Sex differences on a mental rotation task: variations in electroencephalogram hemispheric activation between children and college students

The area of cognitive research that has produced the most consistent sex differences is spatial ability. In particular, men usually perform better on mental rotation tasks than women. Performance on mental rotation tasks has been associated with right parietal activation levels, both during task performance and prior to performance during baseline recordings. This study examined the relations among sex, age, electroencephalogram (EEG) hemispheric activation (at the 10.5 Hz to 13.5 Hz frequency band), and 2-D mental rotation task ability. Nineteen 8-year-olds (10 boys) and 20 college students (10 men) had EEG recorded at baseline and while performing a mental rotation task. Men had a faster reaction time on the mental rotation task than women, whereas there were no differences between boys and girls. After covarying for baseline EEG power values, men exhibited more activation (lower EEG power values) than women in the parietal and posterior temporal regions, whereas boys' and girls' power values did not differ in the parietal or posterior temporal regions. Furthermore, during the baseline condition, men generally exhibited more activation (lower EEG power values) throughout all regions of the scalp. Results support the hypothesis that a change that affects both brain activation and performance on mental rotation tasks occurs sometime between childhood and adulthood.

A comparison of two life stress assessment approaches: prospective prediction of treatment outcome in recurrent depression

Research on life stress has been characterized by inconsistent results, which some researchers attribute to different assessment methodologies. Generally, studies have used either self-report checklists or investigator-based interviews. To test whether different results are derived from these approaches, the authors compared information from a self-report measure of life stress with the additional data available from a follow-up investigator-based measure in prospectively predicting the outcome of treatment for recurrent major depression. The 2 approaches produced different results, with investigator-based life events predicting lower probability of remission and self-report life events either predicting increased likelihood of remission or not predicting at all. The results demonstrated that methodology may account for some of the inconsistencies in the life stress literature.

Effects of leuprolide acetate on adhesion formation and wound healing in the rat model

STUDY OBJECTIVE

To assess the effects of a hypoestrogenic state on adhesion formation and reformation and on wound healing in the rat model.

DESIGN

Prospective, randomized study (Canadian Task Force classification I).

SUBJECTS

Forty-eight female Sprague-Dawley rats.

INTERVENTIONS

Rats were injected with gonadotropin-hormone releasing hormone (GnRH) agonist and control rats with normal saline. Two weeks later (day zero) laparotomy was performed to create adhesions and a full-thickness wound on the flank. On day 14 the adhesions were scored and liberated. The rats were sacrificed on day 28 and adhesion reformation was evaluated. The wound surface area was measured serially until complete closure.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Mean adhesion scores on day 14 after adhesion formation were not significantly different between GnRH agonist and control groups. Preadhesiolysis and postadhesiolysis scores were not significantly different. There was no significant difference in size of wounds between groups on days zero, 7, or 14.

CONCLUSION

Administration of a GnRH agonist does not seem to influence postoperative adhesion formation or wound healing in the rat model. (J Am Assoc Gynecol Laparosc 8(1):124-128, 2001)

Sex differences on a computerized mental rotation task disappear with computer familiarization

The area of cognitive research that has produced the most consistent sex differences is spatial ability. Particularly, men consistently perform better on mental rotation tasks than do women. This study examined the effects of familiarization with a computer on performance of a computerized two-dimensional mental rotation task. Two groups of college students (N=44) performed the rotation task, with one group performing a color-matching task that allowed them to be familiarized with the computer prior to the rotation task. Among the participants who only performed the rotation task, the 11 men performed better than the 11 women. Among the participants who performed the computer familiarization task before the rotation task, how ever, there were no sex differences on the mental rotation task between the 10 men and 12 women. These data indicate that sex differences on this two-dimensional task may reflect familiarization with the computer, not the mental rotation component of the task. Further research with larger samples and increased range of task difficulty is encouraged.

Cumulative risk and early cognitive development: a comparison of statistical risk models

Although it is generally accepted that social risk factors predict delays in early cognitive and language development, there is less agreement about how to represent such associations statistically. Using data collected prospectively on 87 African American children during their first 4 years, this study examined 3 analytic methods for describing a child's level of social risk: (a) individual risk variables, (b) factor scores derived from those risk variables, and (c) a risk index computed by tallying the number of risk conditions present. Comparisons indicated that the individual-risk-variables approach provides better overall prediction of developmental outcomes at a particular age but is less useful in predicting developmental patterns. The risk-factor approach provides good prediction of developmental trajectories when sample sizes are moderate to large. Finally, the risk-index approach is useful for relating social risk to developmental patterns when a large number of risk variables are assessed with a small sample or when other constructs are of primary interest.

A comparison of two life stress assessment approaches: prospective prediction of treatment outcome in recurrent depression

Research on life stress has been characterized by inconsistent results, which some researchers attribute to different assessment methodologies. Generally, studies have used either self-report checklists or investigator-based interviews. To test whether different results are derived from these approaches, the authors compared information from a self-report measure of life stress with the additional data available from a follow-up investigator-based measure in prospectively predicting the outcome of treatment for recurrent major depression. The 2 approaches produced different results, with investigator-based life events predicting lower probability of remission and self-report life events either predicting increased likelihood of remission or not predicting at all. The results demonstrated that methodology may account for some of the inconsistencies in the life stress literature.

Photochemical studies on xanthurenic acid

The tryptophan metabolite xanthurenic acid (Xan) has been isolated from aged human cataractous lenses. The photophysical properties of Xan were examined to determine if it is a potential chromophore for age-related cataractogenesis. We found that Xan produces singlet oxygen (psi delta = 0.17 in CD3OD) with the same efficiency as the lenticular chromophore N-formyl kynurenine and quenches singlet oxygen at a rate similar (2.1 x 10(7); CD3OD) to other tryptophan metabolites found in the eye. As the mechanisms of induction of cataracts may also involve redox reactions, the interactions of hydrated electrons (e(aq)-), the azide radical (N3*) and hydroxyl radical (OH*) with Xan were studied using the technique of pulse radiolysis. The reaction rate constants of e(aq)-, N3* and OH* with Xan were found to be of the same order of magnitude as other tryptophan metabolites. The rate constant for reaction of Xan with e(aq)- solvated electrons was found to be diffusion controlled (k = 1.43 x 10(10) M(-1) s(-1); the reaction with N3* was very fast (k = 4.0 x 10(9) M(-1) s(-1)); and with OH* was also near diffusion controlled (k = 1.0 x 10(10) M(-1) s(-1)). Superoxide O2*- production by irradiated Xan in methanol was detected by electron paramagnetic resonance and substantiated by determining that the enhanced rate of oxygen consumption of Xan irradiated in the presence of furfuryl alcohol was lowered by superoxide dismutase.

Otitis media in childhood in relation to preschool language and school readiness skills among black children

OBJECTIVE

To examine whether otitis media with effusion (OME) and associated hearing loss (HL) during the first 5 years of life were related to children's language skills during the preschool years and to school readiness skills at entry to kindergarten.

METHODS

In a prospective study, the ears of 85 black children primarily from low-income families and recruited from community-based childcare programs were repeatedly examined from 6 months to 5 years of age for the presence of OME and from 6 months to 4 years of age for HL when well and ill with OME. Assessments were made annually of the children's child-rearing environments at home and in childcare, and children's language skills between 3 and 5 years of age and readiness skills in literacy and math were evaluated at entry into kindergarten.

RESULTS

Children had either bilateral or unilateral OME approximately 30.4% and HL 19.6% of the observation time. OME and associated HL were significantly positively correlated with some measures of expressive language at 3 and 4 years of age; however, these direct relationships were no longer significant when the child's gender, socioeconomic status, maternal educational level, and the responsiveness and support of the home and childcare environments were also considered. Further, both OME and HL were moderately correlated with school readiness skills at entry to school, with children having more OME scoring lower in verbal math problems and with children with more HL scoring lower in math and recognizing incomplete words. These associations continued to remain significant even after partialing out the child and family background factors.

CONCLUSIONS

There was not a significant relationship between children's early OME history or HL and language skills during the preschool years. However, children with more frequent OME had lower scores on school readiness measures. These associations were moderate in degree, however, and the home environment was more strongly related to academic outcomes than was OME or HL. These results should be interpreted cautiously when generalizing to other populations.

Photophysical studies on melatonin and its receptor agonists

Previous work has demonstrated that melatonin inhibits the growth of both dermal and uveal melanoma cells. Recent clinical trials have found that melatonin is an efficacious treatment for metastatic dermal melanoma. The goal of this study was to provide further insight into the oncostatic mechanism(s) of melatonin. The inhibition of the growth of uveal melanoma cells is dose-dependent (0.1-10 nM) within the range of endogenous melatonin concentrations (2 nM) found in the human aqueous humor. We know that this inhibition of growth is receptor-mediated, at least in part, because uveal melanoma cell growth was also blocked by the agonists of melatonin receptors. There are two known membrane receptors for melatonin (Mel(1a) and Mel(1b)) and one known nuclear receptor (Mel2). To determine if singlet oxygen production and/or quenching contributed to the growth inhibition of melatonin, we examined the photophysical properties of melatonin and its agonists. Using flash photolysis, we determined that melatonin and its membrane receptor agonist 6-chloromelatonin (Mel(1a-b), Lilly, Indianapolis, IN) produced very little singlet oxygen (psidelta = 0.073 and psidelta = 0.01, respectively). There was no detectable singlet oxygen phosphorescence at 1,270 nm for the nuclear receptor agonist CG-52608 (Mel2, Novartis, Basel, Switzerland). In contrast, the agonist of the Mel(1b) receptor, S-20098 (Servier, Paris, France), produced singlet oxygen with a quantum efficiency of psidelta = 0.34. Singlet oxygen was quenched by melatonin and 6-chloromelatonin at approximately the same rate (6.1 x 10(7) M(-1)s(-1) and 6.0 x 10(7) M(-1)s(-1) in CD3OD), while the rate of quenching for the nuclear receptor agonist CG-52608 and membrane receptor agonist S-20098 was less (2.2 x 10(7) M(-1)s(-1) and 1.5 x 10(7) M(-1) s(-1), respectively). It appears that the production of singlet oxygen by melatonin would not be sufficient to directly block the proliferation of melanoma cells, but may activate gene products that could contribute to the oncostatic effect.

Photooxidation of lens alpha-crystallin by hypericin (active ingredient in St. John's Wort)

Hypericin is the active ingredient in the over the counter antidepressant medication St. John's Wort. Hypericin produces singlet oxygen and other excited state intermediates that indicate it should be a very efficient phototoxic agent in the eye. Furthermore it absorbs in the UV and visible range, which means it can potentially damage both the lens and the retina. Lens alpha-crystallin, isolated from calf lenses, was irradiated in the presence of hypericin (5 x 10(-5) M, 10 mM ammonium bicarbonate, pH 7.0) and in the presence and absence of light (> 300 nm, 24 mW/cm2). Hypericin-induced photosensitized photopolymerization as assessed by sodium dodecylsulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Further analysis of the oxidative changes occurring in alpha-crystallin using mass spectrometry showed specific oxidation of methionine, tryptophan and histidine residues, which increased with irradiation time. Hypericin did not damage the lens protein in the dark. Damage to alpha-crystallin could undermine the integrity of the lens directly by protein denaturation and indirectly by disturbing chaperone function. Therefore, in the presence of light, hypericin can induce changes in lens protein that could lead to the formation of cataracts. Appropriate precautions should be taken to protect the eye from intense sunlight while on this antidepressant medication.

The uptake, location and fluorescence of hypericin in bovine intact lens

PURPOSE

To determine the uptake, location and fluorescence of hypericin, the active ingredient in St. John's Wort, in situ in the isolated intact calf lens.

METHODS

The absorption and fluorescence spectra of hypericin 10(-5 ) M were measured in DMSO/phosphate buffer, pH 7.4) [PBS] (1/10 in volume) in the presence of alpha-crystallin (0.5 and 1.1 mg/ml). Bovine lenses were incubated in the dark for 24 hours in 10(-4) M hypericin in a DMSO/PBS (1/10 in volume) mixture. Diffused hypericin fluorescence emission was detected with a fluorescence stereomicroscope from the PBS washed lens surface. A lens-holder specially built for front-surface excitation-detection was used to measure fluorescence emission and excitation spectra of intact lenses incubated with hypericin solutions.

RESULTS

As increasing concentrations of alpha-crystallin were added, the absorption and fluorescence spectra of hypericin in DMSO/PBS (1/10 in volume) changed, indicating a binding between the chromophore and the lens protein. Fluorescence emission spectra detected from the lens surface (lambda( em) = 601 and 651 nm; lambda(exc) = 550 nm) confirmed that hypericin does bind to the ocular tissues.

CONCLUSIONS

The results we obtained in simplified model systems can provide clues to investigate the effects of hypericin on lens properties in physiological conditions. Hypericin could in fact bind to lens protein thus increasing the retention time of hypericin in the eye and possibly altering a-crystallin properties as a chaperone. Should therefore hypericin be taken up by the lens, this can be detected, non-invasively by its fluorescence. Therefore, ophthalmologists may use a slit-lamp or scanning fluorometry to monitor the uptake of hypericin in the eyes of patients using St. John's Wort or receiving high doses of hypericin while undergoing photodynamic therapy.

Melatonin receptors in human uveal melanocytes and melanoma cells

Previous work has demonstrated that melatonin inhibits growth of cultured human uveal melanoma cells. The goal of this study was to determine the expression of mRNA encoding the melatonin receptor subtypes and the effect of specific melatonin receptor agonists on cell growth of uveal melanoma cells and melanocytes. RNA expression of the human melatonin Mel1a and Mel1b receptor subtypes was determined by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) amplification of RNA isolated from two melanoma cell lines and from one cell line of normal melanocytes. PCR-amplified cDNA encoding the Mel1b melatonin receptor subtype, but not the Mel1a subtype, was detected in reverse-transcribed RNA obtained from both normal uveal melanocytes and melanoma cell lines. Uveal melanoma cells and melanocytes were cultured for 24 hr, then melatonin or one of its membrane receptor agonists, 6-chloromelatonin (Mel1a-1b) or S-20098 (Mel1b) or its putative nuclear agonist, CGP-52608 (Mel2), was added to the medium. After 5 days, the cells were detached, counted, and compared to untreated controls. Melatonin and its membrane receptor agonists (Mel1a-1b and Mel1b), but not its putative nuclear receptor agonist (Mel2), inhibited the growth of uveal melanoma cells, but not normal melanocytes, at very low concentrations. In uveal melanoma cells, the expression of RNA encoding the Mel1b receptor suggests that the growth inhibiting effect of melatonin on uveal melanoma cells is related to activation of the melatonin Mel1b membrane receptor. Furthermore, the expression of RNA encoding melatonin receptors in normal uveal melanocytes suggests that melatonin may play a role in the function of these cells.

State regulation of midwives: issues and options

In the United States, state governments play a central role in determining the extent to which midwives can provide care to women and babies. State laws and regulations establish midwives' scope of practice, set licensure requirements, and frequently determine their ability to get paid and obtain access to health care facilities. For certified nurse-midwives (CNMs), state regulation has evolved from a haphazard patchwork of highly variable regulatory models into a fairly uniform set of rules and requirements from one state to the next. For direct entry midwives (DEMs), there is much less uniformity, with some states outlawing practice by any midwife who is not a CNM, whereas other states have established rigorous standards and requirements for the licensure of DEMs. This article provides a broad overview of these state regulatory variables for both CNMs and DEMs, and explores issues and options that both state regulators and midwives should consider when developing or amending state laws and regulations governing their practice. In particular, the role of the state in regulating the practice of the certified midwife (CM) is examined in the context of existing regulatory frameworks for CNMs and DEMs.

Relating quality of center-based child care to early cognitive and language development longitudinally

How quality of center-based child care relates to early cognitive and language development was examined longitudinally from 6 to 36 months of age in a sample of 89 African American children. Both structural and process measures of quality of child care were collected through observation of the infant classroom. Results indicated that higher quality child care was related to higher measures of cognitive development (Bayley Scales of Infant Development), language development (Sequenced Inventory of Communication Development), and communication skills (Communication and Symbolic Behavior Scales) across time, even after adjusting for selected child and family characteristics. In addition, classrooms that met professional recommendations regarding child:adult ratios tended to have children with better language skills. Classrooms that met recommendations regarding teacher education tended to have girls with better cognitive and receptive language skills. These findings, in conjunction with the growing child-care literature, provide further evidence that researchers and policymakers should strive to improve the quality of child care to enhance early development of such vulnerable children.

Behavior and autonomic nervous system function assessed via heart period measures: the case of hyperarousal in boys with fragile X syndrome

Physiological responses may inform us about and help us to interpret behavioral responses. For example, hyperarousal may be a source of behavior problems in children with fragile X syndrome (FXS). To evaluate this approach, we examined heart period data in specific contexts in boys with FXS and in normally developing chronological-age-matched boys. Spectral analysis was used to evaluate the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems' contributions to heart period. Boys with FXS had shorter interbeat intervals, lower parasympathetic activity, and similar sympathetic activity. Also, the groups were differentially responsive to experimental challenge. These results have important implications for our understanding of the basic nervous system dysfunction in FXS and for the strategies likely to be effective in terms of pharmacological intervention with these children. These methods can be applied to a variety of contexts and populations, including children who are sensory defensive, socially avoidant, inattentive, or hyperactive.

Level and perceived stability of self-esteem prospectively predict depressive symptoms during psychoeducational group treatment

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the combined roles of level and perceived stability of self-esteem in prospectively predicting depression.

DESIGN

Symptoms of depression and anxiety were measured both before and after psychoeducational treatment for depression; level and perceived stability of self-esteem were measured before treatment.

METHOD

Participants were 26 adults (16 female), age range 21-75 years.

RESULTS

More stable self-esteem was associated with greater depressive symptomatology at treatment completion, particularly among participants who began treatment with the lowest self-esteem. Effects were specific to symptoms of depression in contrast with anxiety.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that a stable, well-consolidated negative self-concept is associated with prolonged depression and a poor response to psychosocial interventions.

Effects of hydrosalpingeal fluid on murine embryo development and implantation

PURPOSE

Our purpose was to evaluate the effects of various concentrations of hydrosalpingeal fluid (HSF) on the preimplantation development and implantation of murine embryos.

METHODS

One-cell mouse embryos were cultured in KSOM culture medium with 0.1, 1.0, 10, or 50% HSF, without and with lactate supplementation. Late-stage embryos were transferred into the uteri of pseudopregnant CD-1 females to determine implantation rates. The embryo transfer technique used was developed by our group and its effectiveness was evaluated during this experiment.

RESULTS

Blastocyst development in the 0.1, 1.0, 10, and 50% group was 45, 55.0, 12.5, and 17.5%, respectively, with lactate supplementation, and 35.0, 52.5, 12.5, and 5.0%, respectively, without lactate supplementation, while in the KSOM (control) group it was 63.8%. Blastocyst development was reduced compared to controls in the 10% HSF and 50% HSF groups. Implantation rates for the 0.1 and 1.0% groups with lactate supplementation were 43.0 and 25.0%, respectively, and those with lactate supplementation were 50.6 and 61.8%, respectively, while in the KSOM group the implantation rate was 65.5%. None of the implantation rates were significantly different.

CONCLUSIONS

Hydrosalpingeal fluid has a concentration-dependent inhibitory effect on in vitro murine embryo development, but it has minimal effects on implantation rates.

The effects of two stereoisomers of N-acetylcysteine on photochemical damage by UVA and blue light in rat retina

High doses of light can cause damage to the retina, e.g. during intraocular surgery. Previously, thiols have been demonstrated to protect against retinal damage in various damage models. Such protection is very promising for clinical practice. Retinal light damage can be caused by a relatively short exposure to high irradiance levels. These conditions occur during intraocular surgery. In the current study we therefore investigated whether the thiol N-acetylcysteine protects against retinal light damage under high irradiance conditions in the rat retina. Two stereoisomers of this thiol were tested for protection against two spectrally defined types of retinal light damage. Shortly after administration N-acetyl-L-cysteine in doses of 270-1000 mg/kg intraperitoneally protected against 380 nm (UVA) light but not against 470 nm (blue) light. Two hours after injection the protection had diminished. We observed no protection by the stereoisomer N-acetyl-D-cysteine. From this study we conclude that N-acetyl-L-cysteine protects stereospecifically against retinal damage in the UV but not in the visible part of the spectrum. This limits the possible applications.

Photophysical studies of A2-E, putative precursor of lipofuscin, in human retinal pigment epithelial cells

With age, human retinal pigment epithelial cells accumulate lipofuscin that can absorb photons in the visible range leading to light-induced damage and impaired vision. A putative precursor of lipofuscin, 2-[2,6-dimethyl-8-(2,6,6-trimethyl-1-cyclohexen-1-yl)-1E,3E, 5E,7E- octatetraenyl]-1-(2-hydroxyethyl)-4-[4-methyl-6-(2,6,6-trimethyl-1 - cyclohexen-1-yl)-1E,3E,5E-hexatrienyl]-pyridinium (A2-E), has recently been isolated and characterized from aged human retinal pigment epithelial cells. We have found that A2-E inhibits the growth of human retinal pigment epithelial cells at concentrations greater than 1 microM. Time-resolved fluorescence measurements of 1 microM A2-E in solution, performed under 413 nm excitation, showed that fluorescence wave forms integrated across the spectrum (450-600 nm) were best-fitted with three decay times in the nanosecond and subnanosecond time scale: 6.6, 1.9 and 0.33 ns. Untreated retinal pigment epithelial cells were characterized by three fluorescence lifetimes: 6.3, 1.7 and 0.35 ns. In retinal pigment epithelial cells treated with 1 microM A2-E, the fluorescence decay was significantly faster, with the marked presence (approximately equal to 30%) of a fourth short lifetime (0.12 ns). These fluorescence decay times for A2-E bound to human retinal pigment epithelial cells are similar to those of lipofuscin granules isolated from aged human retinal pigment epithelial cells. This similarity supports the hypothesis that A2-E is a precursor of lipofuscin and suggests that A2-E may play a role in the overall light damage associated with age-related retinal diseases.

Photophysical studies on antimalarial drugs

Most drugs used in the treatment of malaria produce phototoxic side effects in both the skin and the eye. Cutaneous and ocular effects that may be caused by light include changes in skin pigmentation, corneal opacity, cataract formation and other visual disturbances including irreversible retinal damage (retinopathy) leading to blindness. The mechanism for these reactions in humans is unknown. We irradiated a number of antimalarial drugs (amodiaquine, chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine, mefloquine, primaquine and quinacrine) with light (lambda > 300 nm) and conducted electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and laser flash photolysis studies to determine the possible active intermediates produced. Each antimalarial drug produced at least one EPR adduct with the spin-trap 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline N-oxide in benzene: superoxide/hydroperoxyl adducts (chloroquine, mefloquine, quinacrine, amodiaquine and quinine), carbon-centered radical adducts (all but primaquine), or a nitrogen-centered radical adduct only (primaquine). In ethanol all drugs except primaquine produced some superoxide/hydroperoxyl adduct, with quinine, quinacrine, and hydroxychloroquine also producing the ethoxyl adduct. As detected with flash photolysis and steady-state techniques, mefloquine, quinine, amodiquine and a photoproduct of quinacrine produced singlet oxygen ([symbol: see text]delta = 0.38; [symbol: see text]delta = 0.36; [symbol: see text]delta = 0.011; [symbol: see text]delta = 0.013 in D2O, pD7), but only primaquine quenched singlet oxygen efficiently (2.6 x 10(8) M-1 s-1 in D2O, pD7). Because malaria is a disease most prevalent in regions of high light intensity, protective measures (clothing, sunblock, sunglasses or eye wraps) should be recommended when administering antimalarial drugs.

Parents' report of vocabulary and grammatical development of African American preschoolers: child and environmental associations

This study examined how child and family factors affect individual differences in the language development of African American children between 18 and 30 months of age. Participants were 87 African American children, primarily from low-income families. Children's vocabulary and grammatical skills were assessed at 18, 24, and 30 months of age using the short form of the MacArthur Communicative Development Inventory (CDI), a standardized parent report tool. Standardized language tests were administered repeatedly between 1 and 3 years of age. Results showed that children's vocabulary and utterance length grew linearly over time between 18 and 30 months of age. Children from more stimulating and responsive homes were reported to have larger vocabularies, to use more irregular nouns and verbs, and to use longer utterances, in addition to having more rapid rates of acquisition of irregular forms and longer utterances over time. Girls used longer utterances than boys and more irregular forms. Girls also had larger vocabularies in a secondary analysis that eliminated children whose parent report of their vocabulary was substantially lower than children's scores on a standardized language test. There are indications that some parents may be under-reporting their children's early vocabulary and grammatical development, with a high proportion of the parents reporting their child's 30 month vocabulary and grammatical development as being at or below the 10th percentile according to the CDI norms.

A longitudinal study of otitis media with effusion among 2- to 5-year-old African-American children in child care

OBJECTIVE

To prospectively document the prevalence of otitis media with effusion (OME) in 86 African-American children between ages 2 and 5 years.

STUDY DESIGN

Eighty-six children in center-based child care whose ear status had been followed from infancy continued to be observed. Middle ear status was assessed by pneumatic otoscopy and tympanometry biweekly.

RESULTS

The prevalence of OME decreased as children became older. The mean proportion of examinations demonstrating bilateral OME (BOME) ranged from 12% between 24 to 30 months to 4% between 54 to 60 months of age. The mean proportion of exams revealing bilateral normal ears increased from 77% at 24 to 30 months to 88% at 54 to 60 months of age. Although 60 children had experienced BOME that lasted 4 months or longer in the 6- to 24-month age period, only 8 of these children experienced at least 4 months of continuous BOME between 24 to 60 months.

CONCLUSIONS

The proportion of time with BOME decreased progressively with increasing age in this population. Only 8 of 60 children who had experienced more than 4 consecutive months of BOME before 2 years of age continued to manifest persistent effusion or experience recurrences of prolonged BOME after 2 years of age.