[Polish Orthopaedic Society--figures of founders]

In the occasion of 80-th anniversary of the Polish Orthopaedic and Traumatological Society and 37th congress of the society, authors present figures of founders, which signatures are visible on the founding document. Describe their full of tension, so various life tracks in the complicated situation of those times. Authors emphasize the most important scientific accomplishments and involvement of founders in formation of orthopaedics in Poznan and Poland. Ireneusz Wierzejewski was undoubtedly the main pioneer, whose activity affected modern Orthopaedics to arise from general surgery. His individuality and charisma left stamp on each of his students. They left tracks of their activity in history of our specialization--their names are quoted orthopaedics textbooks up to this days.

[Doctors and madmen in south of Brazil: an overview on the São Pedro Hospice in the city of Porto Allgre/RS, its patients and its practices of madness treatment (1884-1924)]

The São Pedro Hospice was inaugurated on June 29, 1884, and it wa the first psychiatric hospital in Rio Grande do Sul State and one of the first of Brazil, whose history was in a turning point, and it became correlated with the construction of the psychiatry then province. This article presents an abbreviation history of the institution until the decade of 1920, it analyzes the data of the internal population. Moreover, it deals with the medical practices of attendance inside the hospice, which were combined with the development of the "cure" of the subjects, the precepts of the science and the physical and cultural attributes, as well as the experiences of the inpatients' life.

[Professionalization of public health officers in Japan]

In this paper, I describe how public health officers in Japan in the period of the late Taisho and early Showa eras claimed their position as professionals in the sanitary administrations of central and local governments. In the background of this push for recognition, there were related international and national movements. Internationally, public health ministries were established in developed countries and the League of Nations Health Organization (LNHO) was created. LNHO wanted to improve the level of public health officials world-wide, so the organization sponsored international exchanges of officials. These activities made a strong impression on Japanese public health officials, who realized that they belonged to an internationally recognized profession and that they needed to work hard to improve the substandard Japanese public health situation. Meanwhile, at the level of domestic politics, there were several movements of technical experts in different fields of government administration that worked to fight the unfair treatment of administrative officials, a situation that had existed since Meiji Period. The public health officers collaborated with the other technical experts to improve their positions and to play key roles in society. But while the other technical experts actively pursued social leadership, public health officials wanted to remain scientists. This is because the sanitary departments in the local governments were organized within police departments. In this environment, the law was dominant and science was secondary. But public health officials insisted that the basis of public health should be science, so they emphasized their scientific expertise.

[Techniques of mediation. Chemistry as a combination of work, teaching and research: the case of J. F. A. Göttling]

Atypical career of a chemist in Germany around 1800 consisted of being trained as an apothecary, followed by an occupation as a professor at a university or another institution of higher education. These conditions deeply influenced the concept and the practice of chemistry as a science. Johann Friedrich August Göttling is an intriguing example for merging education and daily duties of teaching with the self-image of a scientific chemist. He linked chemical teaching, work, and research by using different hybrid media, such as the Almanach oder Taschenbuch für Scheidekünstler und Apotheker, a stove specifically designed for the narrow student's room, portable laboratories, a pharmaceutical boarding school and textbooks. This allowed him to practice three different forms of chemistry as a science. A "socio-epistemological diagram" of German chemistry around 1800 shows that these forms neatly corresponded to the then predominant three-level epistemology. In particular, the concept of a chemical fact served to link pharmaceutical practice with teaching practice, while granting only the chemistry done by professors the status of a science.

Women or healers? Household practices and the categories of health care in late medieval Iberia

Assessments of medieval health care used to focus on practitioners holding some sort of occupational label, resulting in a meager representation of women. This article intends to illustrate how women's significant contribution to healthcare can be mapped out by looking at the domestic space that is largely left outside the histories of medieval medicine. First, it explores the language that names women's activities to maintain health and alleviate illness, showing how words identifying women's capacities to heal come from everyday actions and belong to the semantic domain of women and mothers. The caring meanings ascribed to the words women, mothers, midwives, and nurses in the Iberian mother tongues conflate and describe a continuum of practice whose origin is the household, from where it expands to the community. Second, it discusses the importance of women's ordinary domestic care within the theoretical frame of the six non-naturals, particularly feeding and nourishing, as well as presenting the household as an open and flexible space providing health care beyond the family. Third, by considering recipes as privileged evidence, it attempts to piece together a preliminary textual history of women's household knowledges that for centuries had been circumscribed to the domain of the oral. It identifies the written contexts where women's recipes appear through a long timespan, attesting changes in women's literate practices that give rise to new genres that illuminate a sphere previously opaque to the historical record.

Kant's disputation of 1770: the dissertation and the communication of knowledge in early modern Europe

Kant's disputation of 1770 at his inauguration as the metaphysics professor at Königsberg is a good example of the nature of the early modern dissertation and its use as a means of communicating knowledge. The public disputation played an important part in the teaching, examination, publication and ceremonial life of the medieval university. Originally prepared as a text for the public disputation, the dissertation communicated the teachings of individual scholars and institutions and was used by eminent early modern scholars to introduce their ideas and findings. Kant's use of his 1770 disputation also reveals the different channels of communication, both private and public, that paid close attention to knowledge published in dissertations.

The ambiguities of disciplinary professionalization: The state and cultural dynamics of Canadian inter-war anthropology

The professionalization of Canadian anthropology in the first half of the twentieth century was tied closely to the matrix of the federal state, first though the Anthropology Division of the Geological Survey of Canada and then the National Museum. State anthropologists occupied an ambiguous professional status as both civil servants and anthropologists committed to the methodological and disciplinary imperatives of modern social science but bounded and guided by the operation of the civil service. Their position within the state served to both advance disciplinary development but also compromised disciplinary autonomy. To address the boundaries the state imposed on its support for anthropology, state anthropologists cultivated cultural, intellectual, and commercially-oriented networks that served to sustain new developments in their field, particularly in folklore. This essay examines these dynamics and suggests that anthropology's disciplinary development did not create a disjuncture between professionalized scholarship and civil society.

Freud's patient calendars: 17 analysts in analysis with Freud (1910-1920)

The author examines the course of 17 analyses, as conducted by Freud, on the basis of a new source, Freud's patient notebooks. All analysands (five women, 12 men) were or were to become members of a psychoanalytic society. Their treatments were marked by a relatively short duration (all of them less than a year) and a very high number of hours per week (generally six). The total number of hours ranged between nine and about 250. Compared to the present conditions, both the duration and the number of hours per week show a great historical change has taken place. The author discusses this change as well as some other characteristics, e.g. the customary extra-analytical contact between Freud and his analysands. In an appendix, treatment profiles of all 17 analyses are given, summarizing their duration, the total number of hours, numerous of hours per week and number of hours in each month of treatment.

Psychoanalysis eats its own: or, the heretical Saint Roazen

The author attempts a "Roazenesque" interpretation of Paul Roazen's life and work, and situates his career vis-á-vis that of other revisionist critics of Freud. To these ends, the essay charts the highs and lows of Roazen's long career as a biographer-historian of psychoanalysis. His career is divided into four phases, the first of which is arguably the most important. It was also the most controversial, producing classic books on Victor Tausk and on Freud's followers. Roazen's later work fares less well, even undermining his standing among scholars. If there is a commonality to the work of all four phases, it is Roazen's fairly constant recourse to interviews he conducted in the mid-1960s with many people intimate with Freud. On the good side, these interviews provided him unique access to details about Freud's everyday life and practice. Roazen thus became known as the historian of arcane detail. On the bad side, Roazen came to rely too heavily on these interviews and on his own singular role as interviewer. As a result his work became increasingly self-regarding and nostalgic, and thus less original, interesting, or discerning. His legacy is therefore mixed, although secure enough that future scholars will not easily ignore his contribution in a handful of good books.

A lead user of instruments in science: John D. Roberts and the adaptation of nuclear magnetic resonance to organic chemistry, 1955-1975

During the 1960s organic chemistry underwent a spectacular transformation as a result of the introduction of high-tech instruments. In this process, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) became an important analytical technique in organic chemistry. The theme of this essay is the relationship of Varian Associates of Palo Alto, California, the major manufacturer of NMR spectrometers up to the 1970s, with one early and crucial user, the organic chemist John D. Roberts, who was based at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. Roberts's research and teaching contributed to the fast and smooth acceptance of NMR in organic chemistry. He embraced the role of mediator between the instrument manufacturer, which had expertise mainly in physics and electrical engineering, and the customers, who were mostly organic chemists. This essay focuses on the tactics used by Roberts and James N. Shoolery at Varian Associates to implement novel types of instrumentation and on the modes of cooperation between instrument manufacturer and academic scientist.

Gender and professional identity in psychiatric nursing practice in Alberta, Canada, 1930-75

This paper examines gender-specific transformations of nursing practice in institutional mental health-care in Alberta, Canada, based on archival records on two psychiatric hospitals, Alberta Hospital Ponoka and Alberta Hospital Edmonton, and on oral histories with psychiatric mental health nurses in Alberta. The paper explores class and gender as interrelated influences shaping the work and professional identity of psychiatric mental health nurses from the 1930s until the mid-1970s. Training schools for nurses in psychiatric hospitals emerged in Alberta in the 1930s under the influence of the mental hygiene movement, evolving quite differently for female nurses compared to untrained aides and male attendants. The latter group resisted their exclusion from the title 'nurse' and successfully helped to organize a separate association of psychiatric nurses in the 1950s. Post-World War II, reconstruction of health-care and a de-institutionalization policy further transformed nurses' practice in the institutions. Using social history methods of analysis, the paper demonstrates how nurses responded to their circumstances in complex ways, actively participating in the reconstruction of their practice and finding new ways of professional organization that fit the local context. After the Second World War more sophisticated therapeutic roles emerged and nurses engaged in new rehabilitative practices and group therapies, reconstructing their professional identities and transgressing gender boundaries. Nurses' own stories help us to understand the striving toward psychiatric nursing professionalism in the broader context of changing gender identities and work relationships, as well as shifting perspectives on psychiatric care.

The discourse of dental hygiene practice in Canada

Recently the discourse in Canada relating to dental hygiene practice has changed. While dentistry still exercises controlling power over the public's oral cavity, dental hygienists have made inroads through legislative changes. A description of Canadian dental hygiene practice is provided to set the stage for a discussion about current discourse in the dental hygiene profession. Although power is often perceived as a shifting changing set of relations, these can be frozen in abstraction. It is rather like taking a photo of a single moment or event in an ongoing activity. This moment provides a starting point, an event that can be analysed. Four such events are evident in Canadian dental hygiene practice; they include, education, recognition of dental hygienists as primary care providers, the culture of dental hygiene and self-regulation. While all the events are important, self-regulation is critical to the viability and development of the profession. It is the central event that provides the backdrop for effecting change. With self-regulation comes responsibility and accountability for professional actions. It also provides possibilities for changing the discourse in oral care. As oral health care discourse is transformed through legislation and public awareness, the public will, hopefully, be able to directly access dental hygiene services, and dental hygienists themselves might increasingly recognise their importance as contributors in the health care system.

Skills, bravery, courage, and foolhardiness: Seventy-five years of social work in health care in Melbourne, Australia

The lessons from the history of health social work in Melbourne, Victoria can be extrapolated to social work in other parts of Australia and internationally. Based on consultation with social workers, archival material and personal reflections this article traces 75 years of health social work in Melbourne and Victoria within the context of the prevailing social influences. The profession, which was started by local opinion leaders and public demand, is now well established. Initially Australians looked to Britain to guide the new profession, but by the latter part of the twentieth century they increasingly looked to the USA. Many challenges still face health social work. Sharing of knowledge and experience will strengthen social work locally and internationally.

The Ordre des médecins and the Jews in Vichy France, 1940-1944

This paper examines the way in which the Jewish question was handled by the Ordre des Médecins, a representative institution for the medical profession created by the Vichy government. It discusses the historiography of Vichy anti-Semitism generally and goes on to analyze the background of anti-Semitism in the French medical profession in the 1930s, comparing it with anti-Semitism in other professions such as Law. The paper then discusses the reactions of the Ordre des Médecins and its governing body, the Conseil Supérieur, to the Vichy anti-Semitic legislation which affected the profession and compares its brand of anti-Semitism with the official Vichy policy. It focuses on the unequal battle between the Conseil Supérieur, whose members were typically traditional nationalistic and protectionist anti-Semites, and the Vichy government, where quasi-racial anti-Semitism was official policy. It explains the inevitable defeat of the Conseil Supérieur.

The place of psychoanalysis in the history of the Jews

Situating psychoanalysis in the context of Jewish history, this paper takes up Freud's famous 1930 question: what is left in Judaism after one has abandoned faith in God, the Hebrew language and nationalism, and his answer: a great deal, perhaps the very essence, but an essence that we do not know. On the one hand, it argues that "not knowing" connects psychoanalysis to Judaism's ancestral preoccupation with God, a preoccupation different from that of the more philosophical Greek, Latin and Christian traditions of theology. On the other hand, "not knowing" connects psychoanalysis to a post-Enlightenment conception of the person (i.e. of personal life), as opposed to the more abstract notion of the subject associated with Kant.