Signaling functions of the tyrosine residues in the betac chain of the granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor receptor

The granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) receptor (GMR) is a heterodimeric receptor expressed by myeloid lineage cells. Binding of GM-CSF activates at least one receptor-associated tyrosine kinase, JAK2, and rapidly induces tyrosine phosphorylation of the GMR betac-chain (GMRbeta), but not the GMR alpha-chain (GMRalpha). To examine the role of GMRbeta tyrosine phosphorylaiton, each of the 8 tyrosine residues in the cytoplasmic domain of the human GMRbeta was mutated to phenylalanine (GMRbeta-F8), and this mutant receptor was expressed with wild-type GMRalpha in the interleukin-3-dependent murine hematopoietic cell line, Ba/F3. GM-CSF induced tyrosine phosphorylation of multiple cellular proteins in cells expressing GMRbeta-F8 , including JAK2 and STAT5. However, GM-CSF-induced tyrosine phosphorylation of both SHP2 and SHC was reduced or absent compared with wild-type. Next, a series of 8 receptors were generated, each containing only a single, restored, tyrosine residue. Tyrosine 577 was found to be sufficient to regenerate GM-CSF-dependent phosphorylation of SHC, and any of Y577, Y612, or Y695 was sufficient to regenerate GM-CSF-inducible phosphorylation of SHP2. Despite the signaling defect to SHC and SHP2, Ba/F3 cells expressing GMRbeta-F8 were still able to proliferate in response to 10 ng/mL of human GM-CSF, although mitogenesis was impaired compared with wild-type GMRbeta, and this effect was even more prominent at lower concentrations of GM-CSF (1 ng/mL). Overall, these results indicate that GMRbeta tyrosine residues are not necessary for activation of the JAK/STAT pathway or for proliferation, viability, or adhesion signaling in Ba/F3 cells, although tyrosine residues significantly affect the magnitude of the response. However, specific tyrosine residues are needed for activation of SHC and SHP2.

Evaluating Critical Thinking Skills of Baccalaureate Nursing Students

This study evaluates the critical thinking skills of students enrolled in a baccalaureate nursing program, using the WGCTA, for the classes of 1993 through 1996. Scores were obtained at entry and at end of junior and senior years. The mean entry WGCTA score was 56 for all four classes; however, the 1995 and 1996 classes had significantly higher scores than the class of 1994. Critical thinking scores were higher at entry for older students and students who had completed another education degree; however, critical thinking scores were lower for students who had previous nursing experience. After adapting for age, previous degree, and nursing experience, no significant differences in the WGCTA scores from entry to end of junior and senior years emerged for the classes of 1993, 1994, 1995. Critical thinking skills have become the hallmark of education. The National Education Goal Panel has advocated for an increase in the ability to think critically, communicate effectively and solve problems (Banta, 1993). In turn, the nursing profession has incorporated these goals of higher education into its educational programs. The National League for Nursing (NLN) includes the measurement of critical thinking as a required outcome in the evaluation and accreditation of baccalaureate and higher degree programs in nursing. This critical thinking outcome must reflect the student's skill in analysis, reasoning, research, or decision making as these skills relate to the nursing discipline (National League for Nursing, 1992). To meet the NLN's critical thinking outcome criterion, nursing programs must have a method of evaluating this skill. Many programs use the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal (WGCTA), which is a standardized instrument. The College of Nursing at the University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences (UAMS) adopted this instrument to evaluate the critical thinking skills of students in the baccalaureate nursing program.

Pathologic features of rhabdomyosarcoma before and after treatment: a clinicopathologic and immunohistochemical analysis

Few studies have analyzed the relationship among pathology, therapy-induced changes, proliferative activity, and outcome for rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS), despite the challenges of histopathologic interpretation of this tumor after treatment. Although cytodifferentiation and decreased mitotic activity after treatment were documented previously, the clinical consequences of these changes are uncertain because of the small number of cases analyzed. We analyzed 16 RMSs with pre- and post-treatment specimens for clinicopathologic features, outcome, and immunohistochemical data on formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue for vimentin, smooth muscle actin, muscle-specific actin, desmin, myoglobin, p53 protein, topoisomerase II-alpha, and MIB-1 proliferative activity. Four of eight alveolar (ARMS), five of five botryoid (BRMS), and two of three nonbotryoid embryonal (ERMS) RMSs displayed varying degrees of post-therapeutic histologic maturation and expressed one or more myoid markers. The remaining five RMSs had no cytodifferentiation. Myoid marker expression did not change significantly. In BRMS, MIB-1 and topoisomerase II-alpha proliferative activity decreased after therapy and correlated with cytodifferentiation and survival. This relationship was less clear for ERMS and ARMS. Five nonbotryoid RMSs without cytodifferentiation had either unchanged or increased proliferative activity, and four of these patients died of RMS. Six nonbotryoid RMSs with both cytodifferentiation and residual foci of undifferentiated cells had variable outcomes, including longer survival. We conclude that BRMS and ERMS exhibit therapy-induced cytodifferentiation more frequently than does ARMS. Cytodifferentiation and decreased proliferative activity are associated with favorable outcome in BRMS; unchanged or increased post-therapeutic proliferative activity suggests aggressive biologic potential in ERMS and ARMS. Combined patterns of cytodifferentiation and residual undifferentiated foci might be associated with increased, decreased, or unchanged proliferative activity and are difficult to interpret, but the presence of cytodifferentiation might presage an improved survival. Immunohistochemical analysis for proliferation markers might be useful for highlighting foci of less differentiated RMS or cytodifferentiated tumor cells in contrast to non-neoplastic, terminally differentiated muscle cells.

Protection against oral and gastrointestinal diseases: importance of dietary nitrate intake, oral nitrate reduction and enterosalivary nitrate circulation

Over the last 20 years, dietary nitrate has been implicated in the formation of methemoglobin and carcinogenic nitrosamines in humans. This has led to restrictions of nitrate and nitrite levels in food and drinking water. However, there is no epidemiological evidence for an increased risk of gastric and intestinal cancer in population groups with high dietary vegetable or nitrate intake. A reevaluation of our currently very negative perception of dietary nitrates comes from recent research into the metabolism and enterosalivary circulation of nitrate in mammals. These studies showed that nitrate is converted to nitrite in the oral cavity that then "fuels" an important mammalian resistance mechanism against infectious diseases. Moreover, there is now evidence that the conversion of nitrate into oxides of nitrogen prevents the formation carcinogenic nitrosamines.

Tumour necrosis factor-alpha expression and cell recruitment in Sephadex particle-induced lung inflammation: effects of dexamethasone and cyclosporin A

1. Tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) is a cytokine with diverse properties consistent with a possible role in inflammatory disease. We investigated whether TNF-alpha is induced during the progression of lung inflammation elicited by a particulate non-antigenic stimulus, and whether pharmacological control of TNF-alpha expression influences recruitment of specific inflammatory cell types. 2. A single intravenous injection of Sephadex particles into rats led to extensive granulomatous inflammation in lung alveolar and bronchial tissue that peaked in intensity after 24-72 h. Mononuclear cells were the principal component of granulomas, but neutrophils and eosinophils were also abundant. Numbers of mononuclear cells, neutrophils and eosinophils recovered by bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) peaked at 72 h, 48 h and 72 h, respectively. 3. Messenger RNA encoding TNF-alpha was induced in lung epithelial cells, lung granulomas and BAL cells 6 h after Sephadex administration and remained elevated for 72 h before declining to baseline by 7 days. In BAL cell populations TNF-alpha protein was localized to mononuclear cells at all times points pre- and post-Sephadex administration. 4. Treatment of rats with dexamethasone significantly reduced the Sephadex-induced recruitment of mononuclear cells, neutrophils and eosinophils into the bronchoalveolar cavity, and significantly reduced TNF-alpha mRNA expression by BAL cells. 5. Treatment of rats with cyclosporin A was without effect on Sephadex-induced elevations of mononuclear cell numbers and expression of TNF-alpha, but did reduce significantly recruitment of neutrophils and eosinophils to BAL cell populations. 6. These results show that a sequential asthma-like recruitment of neutrophils, eosinophils and mononuclear cells into lung tissue can be induced by single exposure to a non-antigenic stimulus. Pharmacological and histological studies reveal that mononuclear cell mobilization relates closely to induced TNF-alpha expression, whereas mobilization of neutrophils and eosinophils appears secondary to expression of the cytokine.

Cisapride in pediatric gastroesophageal reflux

BACKGROUND

Gastroesophageal reflux is a common condition that in infants may lead to serious complication. This study assessed the efficacy and safety of oral cisapride suspension in the treatment of children 6 weeks to 2 years old with daily regurgitant reflux.

METHODS

A randomized, prospective, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial was conducted at three study sites. After a 1 week baseline assessment, 45 infants 6 weeks to 2 years old were randomized to a double-blind trial in which they received a 6 week course of cisapride (0.2 mg/kg q6h) or a placebo suspension. Efficacy was assessed with 24 hour esophageal pH monitoring, esophageal manometry, and esophageal biopsy before and after the treatment period. A diary of regurgitation frequency and severity was kept by the parents. Safety was assessed by adverse event monitoring and standard laboratory measurements.

RESULTS

Compared with placebo, cisapride significantly (p < 0.05) reduced the mean duration of upright and supine reflux episodes. Compared to baseline, cisapride significantly reduced the mean duration of the longest reflux episode, and placebo increased the mean number of reflux episodes longer than 5 minutes. Cisapride was not significantly different from placebo for the following mean measurements: percent of total time pH < 4, number of reflux episodes, lower esophageal sphincter pressure, swallow pressure, regurgitation frequency or global evaluation scores.

CONCLUSIONS

Cisapride is a safe, well tolerated prokinetic agent that improves the esophageal clearance of refluxed gastric acid in children under the age of 2 years.

Linkage studies in erythrokeratodermias: fine mapping, genetic heterogeneity and analysis of candidate genes

Erythrokeratodermias are a clinically heterogeneous group of rare autosomal dominant disorders of cornification with overlapping features including hyperkeratosis and erythema. We ascertained five extended pedigrees with different phenotypes for a linkage study. Three families presented with localized erythrokeratodermia variabilis, and one with erythrokeratodermia and ataxia. Another family had Greither disease associated with variable hyperkeratotic plaques. Despite their phenotypic differences, both erythrokeratodermia variabilis and erythrokeratodermia with ataxia map to a common region in 1p34-p35. Multipoint linkage and haplotype analyses place erythrokeratodermia variabilis between the marker D1S496 and D1S186 with a maximum LOD score of 12.88. Our linkage results provide compelling evidence for genetic homogeneity among families of mixed European and French-Canadian origin. In contrast, results excluded Greither's disease from the established erythrokeratodermia variabilis gene region indicating genetic heterogeneity of erythrokeratodermias. Based on recombinations, two genes assigned to 1p34-p35 were excluded: cartilage matrix protein and avian myelocytosis viral oncogene. Connexin-37 (GJA4), a member of the connexin gene family, maps within the erythrokeratodermia variabilis region and is an attractive candidate gene. Direct sequencing of the coding region of GJA4 in four patients revealed several variations, including a novel polymorphism within the 5' cytoplasmic domain, but no pathogenic mutations were found, thus excluding Connexin-37 as a candidate. There is evidence, however, that other epidermally expressed connexins cluster in this region, and one may yet be determined to play a role in the pathogenesis of erythrokeratodermia variabilis.

Construction and characterization of retroviral vectors for interleukin-2 gene therapy

Several investigators have employed interleukin-2 (IL-2) gene transfer to enhance the immunogenicity of tumor cell vaccines. We describe in this report the construction and characterization of retroviral vectors for IL-2 gene therapy. Human IL-2 cDNA with a chimeric rat preproinsulin/IL-2 DNA leader sequence was subcloned into the pLXSN (long terminal repeat promoter) and pLNCX (cytomegalovirus [CMV] promoter) vectors to generate the plasmids pLXSN-iIL2 and pLNCX-iIL2, respectively. Human IL-2 cDNA with a chimeric human tissue factor/IL-2 DNA leader sequence was utilized to construct the vector pLXSN-tIL2. The levels of IL-2 secreted by transduced tumor cells and fibroblasts were evaluated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) of culture supernatants and compared with those of normal peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) activated in vitro with calcium ionophore and phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate. The highest levels of IL-2 secreted by transduced tumor cells (760 units/10(6) cells/24 h), adult fibroblasts (625 units/10(6) cells/24 h), and embryonic fibroblasts (3,975 units/10(6) cells/24 h) were 150- to 1,000-fold higher than than secreted by the activated PBMC (4 units/10(6) cells/24 h). Similar levels of IL-2 were expressed by human fibroblasts transduced with pLXSN vectors employing the preproinsulin (pLXSN-iIL2) or tissue factor (pLXSN-tIL2) leader sequences (range in IL-2 units/10(6) cells/24 h pLXSN-iIL2 = 375-625 vs. pLXSN-tIL2 = 90-440). Because IL-2-transduced cells for clinical applications are generally irradiated to prevent cellular proliferation, we evaluated the effects of radiation on IL-2 production. Radiation doses between 1,500 and 10,000 cGy resulted in gradual decreases in IL-2 secretion by transduced cells. The range of the decrease in IL-2 secretion was 7-11% by day 7, 0-29% by day 14, and 25-50% by day 35. For clinical applications, stable production of the vector in high concentrations is an important consideration. The retroviral vector pLXSN-tIL2 produced the highest viral titer and was chosen for further characterization. Southern blot analysis of SacI-digested genomic DNA from the LXSN-tIL2 producer cell line and SacI-digested pLXSN-tIL2 plasmid DNA revealed the expected 3.2-kbp fragment, suggesting the absence of transgene rearrangement and the suitability of this vector as a candidate for clinical applications.

IgA nephropathy and thin basement membrane disease in association with Crohn disease

There have been a wide variety of reported renal parenchymal diseases associated with inflammatory bowel disease, ranging from interstitial nephritis to amyloidosis to immune complex glomerulonephritis. Two pediatric cases of renal parenchymal pathology in association with Crohn disease are presented. The first is an 11-year-old child who presented with recurrent bouts of gross hematuria, biopsy-proven IgA nephropathy, and later developed Crohn disease 4 years after the initial presentation. Her renal function is normal with persistent isolated microscopic hematuria. The second case is that of a 9-year-old male who presented with the classic gastrointestinal manifestations of Crohn disease, later developed hematuria and proteinuria, and was found on a renal biopsy to have thin basement membrane disease. There have been several reported cases of IgA nephropathy associated with inflammatory bowel disease; but to our knowledge, this is the first case of thin basement membrane disease occurring in conjunction with Crohn disease. Discussion focuses on the relationship of IgA nephropathy with inflammatory bowel disease with additional comments on thin basement membrane disease.

Hidden visual capabilities in mentally retarded subjects diagnosed as deaf-blind

The visual acuity of twelve multi-handicapped, mentally retarded subjects, diagnosed as deaf-blind, was measured on two occasions with the Teller Acuity Cards (TAC). Eight subjects scored above the criterion for legally blind and the results of six of these indicated various degrees of poor to approaching-normal eyesight. To evaluate high-level vision four subjects were tested with the Fagan Test, assessing visual recognition memory for faces subsequent to familiarization with the preferential looking technique. The results for three subjects showed evidence for perceptual recognition. It is concluded that TAC combined with the Fagan Test may detect perceptual capacities unnoticed by clinical observation.

Phase I study of daily times five topotecan and single injection of cisplatin in patients with previously untreated non-small-cell lung carcinoma

BACKGROUND

The objectives were to determine the dose-limiting toxicity of topotecan in combination with cisplatin, to describe the principal toxicities, and to define the maximally-tolerated doses of the drugs in previously untreated patients with advanced non-small-cell lung carcinoma.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

The study was designed to evaluate escalated doses of topotecan (starting at 0.75 mg/m2/day) as a 30-minute infusion daily for five consecutive days with a fixed clinically-relevant dose of 75 mg/m2 cisplatin given on day 1, every three weeks.

RESULTS

Fifteen chemotherapy-naive patients entered the study and 14 were evaluable for toxicity. All 11 patients treated at the first topotecan/cisplatin dose level of 0.75/75 mg/m2, experienced at least one episode of grade 4 neutropenia. For six patients, absolute neutrophil counts were below 500/ml for more than five days, and two of them developed a grade 4 thrombocytopenia. At the next higher topotecan/cisplatin dose level (1.0/75 mg/m2), grade 4 neutropenia lasting longer than five days occurred in all three evaluable patients, including one patient who expired due to a severe neutropenia associated with sepsis. Non-hematologic toxicities, predominantly nausea and vomiting, were mild to moderate in severity and manageable. Four patients had partial responses (30.7%; 95% confidence interval (9%-61%) of relatively short duration.

CONCLUSION

Both severe neutropenia and thrombocytopenia precluded dose escalation of topotecan and cisplatin administered on this schedule. In previously untreated patients, the first topotecan/cisplatin dose level (0.75/75 mg/m2), was associated with intolerable myelosuppression, and, therefore, the dose levels evaluated in this study cannot be recommended for subsequent phase II investigations. The high toxicity of this schedule and the recent understanding of the pharmacokinetic interaction between those drugs may encourage the investigation of the alternate sequence of cisplatin after TPT in phase II studies.

Tenascin-X deficiency is associated with Ehlers-Danlos syndrome

The tenascins are a family of large extracellular matrix proteins with at least three members: tenascin-X (TNX), tenascin-C (TNC, or cytotactin) and tenascin-R (TN-R, or restrictin). Although the tenascins have been implicated in a number of important cellular processes, no function has been clearly established for any tenascin. We describe a new contiguous-gene syndrome, involving the CYP21B and TNX genes, that results in 21-hydroxylase deficiency and a connective-tissue disorder consisting of skin and joint hyperextensibility, vascular fragility and poor wound healing. The connective tissue findings are typical of the Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (EDS). The abundant expression of TNX in connective tissues is consistent with a role in EDS, and our patient's skin fibroblasts do not synthesize TNX protein in vitro or in vivo. His paternal allele carries a novel deletion arising from recombination between TNX and its partial duplicate gene, XA, which precludes TNX synthesis. Absence of TNX mRNA and protein in the proband, mapping of the TNX gene and HLA typing of this family suggest recessive inheritance of TNX deficiency and connective-tissue disease. Although the precise role of TNX in the pathogenesis of EDS is uncertain, this patient's findings suggest a unique and essential role for TNX in connective-tissue structure and function.

Frequency and distribution of DNA fragmentation as a marker of cell death in chronic liver diseases

To study the early stages of cell death in various types of chronic liver injury, liver biopsies from a total of 26 patients, including 7 with chronic hepatitis C(CHC), 4 with chronic hepatitis B(CHB), 7 with alcoholic liver disease (ALD), 4 with autoimmune or drug hepatitis (AI/DH), and 4 with primary biliary cirrhosis(PBC), were examined by an in situ nucleotidyl transferase assay (ISNTA), which detects DNA fragmentation. Positive nuclei in hepatocytes and sinusoidal lining cells were counted in all parenchymal areas, excluding triads and areas of fibrosis, using a computer with Sigmascan software. The number of positive hepatocytes/mm2 was similar in the biopsies of patients with CHC, CHB, ALD and AI/DH, but significantly lower in PBC. The number of positive sinusoidal lining cells/mm2 was significantly greater in biopsies with CHC compared to CHB, ALD, AI/DH and PBC. Double staining revealed that the ISNTA-positive sinusoidal lining cells were also CD68 positive, indicating that they were Kupffer cells. The frequency of ISNTA positivity did not correlate with serum AST or ALT levels, steatosis, cell swelling or cirrhosis. ISNTA-positive hepatocytes were more frequent than acidophilic bodies in every disease category. We conclude that apoptosis may be a common pathway of cell death in different liver diseases, that the high frequency of DNA fragmentation in Kupffer cells in CHC suggests that during chronic hepatitis C infection activated Kupffer cells may be subject to regulatory control by apoptosis and that ISNTA is more sensitive than acidophilic bodies in assessing the degree of cell injury in the liver.

Partial dominance of a keratin 14 mutation in epidermolysis bullosa simplex--increased severity of disease in a homozygote

Epidermolysis bullosa simplex is a disease in which keratin gene mutations cause the production of defective intermediate filaments, which leads in turn to epidermal basal cell fragility and blistering. The inheritance in nearly all kindreds is autosomal dominant, most kindreds have missense mutations, and the encoded proteins appear to exert a dominant negative function. One previously reported patient with generalized blistering had a fully dominant mutation of keratin 5; in that kindred a homozygote was affected no more severely than the heterozygotes. By contrast we report here a keratin 14 mutation that causes blistering limited to the hands and feet in heterozygotes, but homozygotes have more severe, widespread blistering of the skin and mucous membranes. Thus keratin gene mutations may be not only fully recessive or fully dominant but also partially dominant as well.

pH and concentrations of pepsin and trypsin in feeding tube aspirates as predictors of tube placement

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which pepsin and trypsin concentrations in feeding tube aspirates, in addition to pH, contribute to predicting feeding tube position.

METHODS

Aspirates from 742 feeding tubes (nasogastric, n = 343; nasointestinal, n = 399) were tested for pH and enzyme concentrations. Also tested were aspirates from two feeding tubes inadvertently positioned into the lung (one in the pleural space and one in the tracheobronchial tree) and 146 samples of tracheobronchial and pleural fluids collected by other methods. Enzyme assays were conducted in a research laboratory. Results of the pH and enzyme tests were compared with radiologic reports of tube location.

RESULTS

Gastric fluid had a mean low pH (4.06), a high mean pepsin concentration (349.1 micrograms/mL), and a low mean trypsin concentration (19.3 micrograms/mL). In contrast, intestinal fluid had a mean high pH (7.40), a high mean trypsin concentration (143.0 micrograms/mL), and a low mean pepsin concentration (24.2 micrograms/mL). Respiratory samples also had a high mean pH (7.89) but contained little or no pepsin or trypsin. Using a logistic regression equation with all three variables to differentiate between respiratory and gastrointestinal placement, it was possible to correctly classify 100% of the respiratory cases and 93.4% of the gastrointestinal cases. Another equation used to differentiate between gastric and intestinal sites was able to classify correctly 91.2% of the gastric cases and 91.5% of the intestinal cases.

CONCLUSIONS

The results clearly indicate that laboratory-determined enzyme concentrations in feeding tube aspirates are helpful in predicting tube location. Thus, it is desirable that inexpensive, simple bedside tests be developed so that they can be used in conjunction with pH measurements to help predict tube position.

An investigation of hospital generated pharmaceutical care when patients are discharged home from hospital

AIMS

To investigate how seamless pharmaceutical care could be delivered.

METHODS

Elderly patients discharged from hospital, to their own home, were randomized into control and study groups. Control and study group patients received the normal discharge information. The study group were also counselled about their medicines and informed about their pharmaceutical care plan. Copies of the plan were given to the study patients. All patients received a domiciliary visit between 7 and 10 days after discharge. Their current medication was compared with that on discharge and contact was made with the General Practitioner as appropriate.

RESULTS

Twenty-eight study and 25 control patients with a mean (s.d.) age of 77.5 (7.3) and 77.6 (6.1) years completed the study. A pharmaceutical domiciliary visit was necessary for 21 (75%) and 24 (96%) of the study and control patients respectively. Compliance was better (P < 0.01) in the study group. Unintentional changes to the medication of 31 (14 study and 17 control) patients were found during the visit and after contact with the prescriber all but one prescription was restored to that on discharge.

CONCLUSIONS

At present it is difficult to ensure seamless pharmaceutical care. A pharmaceutical domiciliary visit may be useful to ensure seamless therapeutic care and thus avoid unnecessary healthcare events and costs after a patient is discharged home.

Common health problems among minority elders

This article reviews the primary health problems of African-American, Hispanic-American, Asian/Pacific Islander-American, and Native-American elders. The goal is to familiarize practicing dietitians with the differences in longevity, disease spectrum, and functional status (where data are available) for each of these ethnic groups. These data should be of assistance in making decisions regarding dietary counseling for ethnic elders. It is acknowledged that most data accumulated according to race do not accurately measure ethnicity. The degree of acculturation may vary widely among individuals. Therefore, it is recommended that dietitians solicit clients' perceptions of the factors that may contribute to illness and the barriers to implementing recommended remedies.

Critical thinking, health policy, and the Hmong culture group, Part II

The Hmong are an Asian cultural group originating primarily in the northern hills of Laos. During the Vietnam conflict, they fought and died for the U.S. during a secret Laotian war. The U.S. gained their support in exchange for protecting them from their enemies in Laos regardless of the war's outcome. When North Vietnam took over Laos, hundreds of thousands of Hmong fled to Thailand's refugee camps; from there, over 100,000 Hmong refugees relocated to the U.S. (Heu, 1996). With them, the Hmong brought culture, language, and healthcare beliefs and rituals, as well as distinct challenges to U.S. communities, policy makers, and healthcare professionals. This article is the second in a two-part series on critical thinking and health policy and the Hmong culture group.