Replication of reptilian paramyxovirus in avian host systems

The reptilian paramyxovirus GOV replicated in chicken embryo fibroblasts, in embryonated chicken eggs and in explanted chorio-allantoic membrane with titres of up to 10(8.2) TCID50/ml at 28 degrees C. The virus did not multiply above 30 degrees C. GOV re-isolated from the avian host systems was identified by immunofluorescence and by immunogold-electron microscopy.

Angiotropic large B-cell lymphoma misdiagnosed as urosepsis with multiple organ dysfunction syndrome

A 53-year-old woman with a history of cervical carcinoma 14 years ago, treated with hysterectomy and radiation therapy, was admitted to the intensive care unit with severe SIRS (systemic inflammatory response syndrome) progressing to shock, multiple organ failure and death within 5 d. Bilateral hydronephrosis diagnosed by sonography and an enlarged left kidney with suspected abscesses verified in a CT-scan suggested the diagnosis of urosepsis. However, multiple microbiological examinations remained sterile. Despite surgical treatment and aggressive intensive care, she died in unresponsive shock. Pathohistologically, an angiotropic large B-cell lymphoma, a rare diffuse intravascular neoplasm of lymphoid origin, was diagnosed. The patient's history of abdominal radiation therapy 14 years earlier as well as multiple negative microbiological specimens in a patient with suspected urosepsis should have initiated the search for a non-infectious cause of the disease.

Speed dependency of motion pattern consistency

Treadmills are widely used in equine motion analysis. For the evaluation of the trot of a horse, a trotting speed with low variation between motion cycles is necessary to make the measurements reproducible. The aim of this study is to show how an individual 'optimum' trotting speed for lameness quantification can be determined. In this study, the stability of a horse's gait pattern was evaluated by calculating the standard deviation (S.D.) of motion-cycle speed (MCS). In trot, eighteen horses were analysed at several speeds. The measurements were taken with the ExpertVision System (Motion Analysis Corporation) every 3 km h(-1) (= 0.83 m s(-1)), from the lowest to the highest individual trotting speed. At the different speeds the S.D. of MCS and the asymmetry of the vertical head motion were compared. At the speed where standard deviation was minimum, motion asymmetry was maximum. In twelve horses this optimum speed was situated in the middle of the individual trotting speed range, and in six horses the optimum speed was the maximum speed. The method presented in this study allows the determination of an optimum trotting speed and so contributes to precision and consistency of equine lameness analysis.

[Interactions between the immune system and the psyche]

Compared to well documented studies on immunosuppression "psychologically induced immunoenhancement" is a rather neglected topic in medical literature and research, even in the new established field of psychoneuroimmunology. Starting with the premise that research questions emanating from this field and from behavioural medicine may provide critical information for understanding the phenomena of immunomodulation, evidence and illustrations of psychologically induced immunoenhancement are provided in the context of psychosocial neuroimmunomodulation. Distress-reducing interventions such as progressive relaxation training, imagery, experimentally induced short-term positive mood states and mirthful laughter enhances various aspects of immune functions, i.e., primarily the phylogenetically old paraspecific parameters. Additionally, a larger variety of emotional/psychosocial factors with potentially but yet unproved immunoenhancing effects seems to exist. In particular, enhancement of phagocytosis, NK cell and T cell response to phytohemagglutinin, decrease in the number of suppressor/cytotoxic T cells and increase in the number of circulating T helper/inducer cells in peripheral blood, and enhancement of spontaneous lymphocyte blastogenesis as well as cytokines have all been shown to be associated with the above mentioned intervention techniques.

[Comparative investigations of practice-oriented methods for the detection of viruses in food with Aujeszky infection in swine as an example]

In order to detect contamination in foodstuffs originating from animals, three different diagnostic methods were tested in comparison: cultivation in permissive cell cultures, microparticle antigen capture system per FACS (MAS) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Assessment implied relevance for health, sensitivity and specificity. Aujeszky infection in swine served as a model. The blood and organs of healthy, but persistently infected as well as specifically diseased animals were examined. In addition, artificially Aujeszky-contaminated milk, black pudding and minced meat were included in the comparison of methods. Basically, all three methods of detecting contamination in raw foodstuffs originating from animals were useful. The virus detection in cell cultures as well as the efficacy of MAS were inhibited by meat products according to their preparation (e.g., virus protein denaturation). PCR turned out to be the only reliable method to confirm the contamination in foodstuffs. Using PCR, viral contamination in foodstuffs originating from healthy but persistently infected animals could be detected. Each of the three virus detection systems has various advantages and disadvantages. They are listed and discussed in detail. With regard to the relevance of health, virus detection in raw meat via cell culture remains the preferred method. Besides the detection of an individual virus, routine examinations of foodstuffs for unknown zoonotic virus contamination, sets based on permissive cell cultures, primer sets for the PCR as well as sets based on various monoclonal antibodies for MAS have to be developed and made available at the diagnostic laboratories.

Loss of retinoic acid receptor beta expression in breast cancer and morphologically normal adjacent tissue but not in the normal breast tissue distant from the cancer

Retinoids and their receptors [retinoic acid receptors (RARs) and retinoid X receptors] play an important role in maintaining the balance between proliferation and apoptosis. Recently, Deng et al. [Science (Washington DC), 274: 2057-2059, 1996] reported a loss of heterozygosity on chromosome 3p24 in breast cancer specimens and the morphologically normal appearing adjacent tissue. The 3p24 locus includes, among other genes, the region coding for RAR-beta. This study was designed to determine whether there are abnormalities in the expression of retinoid receptors in surgical specimens of patients with breast cancer. In 14 patients, transcripts of nuclear retinoid receptors were detected by in situ hybridization in formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded specimens by means of digoxigenin-labeled riboprobes specific for RAR-alpha, -beta and -gamma. We found RAR-alpha expressed in all specimens, whereas RAR-gamma was expressed in 100% of normal breast tissue but in only 11 of 14 tumorous lesions. RAR-beta was found in all cases of normal breast tissue localized distant from the tumor, but in 13 of 14 cases it was completely absent in the tumor and the morphologically normal appearing tissue adjacent to the tumor. One possibility to explain the suppression of RAR-beta is a mutation in the promoter region. Sequencing the DNA extracted from paraffin-embedded tumor tissue of the corresponding breast cancer specimens, we were not able to detect any mutation in the retinoic acid-responsive element. Our results clearly indicate a crucial role of RAR-beta in the carcinogenesis of breast cancer.

The characterization of the nv-gvpACNOFGH gene cluster involved in gas vesicle formation in Natronobacterium vacuolatum

The haloalkaliphilic archaeon Natronobacterium vacuolatum forms cylinder-shaped gas vesicles throughout the growth cycle when grown in media containing 15-25% NaCl. Cells cultivated in media containing 13% NaCl are, however, gas-vesicle-free. The major gas vesicle structural protein, nv-GvpA, was detected by an antiserum raised against the gas vesicles of Haloferax mediterranei; the antiserum reacted with an 8.3-kDa protein in samples containing cell extracts or purified gas vesicles of N. vacuolatum. The gene encoding nv-GvpA was isolated together with six additional gvp genes; these genes are arranged consecutively in a cluster as nv-gvpACNOFGH and are cotranscribed. Transcript analysis by primer extension revealed only one start site three nucleotides upstream of the nv-gvpA reading frame. This arrangement of gvp genes differs from that of the gas-vesicle-encoding genes in Halobacterium salinarium and Hf. mediterranei. The comparison of the deduced Gvp protein sequences indicated similarities with the respective halobacterial Gvp proteins, with GvpA exhibiting the highest degree of conservation (97-100%). The second gas vesicle structural protein, nv-GvpC, was 150-250 amino acids longer than all other halobacterial GvpC proteins and was much less conserved (48-73%). The expression of the nv-gvp genes was monitored in N. vacuolatum cells cultivated in 20 or 13% salt media. Northern and Western analyses showed that despite the lack of gas vesicles in cells grown in 13% salt medium, the gvpACNOFGH gene cluster was transcribed and GvpA protein was synthesized, suggesting that the absence of gas vesicles is not due to a lack of transcription.

Gas vesicle formation in halophilic Archaea

Gas vesicles are intracellular, microbial flotation devices that consist of mainly one protein, GvpA. The formation of halobacterial gas vesicles occurs along a complex pathway involving 14 different gvp genes that are clustered in a genomic region termed the "vac region". Various vac regions found in Halobacterium salinarum (p-vac and c-vac), Haloferax mediterranei (mc-vac), and Natronobacterium vacuolatum (nv-vac) have been investigated. Except for the latter vac region, the arrangement of the gvp genes is identical. Single gvp genes have been mutated to study the effect on gas vesicle synthesis in transformants and to determine their possible function. Each vac region exhibits a characteristic transcription pattern, and regulatory steps have been observed at the DNA, RNA, and protein level, indicating a complex regulatory network acting during gas vesicle gene expression.

Poxvirus preparation CONPIND initiates production of the major inflammatory mediators IL-1 alpha and TNF-alpha in human whole blood and in blood mononuclear cell cultures

The poxvirus preparation CONPIND initiated the production of the two major inflammatory mediators interleukin-1 alpha (IL-1 alpha) and tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) in whole blood and in blood mononuclear cell cultures of man at 37 degrees C within 12-48 h. The release of the cytokines followed a dose-efficacy curve. High levels of IL1-alpha (up to 810 pg/ml) and TNF-alpha (up to 533 pg/ml) were determined by sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.

Immunoreactive cytokines within primates

Peripheral blood mononuclear cells of primates (man, orang utan, gorilla, baboon), rodents (mouse, rat), carnivores (cat, dog), artiodactyls (cattle, goat, pig) and perissodactyls (horse) were isolated and stimulated with mitogens (5 micrograms/ml LPS, 5 micrograms/ml PHA) at 37 degrees C. Cytokines immunoreactive to monoclonal antibodies (mAb) directed to human cytokines (TNF-alpha, IL-1 alpha, IL-2, IL-6, IFN-gamma) could be detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in the case of primates only. The mAb used did not recognize cytokines of the other mammalian species investigated. The results demonstrate the close relationship within the primates from the immunophysiological point of view.

A monoclonal blocking-ELISA for detection of orthopoxvirus antibodies in feline sera

A double sandwich blocking-ELISA using a genus-specific neutralizing monoclonal antibody (MAb) against the vaccinia virus 32 kD adsorption protein (D8L open reading frame: ORF) was developed to detect orthopoxvirus (OPV) antibodies in sera. A collection of 2173 feline serum samples was examined in an epidemiological study. The blocking-ELISA revealed 44 (2%) sera with positive titres of 1:2-1:256. ELISA results were confirmed by the plaque-reduction test. A close correlation between titres of both assays could be observed (r = 0.986). In general, the sensitivity of the blocking ELISA was two to four times higher. Neutralizing OPV-antibodies were found in nine sera with ELISA-titres > 1:4. Antibody specificity to OPV was also demonstrated by Western blotting analysis with selected feline sera. The epidemiographical distribution of the ELISA-positive sera and case histories of 37 seropositive cats available from the referring veterinarians are demonstrated. The blocking-ELISA enables a rapid serological diagnosis and can be used in veterinary and human medicine. It allows OPV-antibody screening in human and other animal species.

[Present state of preclinical research on the efficacy and safety of para immunity inducers from poxviruses. A study of the literature]

The investigations on the "systemic level" after parenteral application of pox-inducers to man and animal have proved the preparations to be harmless and surprisingly effective with regard to certain indications. The clinical data correlate to laboratory parameters to serve as proof for the efficacy. The challenge models (VSV, Aujeszky) verify a dosis-efficacy relationship. The evaluation of the efficacy of the pox-inducers in isolated blood- and liver-cells respectively cell cultures (cellular "in vitro" level) provide a unified picture: increase of the phagocytosis, of the NK-cells and the thymidinkinase activity in liver cells. The investigations on the "cytokine release" illustrate that pox-inducers promote the release respectively the production of diverse cytokines important for the regulation of the immune system. This has been proved for interferon alpha and gamma, the interleukin 1, 2 and 12 as well as for CSF and TNF. To conclude, a regulative effect is ascribed to the poxvirus inducers in the network of paraspecific defence in regard to stimulating as well as inhibiting effects. The endogenous medication by way of pox-inducers (paramunization) is diametrically opposed to the exogenous application of cytokines.

[Determination of Escherichia coli Shiga-like toxins by means of the MTT bioassay]

Tissue culture cells' metabolism and viability are measured by the mitochondrial reduction rate of a yellow tetrazolium salt (MTT) to blue formazan crystals in the MTT-bioassay. Thus the MTT-bioassay is a standardizable and reproducible bioassay for measuring cytotoxicity or cytostimulation. It is shown that the MTT-bioassay is also very suitable for determining bacterial cytotoxins using Escherichia coli's Shiga-like toxins as example. 177 strains of E. coli, isolated from carcasses and organs of cattle, are classified biochemically and tested for cytotoxin production by means of the MTT-bioassay. One of these strains is recognized as producer of Shiga-like toxin 2. 4 Enterohemolysin-producing strains of E. coli are cultivated from a feces sample of a diarrhoeic nubian ibex and identified as Shiga-like toxin 1 producers by help of the MTT-bioassay.

Mallory-Weiss syndrome in a patient with hemophilia A and chronic liver disease

Eighty percent of hemophiliacs exposed to plasma products are seropositive to hepatitis B and an even higher percentage are seropositive to hepatitis C. Post-transfusion hepatitis is followed by cirrhosis in up to 25% of the cases. In the wake of portal hypertension, the development of oesophageal varices entails the risk of life-threatening hemorrhage. We report on a patient with moderate hemophilia A (factor VIII:C 4-11%) who suffered from massive hematemesis, melaena and evolving shock after excessive alcohol ingestion. The diagnosis of Mallory-Weiss syndrome and the differential diagnosis of bleeding oesophageal varices as well as prognostic consequences are discussed.

[Experiences with immunization against orthopox viruses of humans and animals using vaccine strain MVA]

Immunizations against orthopox virus infections require a replicating, but safe vaccinia virus. The strain MVA is well suited concerning this matter. Human beings and animals can be vaccinated without any risk. The virus propagated in cell culture is non-virulent and lost its contagiosity. Multiplication in vaccinated men and animals is limited and excretion does not happen. As known for other attenuated virus strains, there must be a minimal effective virus concentration in the vaccine, which is 10(7.5) TCID50 per ml for MVA. To achieve a solid basic immunity which endures for a minimal of one year, two parenteral applications of MVA at intervals of at least 3 weeks are necessary.

More than one component of the Newcastle disease virus particle is capable of interferon induction

The interferon (IFN)-inducing capacities of intact NDV virions, beta-propiolactone-inactivated particles and several structural components were compared, using human PBML as the IFN producing cells. Intact and inactivated virions as well as the nucleocapsid fraction did not differ significantly in their IFN-inducing capacity. In contrast, genomic RNA as well as M protein fraction and envelopes induced IFN titres to a level of about 10% of those achieved with virions. NDV-induced IFN production could be blocked specifically by incubation with polyclonal anti-NDV-monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) and with two of three anti-HN-mAbs, but not with anti-NDV-mAbs directed against the F, M or NP protein. In addition, IFN induction by fixed MDBK cells, expressing NDV surface proteins after infection with NDV Ulster, was inhibited by one of two anti-F-mAbs. The results suggest that the induction of IFN synthesis in human PBML is a complex process involving not only the HN protein but also the uncleaved F protein precursor, a component of the M protein fraction and--once having entered the cell--the genomic RNA.

Highly attenuated poxviruses induce functional priming of neutrophils in vitro

Highly attenuated poxvirus samples were used to examine the influence of potential poxvirus expression vector systems on neutrophil function. Exposure to the viruses alters the number of membrane bound complement-and Fc gamma-receptors and led to functional priming of neutrophils to subsequent stimuli.

Identification of CD34+ cord blood cells and their subpopulations in preterm and term neonates using three-color flow cytometry

Three-color flow cytometry was used to identify CD34+ cord blood (CB) hematopoietic progenitors of preterm (n = 13) and term (n = 18) neonates. The frequency of CD34+ CB cells gated on the lymphocyte fraction in term neonates is about half the frequency of preterm neonates (mean 1.84 +/- 0.8 vs. 3.49 +/- 1.8, p < 0.005). The difference of absolute CD34+ cells between the 2 groups did not reach statistical significance (premature 169 +/- 161 vs. mature 108 +/- 62.6 x 10(6) cells/l). The proportion of myeloid lineage-committed CD34+ cells coexpressing the CD33 antigen in preterm neonates does not significantly differ from that found in term neonates. However, in preterm neonates a higher fraction of erythroid lineage-committed CD34+ cells coexpresses the CD71 antigen as compared with term neonates (mean 28.7 +/- 14.1 vs. 11.4 +/- 5.7, p < 0.001). The positive correlation between gestational age and the ratio of myeloid/erythroid lineage-specific progenitor cells (r = 0.61, n = 31, p < 0.0005) suggests gestational changes in lineage commitment of CD34+ cells.

[Science and society: a confidence crisis?]

Modern technical world is essentially dependent on science and technology. Due to this, more and more potential dangers between science and society build up, leading to a general fear of the threatening progress of science on all sectors, especially in nuclear research and gene technology, thus arousing the question of a crisis of confidence between science and society. It will be proved that this crisis does not exist. The thing to be done is to make science much more transparent than before. "Belief in science and fear of science" are discussed in detail, including the fear of a risk (reckless society). Further paragraphs deal with "limitations of situations of misery" by way of science and the "limits of science and action". The discussion of this matter entails a short comment on the "responsibility of the scientist". The political function of the scientist is underlined in a kind of "outlock". It is concluded that we cannot cope with a crisis of confidence between science and society. The scientification and technification of the biosphere cannot be reversed. Mankind must and will somehow manage the future.

[The control of bovine salmonellosis under field conditions using herd-specific vaccines]

Data were collected from 39 cattle herds in Northern Bavaria with confirmed outbreaks of salmonellosis and analysed regarding the use of herd-specific Salmonella vaccines in control of this infectious disease. The inactivated vaccine was applied intranasally three times at intervals of 1 week (each dose of 5 ml; concentration of antigen about 10(10) organisms/ml, inactivated by heat at 100 degrees C). Efficacy of vaccine was evaluated by comparing bacteriological examination of fecal shedding of Salmonellae before and after vaccination. The number of Salmonella-positive fecal samples was reduced within one week p. vacc. from 25% to less than 1% of all examined fecal samples. Two thirds (65.7%) of the herds were free of infection within 3 weeks p. vacc. Best results after vaccination were obtained when each animal, including the calves, was vaccinated. Further it could be determined that smaller farms with up to 70 cattle did better than larger farms, where often only a part of the herd was immunized (82.6% and 33.3%).

[Health and disease in humans and animals over the course of history]

A historical review of the terms health and sickness in human beings and animals. The terms health and sickness have changed from ancient history to the present day and have also been modified. The notions of what life really is, when it starts and when it ends, have contributed to these changes. Historically, health and sickness have generally been interpreted anthropocentrically in the course of time, rarely has the companionship between man and animal been taken into account. A closer look over the past three millennia as to the science of the dynamics of diseases, the humoral pathology and the solidistic pathology, leads to the conclusion that the terms sickness and health have only been understood in general, not in detail. In the last decades of the 19th century and up to the present day an essential change of the notion of sickness was initiated through cellular pathology by R. Virchow (1821-1902). Eventually, bacteriology, virology, molecular biology and gene technology have established new standards with regard to health and sickness and have paved the way to the present holistic medicine, which is based on science. Sickness is defined as a verifiable divergence from the norm of anatomical, physiological, immunological and psychic conditions of an organism and, accordingly, as a pathological form of being, implying a disturbance of homeostasis. The legal issues such as the federal laws on epidemic diseases of human beings and animals and on insurance are dealt with in conclusion.

Interleukin-3, interleukin-6, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor and erythropoietin cord blood levels of preterm and term neonates

The cascade of known haematopoietic growth factors controlling granulomonopoiesis and erythropoiesis includes interleukin-3 (IL-3), interleukin-6 (IL-6), granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), and erythropoietin (EPO). Elevated endogenous IL-3 and IL-6 cord blood levels in infection-free premature and mature neonates may reflect their possible role for expansion of haematopoietic progenitor cells, granulocytes and monocytes. Within the erythroid lineage a synergistic action of IL-3, IL-6 and EPO can be assumed. To identify the regulatory role in fetal haematopoietic expansion cord blood plasma levels of these haematopoietic growth factors were assessed in 19 premature and 20 mature infants using commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and enzyme-amplified sensitivity immuno assay test kits. Peripheral blood IL-3, GM-CSF and EPO were studied in 5 and 10 premature infants respectively. Compared with cord blood levels we found a decline in EPO levels but no decrease of IL-3 and GM-CSF during the 1st month of life. We conclude that postnatal decrease in plasma burst-promoting activity levels in preterm infants is mainly explained by low postnatal EPO levels.

[Human health risks with regard to persistent infections and permanent excretors]

Specifically pathogenous germs affect our environment in many different ways, e.g. through food, waste, sewage or living vectors like birds, arthropodes and other pests. Domestic animals and pets as well as human beings are the most dangerous carriers of infectious agents and permanent excretors. Persistent infections form the infectiological basis in this context. They establish the inexhaustible reservoir of the contamination of the environment with epidemic pathogens, thus endangering the health of human beings. By means of molecularbiological research on the functional bases of germ persistence we are able to classify 3 different forms of persistent infections: 1. latent infections. 2. tolerated infections. 3. occult infections. Persistent infections first, harm the infected, second, within generations their offspring through diaplacentar transmission, and third, contaminate the environment through permanent excretors. Most of the problems in infectiology arise through contamination of the environment by permanent excretors together with spread of germs by way of living and non-living vectors. The spread of specifically pathogenous germs through carriers is, however, possible without their being excreted. In these cases the sources of this spread of infection are the blood in the stage of viremia or bacteremia (biological transmission through living vectors), the reproductive organs (copulation, diaplacentar and germinal transmission) or the contaminated organs of slaughtered animals. The risks for the health of human beings due to carriers of infectious agents and permanent excretors has dramatically increased through international tourism, the problems caused by refugees, and the crowding of people in the metropoles. Medicine tries to meet this challenge by applying new methods of diagnosis and prophylaxis.

[The paraspecific immune defense: possibilities and limits]

The paraspecific defense system is the phylogenetically older part of the complex immune system. It enables the organism to immediately attack various foreign substances, infectious germs and toxins when confronted by them. In order to activate the paraspecific immune system with the help of drugs, so-called "paramunity inducers" are employed. The use of paramunization is a new way of prophylaxis and therapy, not only with regard to infections, but also with regard to different other indications. The limitations of paramunization are to be found in genetic defects of the paraspecific immune system, therefore the success of paramunization is dependent on the functioning of the paraspecific defense system. The possibility of developing paramunity inducers that are pyrogen-free, non-toxic and pleotypically effective in pre-clinical and clinical experiments is illustrated through the use of pox and parapox viruses. Inducers based on different pox virus species were effective and safe when used in humans as well as in animals in the field.

Investigation of living cells in the nanometer regime with the scanning force microscope

Membrane structures of different types of cells are imaged in the nanometer regime by scanning force microscopy (SFM). The images are compared to those obtained with a scanning electron microscope (SEM). The SFM imaging can be done on the outer cell membrane under conditions that keep the cells alive in aqueous solutions. This opens up the possibility of observing the kinematics of the structures that determine the interaction of a cell with its environment. Therefore, STM observations, together with information obtained with the electron microscope, open up new ways of studying the development of biological structures. With the currently possible resolution, the SFM gives access to processes such as antibody binding or endo- and exocytosis, including processes correlated to the infection of cells by viruses.

[Infectious causes of pregnancy disorders]

During pregnancy infections can entail disorders in many different ways. Damage through direct transmission of pathogens to the fetus occurs in the first place. The organisms are transmitted transovarially, diaplacentally, via endometrium, before or after implantation, via amnion or by the semen when ascending through the infectious environment. Embryo transfer is a new way of transmission. The respective infective microorganisms either directly colonize in the embryo with the well known consequences (fetotrope pathogens) or they colonize the placenta thus indirectly leading to damages to the embryo (placentotrope pathogens). During the process various overlappings are possible. A second large group of disorders in pregnancy is caused by effects of infections of the mother without pathogens being transmitted to the embryo or the placenta. These diseases are postinfectious allergies, immune complex diseases, damages through microbial toxins or mediators and various other forms of infectious processes found with the mother. The third group of disorders in pregnancy is the result of complications caused by vaccinations of the mother during or shortly before pregnancy: postvaccinal allergies, diseases through vaccinal germs and different other postvaccinal damages or stress because of vaccination.

Animal poxviruses transmitted from cat to man: current event with lethal end

We report about the infection of an 18-year-old man with an orthopox virus (OPV) which was transmitted by a cat. The infectious route from cat to man could be proved by epidemiological, virological and serological methods. The corresponding techniques are described. The patient had not been vaccinated against smallpox and was intensively immunosuppressed by medication on account of a severe endogeneous eczema combined with an allergic asthma bronchiale. A cyclic poxvirus disease developed with a generalised, partly confluent pox virus exanthema disseminated over the body. The clinical symptoms were similar to a "variola pustulosa haemorrhagica". The young man died of a lung embolism in the course of the intensive medical therapy. The haemorrhagic character of the pox virus pustules with central necrosis (pox navel) could be reproduced in the rabbit skin and on chorioallantois membranes. The pox virus isolated from the patient could be differentiated from variola, vaccinia and monkeypox virus. It is a member of the group of "cowpox-like viruses". The environmental importance of these OPVs is discussed.

[Recent perceptions on the development, assembly and function of the immune system]

The immune system developed through many stages during evolution. It is fascinating that none of the diverse defense mechanisms vanished in such a long period of nearly 3.5 billion years. They still function in the integrated immune system. The barrier system can be compared to the immune system. The immune system itself is subdivided in antigen-independent, paraspecific (primitive immune system) and antigen specific (specific immune system), restricted immune reactions. The role and use of the phylogenetically older, paraspecific mechanisms, that will react immediately after antigen exposure, are discussed in detail. The immune system is not autonomous. It is closely linked to the hormonal, circulatory, metabolic and nervous systems. Its function is comparable to a sensory organ. Psychoneuroimmunology as a new discipline is mentioned. Immunity and paramunity are not seen as opposing phenomena but are linked in their functions. The terminology of immunology is discussed.

[Lethal animal pox virus infection in an atopic patient simulating variola vera]

An 18-year-old patient requiring steroid treatment for severe bronchial asthma and with atopic dermatitis acquired a cowpox-like virus infection clinically similar to smallpox from a domestic cat as carrier. In spite of intensive care, with controlled pressure breathing and the last available vaccinia hyperimmunoglobulin, the patient died of pulmonary embolism although viral spread had ceased some days before.

Mapping of deletions in the genome of the highly attenuated vaccinia virus MVA and their influence on virulence

Different passages of the vaccinia virus strain Ankara (CVA wild-type) during attenuation to MVA (modified vaccinia virus Ankara) have been analysed to detect alterations in the genome. Physical maps for the restriction enzymes HindIII and XhoI have been established. Six major deletions relative to the wild-type strain CVA could be localized. They reduce the size of the entire genome from 208 kb (CVA wild-type) to 177 kb for the MVA strain. Four deletions occurred during the first 382 passages and the resulting variant (CVA 382) displays an attenuated phenotype similar to that of the MVA strain. The deletions are located in both terminal fragments, affect two-thirds of the host range gene K1L and eliminate 3.5 kb of a highly conserved region in the HindIII A fragment. During the next 190 passages leading to MVA two additional deletions appeared. Again, one is located in the left terminal fragment, and the other includes the A-type inclusion body gene. Neither of the deletions appear to participate in further attenuation of the virus. Rescue of the partially deleted host range region with the corresponding wild-type DNA restored the ability of the attenuated strains MVA and CVA 382 to grow in some non-permissive tissue cultures. Nevertheless, the complete host range of the wild-type strain was not recovered. Also, plaque-forming behaviour and reduced virulence were not influenced. From the data presented it may be concluded that the partially deleted host range gene is not solely responsible for attenuation.

[Comparative studies of the paraspecific immunostimulation (paramunization) by bacterial lysates in bacterial infection models and in the cytotoxicity test]

Bacterial lysates of different bacterial strains (E. coli, B. bronchiseptica, P. haemolytica) were prepared by heating, acid- and alkaline-hydrolysis. Lysates were tested for their immunostimulating effect in bacterial infection models and with chromium 51 test demonstrating spontaneous (natural) cytotoxicity. Lysate production was standardized by protein- and Lps-determination. The alkaline-hydrolysis reduced toxicity of Lps and increased the content of soluble bacterial protein. Heating and acid-hydrolysis did not alter bacterial suspensions with respect to Lps-toxicity and protein-content. Mice infected with P. aeruginosa, P. multocida, E. coli and L. monocytogenes (5-10 LD50) had a significantly longer survival time after prophylactic immunostimulation with bacterial lysates than control animals. No protection was observed in immunostimulated mice infected with Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae. In the Pseudomonas infection model, bacterial lysates prepared by alkaline-hydrolysis had a 10 times higher immunostimulating effect than lysates prepared by acid-hydrolysis or heating. Bacterial lysates stimulated spontaneous cytotoxicity of natural mouse peritoneal killer cells after intraperitoneal application. Whole bacterial lysates had a higher NK-activity as their corresponding purified lipopolysaccharide portion.

[Recent information about the orf virus of small ruminants]

New scientific findings in the field of immunobiology and diagnosis of parapoxvirus ovis (Orf-virus) as the causal agent of a zoonosis are presented. The adaptation of Orf-virus to cell lines and its in vitro multiplication without difficulties offer the possibility for extensive studies into the biology of parapoxviruses. The development of monoclonal antibodies (MAB) against an attenuated Orf-virus strain (D-1701) led to the elaboration of a simplified, cheap and highly sensitive "antigen detection ELISA" as a diagnostic tool. Moreover the MAB's can be used to identify parapoxvirus in cells of infected tissues (indirect immuno-peroxidase technique) which is an important precondition for more detailed surveillance of the pathogenesis of parapoxvirus infections. The immunobiological behavior of the Orf-virus in its natural hosts (small ruminants) as well as in non-susceptible species (e.g. laboratory animals) is explained by the course of cellular and humoral immune reactions following infection or vaccination. The problems of combat measures against contagious ecthyma (scabby mouth) of sheep and the human Orf-virus infections are discussed.

[Environment and occurrence of epidemics]

Epidemic diseases are defined as the temporary accumulation of dangerous infections diseases in certain areas. They are based on the principles of monocausality of Henle and Koch and represent the most important group of monocausal infectious diseases. Tight ecological relations exist between epidemic diseases and environment. The ecosystem encloses all living organisms as well as the inanimate environment (e.g. soil, water, air, waste). Some chains of infections are demonstrated with American equine encephalitis, rabies, Aujeszky's disease, salmonellosis and so-called soil-born epidemic diseases as examples. Any change of the environment causes enduring effects on the development and progression of epidemic diseases. Many epidemic diseases correlate with certain geographical zones. The variation of climate for instance led to an alteration of the occurrence of epidemic diseases caused by streptococci and staphylococci. A further evidence for the relation of environment and occurrence of epidemic diseases are the seasonal and secular rhythmics in the progress of epidemic diseases. On the basic of new techniques (finger-printing, hybridisation, sequence analysis) the origin of new types of infectious diseases such as American equine encephalitis and infections with Parvo- and Corona viruses can be explained. Finally medicine has to face this thesis: In contrast to the Darwinian theory the recombination of two different infectious agents in a common host may cause evolutionary jumps.

[The use of genetic engineering in veterinary medicine with examples from epidemiology, diagnosis and drug production]

The results of genetic engineering have reached practical veterinary medicine already. Nevertheless there is a great lack of knowledge among those veterinarians who usually do not work with these methods. Therefore we want to give an introduction into the advantages and dangers of this technology concerning veterinary medicine. Some important analytical methods are explained. Related viruses such as WEE and EEE or canine parvovirus, feline parvovirus and mink enteritis virus, or the related coronaviruses FIPV and TGEV serve as examples for the possibilities in molecular diagnosis and epidemic monitoring. The history of the gl- mutants of PRV, now prescribed as vaccine strains in the FRG, is an example of the development of genetic engineered vaccines. A new generation of vaccines based on recombinant vaccinia viruses is imminent. Thus we have to be aware of the high risks and responsibility of everybody who is involved in these new systems, especially the scientist who produces genetically altered organisms.

Effective methods for the investigation of human tear film proteins and lipids

The investigation of human tear film proteins and lipids is of value for the elucidation of contact lens incompatibilities, tear film instabilities, dry eye syndrome and various other eye diseases. Improved efficient methods for the investigation of human tear film proteins and lipids are presented in this paper. Tear proteins were examined by ultrathin sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, celluloacetate gel, isoelectric focusing, and high-performance liquid chromatography. The methods differ in sensitivity, resolution, convenience and reproducibility. Tear lipids were examined by high-performance thin-layer chromatography, and good separation into the major lipid classes was achieved. With this method it is possible to examine the lipids present in tears of an individual subject and not just in pools made up from the tears of several persons.

[Unexpected effects of a whole body irradiation on the mortality rate of baby mice after an experimental infection with the vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV)]

The effect of total body irradiation of baby mice or their pregnant mothers with surface doses of 3.9 Gy on the mortality rate after infection of the baby mice with VSV has been studied. Irradiation of the newborns had no influence on the mortality rate of the infected animals. Irradiation of the pregnant animals--and the foetuses in utero--caused an astonishing decrease of the mortality rate of the infected baby mice for about 50% in compare to the non irradiated controls.

[The economic value of a protective vaccination against enzootic bronchopneumonia of cattle]

The bovine enzootic bronchopneumonia is a multi-causal determined and by several factors triggered general factor-disease. Since therapy is mostly disappointing, prophylaxis is the most advantageous way to curb the disease. Vaccination with combined vaccines has been very promising. A cost-benefit-analysis shows that the decrease in morbidity from 72% to 7.3% and in mortality from 5.1 to 0.9% results in a benefit-cost-relation between 5 to 1 and 7 to 1. That means preventive vaccination against crowding associated enzootic bronchopneumonia saves approximately 180,- DM per animal and 250,- DM per animal in case of seasonal enzootic bronchopneumonia.

[The detection and identification of poxvirus in domestic cats]

Two cases in Southern Germany of pox in cats could be diagnosed virologically. A cowpox-like virus was isolated, its biological and serological characteristics defined. The source of infection could not be traced. The contraindication of treatment with corticosteroids and the pathogenicity of the orthopoxvirus demonstrated here for humans is pointed out.

[Infections which humans in the household transmit to dogs and cats]

An overview of the most important infections which can be transmitted from humans to pet dogs and cats is presented. Two quite different sources of infection stand diametrically opposite each other: 1. The transmission of active human infections to dogs and cats and 2. the transmission of infectious agents by feeding raw meat, offal, unsterilized milk products, kitchen scraps and contaminated feedstuffs. Humans can be the source of the following infections: 1. Zoonoses with reciprocal modes of transmission, e.g. Campylobacter and E. coli infections, trichophyton and microsporum infections, reo-, parainfluenza-, adeno, rota- and corona infections. 2. Zoonoses in which the main direction of infection is human----animal, e.g. tuberculosis and influenza A. 3. Infections originally pathogenic to humans which meet an impasse in dogs and cats (blind alley hosts), e.g. herpes simplex, varicella-zoster, measles and Corynebacterium diphtheriae. Listeria, salmonella, campylobacteria, toxoplasma, fungi, yeasts and viruses are transmitted via feed. The most dangerous virus infection to be transmitted to cats and dogs via raw pork leftovers is Aujeszky's disease. The dog or cat, which is the last link in the infection chain, suffers an agonizing death. The other infections originating from feed must be assessed quite differently. They are links in infection chains, which spread pathogens and endanger the health of man and animal in turn. A typical example is toxoplasmosis. Man becomes infected via sporulated oocysts from feces. Pet cats mainly become infected via raw pork containing cysts.

[Experimental detection of the paraspecific effects of purified and inactivated poxviruses]

The paraspecific effect of pox viruses i.e. stimulation of the nonspecific part of the complex immune system, was demonstrated in vitro and in vivo for 3 different types of virus (vaccinia virus, avipox virus, parapox virus). By means of purification, concentration and inactivation, it was possible to prove that the paraspecific effect is brought about by the pox virus particle per se. The effect is induced by certain epitopes in the complex structure of the virus and is independent of virus multiplication. Both purified pox viruses and inactivated, purified pox viruses stimulate NK cell activity, the CSA and the formation of interferon, and reach higher efficacy indices in a challenge test with baby mice using stomatitis vesicularis virus than non-purified and non-inactivated cell culture material. The degree of purity of the pox virus preparations was established using the electron microscope and monoclonal antibodies. The purified and concentrated pox virus preparations proved to be pyrogen-free; they were not toxic to baby mice in vivo. An endotoxin-induced effect could be ruled out. The broad paraspecific effect of pox viruses and their structural components lends itself to use as paramunity inducers in prophylaxis and therapy.

Current problems in zoonosis research

New developments in the field of Zoonosis research are discussed. They include: 1. New emerging viral zoonosis 2. Multicausal zoonoses 3. Genetic aspects of the origin of new zoonoses 4. Transmission of zoonoses to man through foodstuffs of animal origin 5. The environment and zoonoses. Continuous zoonosis research with new molecular biological techniques is a necessity. In the final analysis, there are no true limits in the field of infectiology. Such research requires cooperation between ecologists, zoologists, botanists, molecular biologists, physicians and veterinarians.