with mass spectral detection. The antibacterial-like activities of fractionated FQEMs were then assessed in novel bacterial growth inhibition bioassays, and results were compared to those obtained from instrumental analyses.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Parent FQs were either exposed to sunlight or were synthesized using defined aerobic microbial (Mycobacterium gilvum or a mixed culture derived from an agricultural soil) fermentation processes. Mixtures of FQEMs derived from photo- and (intracellular) microbial processes were isolated by preparative chromatography and centrifugation techniques, respectively. Mixtures were subsequently fractionated using analytical high-performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC), and excised analytes were tested in bioautography assays for their antibacterial-like activities. Two bacteria, Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Azospirillum brasilense (A. brasilense) were used as reporter organisms in testing FQ standards and any subtle differences between biologically active FQEMs of ciprofloxacin (CF).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

FQEMs produced in the photo-synthetic process had UV-vis profiles that were indistinguishable from the parent FQs, and yet mass spectral data revealed the presence of N-formylciprofloxacin (FCF). In contrast, the UV-vis profiles of FQEMs synthesized by M. gilvum and a mixed culture of microorganisms had UV-vis profiles that were similar to one another and markedly different to the parent fluoroquinolones. Mass spectral studies confirmed the presence of FCF and N-acetylciprofloxacin in both microbial ferments. In addition, a photo-FQEM (Cp 6), three M. gilvum FQEMs (Cm 5, Cm 8, and Cm 10) and a mixed culture FQEM (Cs 6) of CF and many other FQEMs of CF, norfloxacin (NF), and enrofloxacin (EF) were fractionated using HPTLC, although their identities have yet to be confirmed. Differences between bioautography results were obtained when E. coli or A. brasilense were used as reporter organisms. Parent FQs (CF and EF) and the FQEMs of CF (Cp 6, Cm 8, and Cs 6) displayed antibacterial-like activity when using E. coli as the reporter organism. In contrast, A. brasilense was insensitive to parent CF and sensitive to EF and all tested FQEMs of CF. Results are consistent with photo- and microbial processes modifying CF in different ways, with the latter changing the UV-vis chromophores. It can be inferred that a lack of detection of analytes (especially photo-FQEMs) when using UV-vis does not necessarily indicate an absence of analyte. Additionally, similarities between the UV-vis profiles of FQEMs extracted from the (monoculture) M. gilvum and the mixed culture microbial aerobic ferments are consistent with similar processes operating in both ferments. Results of HPTLC and bioautography studies revealed that mixtures of (photo- and microbial) FQEMs could be fractionated into individual components.

CONCLUSIONS

Bioactive FQEMs of ciprofloxacin, as a representative FQ, can be synthesized by photo- and microbial processes, and their detection required the use of both instrumental and bioautography analytical techniques. It is likely that such FQEMs will also be present on agricultural land that has been repeatedly amended with FQ-contaminated biosolids.

RECOMMENDATIONS AND PERSPECTIVES

The use of instrumental analytical techniques alone and especially photometric detection techniques will underestimate antibacterial-like activities of FQEMs. Moreover, the extraction technique(s) and the selected toxicological endpoint(s) require careful consideration when assessing bioactivity. It is therefore recommended that instrumental analytical techniques and several bioautography assays be performed concurrently, and bioautography assays should use a variety of reporter organisms. Two types of bacterial growth bioassays are recommended in any assessment of antibacterial-like activity derived from CF (and possibly from other FQs). A standardized E. coli bioassay should be used as a general screening procedure to facilitate intra- and inter-laboratory exchange of data. Additionally, soil-specific (region-specific) growth inhibition bioassays should be undertaken using several species of endemic soil bacteria. It is likely that the two sets of data will be useful in future risk assessment processes.

Residues of pharmaceutical products in recycled organic manure produced from sewage sludge and solid waste from livestock and relationship to their fermentation level

In recent years, sludge generated in sewage treatment plants (STPs) and solid waste from livestock being utilized is useful for circulation of nourishment in farmlands as recycled organic manure (ROM). In this study, we determined the residue levels and patterns of 12 pharmaceutical products generated by human activity in the ROMs produced from human waste sludge (HWS), sewage sludge (SS), cattle manure (CM), poultry manure (PM), swine manure (SM) and horse manure (HM). The kind and number of pharmaceutical products detected in ROMs were different. Fluoroquinolones (FQs) were detected at high levels in HWS and SS samples. In addition, the detection frequency and concentration levels of sulfonamides (SAs) in PM and SM were high. Moreover, high concentrations of chlortetracycline (CTC) were found in only SM. These differences reflect specific adherence adsorption of the pharmaceutical products to different livestock and humans. Moreover, it was found that the concentrations of pharmaceutical products and fermentation levels of ROMs had significant positive correlation (r=0.41, p=0.024). When the fermentation test of ROM was conducted in a rotary fermentor in a lab scale test, the residue levels of pharmaceutical products decreased effectively except carbamazepine (CBZ). The rates of decrease were in the case of tetracyclines (TCs): 85-92%, FQs: 81-100%, erythromycine: 67%, SAs: 79-95%, trimethoprim: 86% and CBZ: 37% by 30 d. Pharmaceutical products that can be decomposed by fermentation process at the lowest impact of residual antibiotic activities may therefore be considered as environmentally friendly medicines.

Synthesis, characterization, antibacterial activity, SOD mimic and interaction with DNA of drug based copper(II) complexes

Novel metal complexes of the second-generation quinolone antibacterial agent enrofloxacin with copper(II) and neutral bidentate ligands have been prepared and characterized with elemental analysis reflectance, IR and mass spectroscopy. Complexes have been screened for their in-vitro antibacterial activity against two Gram(+ve) Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, and three Gram((-ve)) Serratia marcescens, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa organisms using the double dilution technique. The binding of this complex with CT-DNA has been investigated by absorption titration, salt effect and viscosity measurements. Binding constant is ranging from 1.3×10(4)-3.7×10(4). The cleavage ability of complexes has been assessed by gel electrophoresis using pUC19 DNA. The catalytic activity of the copper(II) complexes towards the superoxide anion (O2.-) dismutation was assayed by their ability to inhibit the reduction of nitroblue tetrazolium (NBT).

Effects of light and microbial activity on the degradation of two fluoroquinolone antibiotics in pond water and sediment

Enrofloxacin (ENR) and ciprofloxacin (CIP) are two fluoroquinolone (FQ) antibiotics widely used to treat diseases of human beings and cultured animals. These two FQs are usually detected in the effluent of municipal sewage plants and related aquatic environments. The purpose of this study was to understand the fates of ENR and CIP in aquaculture pond water and a sediment slurry in a laboratory-scale experiment. Effects of light and microbial activity on the degradation of these two FQs were investigated. Results indicated that natural irradiation plays a major role in the degradation of ENR and CIP in pond water and the sediment slurry. The 50 % dissipation times (DT(50)) with non-sterile treatment were 0.01 and 18.4 d for ENR, and 0.04 and 17.3 d for CIP in the water and sediment slurry, respectively. On the other hand, the degradation of ENR and CIP under dark conditions was slow or even hindered, and all of their DT(50) values exceeded 100 d. These two FQs degraded faster in the sediment slurry than in pond water under dark conditions. Artificial ultraviolet (UV) and fluorescence light had similar effects on the degradation of ENR in the pond water and sediment slurry. Degradation of CIP was faster with UV than with fluorescence light treatment, while no such difference was found for ENR degradation. CIP was a degradation product of ENR under both light and dark conditions, and DT(50) values for both compounds were shorter in the presence of light. The phenomenon of biodegradation was observed during degradation of CIP in the sediment slurry under natural light.

Investigation on interaction of prulifloxacin with pepsin: a spectroscopic analysis

The interaction between prulifloxacin, a kind of new oral taking antibiotic and pepsin, a kind of enzyme in the stomach has been investigated in vitro under a simulated physiological condition by different spectroscopic methods. The intrinsic fluorescence of pepsin was strongly quenched by prulifloxacin. This effect was rationalized in terms of a static quenching procedure. The binding parameters have been evaluated by fluorescence quenching methods. The negative value of DeltaG(0) reveals that the binding process is a spontaneous process. The binding distance R between donor (pepsin) and acceptor (prulifloxacin) was obtained according to the Förster's resonance energy transfer theory and found to be 0.95 nm. The results obtained herein will be of biological significance in pharmacology and clinical medicine.

Spectrometric studies on the interaction of fluoroquinolones and bovine serum albumin

The interaction between fluoroquinolones (FQs), ofloxacin and enrofloxacin, and bovine serum albumin (BSA) was investigated by fluorescence and UV-vis spectroscopy. It was demonstrated that the fluorescence quenching of BSA by FQ is a result of the formation of the FQ-BSA complex stabilized, in the main, by hydrogen bonds and van der Waals forces. The Stern-Volmer quenching constant, K(SV), and the corresponding thermodynamic parameters, DeltaH, DeltaS and DeltaG, were estimated. The distance, r, between the donor, BSA, and the acceptor, FQ, was estimated from fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET). The effect of FQ on the conformation of BSA was analyzed with the aid of UV-vis absorbance spectra and synchronous fluorescence spectroscopy. Spectral analysis showed that the two FQs affected the conformation of the BSA but in a different manner. Thus, with ofloxacin, the polarity around the tryptophan residues decreased and the hydrophobicity increased, while for enrofloxacin, the opposite effect was observed.

Influence of metal ions on the interaction between gatifloxacin and calf thymus DNA

To study the interaction between gatifloxacin (GT), metal ions (Cu(2+), Cd(2+), Co(2+), Mg(2+)) and calf thymus DNA under condition of physiology pH, UV absorption and fluorescence methods were adopted. Result shows that metal ions and DNA are able to react with GT in ground state. In further research, by studying the influence of metal ions on binding of GT with DNA in metal ions-GT-DNA ternary system, we found that influential mechanism of Mg(2+) on the binding of GT with DNA may be different from the other three. Mg(2+) can act as a bridge in the binding of GT's carboxyl/carbonyl with DNA phosphate in certain concentration range; while Cu(2+), Cd(2+), Co(2+) can combine directly with GT by reaction between GT carboxyl/carbonyl and DNA base, and enhance the binding ability of GT with DNA. The influence extent and type depend not only on the binding site of DNA with metal ions (phosphate or base), but also the binding ability of which. The stronger the binding ability of metal ions with DNA base is, the larger their promotion to binding of GT with DNA is. The order of metal ions' influential ability on the binding of GT-DNA is identical to the binding ability order of metal ions with DNA base, that is: Cu(2+)>Cd(2+)>Co(2+)>Mg(2+).

Intracellular concentrations of enrofloxacin in quinolone-resistant Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serovar Choleraesuis

The emergence of fluoroquinolone-resistant strains of Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serovar Choleraesuis is an important concern in several countries, including Japan. We examined the intracellular concentration of enrofloxacin in S. Choleraesuis to determine the existence of a relationship with the emergence of quinolone resistance. The intracellular concentration of enrofloxacin was significantly lower in nalidixic acid-resistant isolates compared with nalidixic acid-susceptible isolates. In the presence of carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone, the intracellular concentration of enrofloxacin increased in all isolates, with no significant difference in the intracellular concentration between nalidixic acid-susceptible and -resistant isolates. The frequency of emergence of fluoroquinolone-resistant mutants was higher in susceptible isolates with a low intracellular concentration of enrofloxacin. The results presented suggest that a decrease in the intracellular concentration of enrofloxacin is related to active efflux pumps and contributes to the emergence of fluoroquinolone resistance.

Fatal embryo chondral damage associated with fluoroquinolones in eggs of threatened avian scavengers

Stabled livestock reared in housed conditions are often subjected to intensive treatments with veterinary drug, which residues may be present in livestock meat ingested by scavengers, but nothing is known about their presence in eggs of wild birds and their potential detrimental effects on breeding success. We searched for residues of veterinary drugs and other toxicants in infertile and embryonated unhatched eggs of griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus) and red kites (Milvus milvus), two threatened avian scavengers. Quinolones (ciprofloxacin and enrofloxacin) were found in most unhatched eggs of both scavenger species clearly associated with severe alterations in the development of embryo cartilage and bones that could preclude embryo movements and subsequently normal development, pre-hatch position and successful hatching. The detrimental effects on developing eggs of veterinary drugs from livestock operations may help to explain reduced breeding success of avian scavengers.

[Immunometabolic activity of fluoroquinolones immobilized into cell carriers in toxic lesion of the kidneys due to staphylococcal infection]

The study of immunomodulating, antioxidant and hepatoprotective activity of some fluoroquinolones (norfloxacin, ofloxacin, levofloxacin) immobilized into erythrocyte and leukocyte carriers was made on Wistar rats with body mass about 150-180 g. It is shown that toxic action on the kidneys of mercury dichloride, especially a combined action of mercury dichloride and staphylococcal infection, raised the levels of urea and creatinine, caused immunosuppression, activated hepatotoxic, cytolytic and oxidative processes, decreased antioxidant and energetic potentials of erythrocytes. Unbound fluoroquinolones intensified the above processes. Introduction of fluoroquinolones immobilized into erythrocyte and leukocyte carriers, respectively, decreased and normalized intensity of lipid peroxidation, cholestasis, cytolysis, improved and normalized immune system functions, antioxidant and energetic potentials of erythrocytes.

Kinetic modelling of passive transport and active efflux of a fluoroquinolone across Caco-2 cells using a compartmental approach in NONMEM

The purpose was to develop a general mathematical model for estimating passive permeability and efflux transport parameters from in vitro cell culture experiments. The procedure is applicable for linear and non-linear transport of drug with time, <10 or >10% of drug transport, negligible or relevant back flow, and would allow the adequate correction in the case of relevant mass balance problems. A compartmental kinetic approach was used and the transport barriers were described quantitatively in terms of apical and basolateral clearances. The method can be applied when sink conditions are not achieved and it allows the evaluation of the location of the transporter and its binding site. In this work it was possible to demonstrate, from a functional point of view, the higher efflux capacity of the TC7 clone and to identify the apical membrane as the main resistance for the xenobiotic transport. This methodology can be extremely useful as a complementary tool for molecular biology approaches in order to establish meaningful hypotheses about transport mechanisms.