Morphology and morphometry of the normal lung of the adult vervet monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops)

The lungs of four adult specimens of the vervet monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops) have been examined by transmission and scanning electron microscopy. A morphometric evaluation of the structural components directly involved in gas exchange has been carried out and the data have been modelled to estimate the anatomical diffusing capacity of the lung. The upper air-conducting airways of the lung were lined by an epithelium characterized by ciliated cells among which were dispersed goblet cells. The alveolar surface was lined by squamous type I pneumocytes and cuboidal type II granular pneumocytes. The blood-gas (tissue) barrier consisted of an epithelial cell, a common basal lamina, and an endothelial cell in the thin parts of the interalveolar septum. In the thicker parts of the septum, an interstitial space interposed between the basal laminae of the epithelial and endothelial cells contained supportive elements such as collagen, elastic tissue, and fibrocytes. The alveoli, the blood capillaries, and septal tissue composed 73%, 16%, and 11%, respectively, of the parenchyma. The harmonic and arithmetic mean thicknesses of the blood-gas (tissue) barrier were 0.311 micron and 1.048 microns; the surface area of the blood-gas (tissue) barrier per unit body weight was 50 cm2g-1, and the surface density was 117 mm2.mm3-1. The weight-specific total morphometric diffusing capacity was 0.11 mlO2 (sec.mbar.kg)-1. In comparison, the pulmonary morphometric characteristics of vervet monkey lung were superior to those of the other primates (Macaca irus, M. mulatta, and Homo sapiens) for which equivalent data are available. The gas-exchange potential of the lungs of the nonhuman primates as revealed by morphometric studies surpasses that of man, a feature that can be attributed to the relatively less energetic human lifestyle.

Scanning electron microscope study of the spatial organization of the air and blood conducting components of the avian lung (Gallus gallus variant domesticus)

The lungs of the domestic fowl were prepared for scanning electron microscopy after vascular and airway latex rubber casting to demonstrate the spatial organization of the various structural components that are involved in the gas exchange that takes place in the parabronchial tissue mantle. The bulk of the intrapulmonary air flows through the parabronchial lumen and then centrifugally diffuses into the exchange tissue through the atria, the infundibula, and the air capillaries. The blood flows centripetally from the interparabronchial arteries, then into the intraparabronchial arterioles, and finally into the blood capillaries, which together with the air capillaries constitute the functional terminal gas exchange units. The relationship between the air flow in the parabronchial lumen and the incoming blood (into the exchange tissue) has been shown to be crosscurrent, where the directions of the flow of these two gas exchange media are essentially perpendicularly disposed to each other; whereas the relationship between the blood capillaries and the air capillaries is countercurrent, the blood flowing towards the parabronchial lumen and the air in the opposite direction, i.e., towards its periphery. Both these spatial structural relationships between the air and blood are significant factors that contribute to the remarkable efficiency of the avian lung in gas exchange.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Alteration in vomeronasal system anatomy in alcelaphine antelopes: correlation with alteration in chemosensory investigation

Ruminants typically have an incisive papilla and incisive ducts located on the hard palate just behind the dental pad which are involved in transferring fluid-borne stimulus material from the oral cavity to the vomeronasal organs (VNOs) during flehmen. This behavior in males is presumably involved in the detection of chemosensory cues in female urine which indicate sexual status. Two species of alcelaphine antelopes, topi and Coke's hartebeest, were found to lack the incisive papilla and incisive ducts constituting the oral connection to the VNOs. This distinctive anatomical feature is complemented in these species not only by lack of flehmen behavior, but also a de-emphasis on chemosensory interest in female urine during sexual encounters. The common wildebeest, which is also an alcelaphine antelope, lacks the incisive papilla, but has small incisive ducts. Wildebeest males do perform flehmen to urine from females. However, during flehmen in the wildebeest, intermittent nostril licking apparently delivers the stimulus material to the VNOs via the nasal route, possibly compensating for reduced oral access to the VNOs. These observations on alcelaphine antelopes would appear to represent a unique feature among the world's ruminants.

Morphometrics of the avian lung. 4. The structural design of the charadriiform lung

The lungs of five charadriiform species of bird, two of which are good divers and three predominantly flyers (soarers and gliders) have been analysed by morphometric techniques. Largely the morphometric structural values in the divers significantly exceeded those of the flyers (gulls). The average weight specific surface area of the blood-gas (tissue) barrier in the divers (28.45 +/- 2.05 cm2 X g-1 SD) surpassed that of the flyers (23.5 +/- 3.61 cm2 X g-1 SD). The divers had a higher volume of the pulmonary capillary blood per unit body weight (4.42 +/- 0.11 cm3 X kg-1 SD) than the flyers (2.84 +/- 0.58 cm3 X kg-1 SD). The weight specific volume of the lung in the divers (34.90 +/- 3.11 cm3 X kg-1 SD) exceeded that of the flyers (26.94 +/- 3.15 cm3 X kg-1 SD). The total morphometric pulmonary diffusing capacity per unit body weight in the divers (4.73 +/- 0.05 ml O2 X (min X mm Hg X kg)-1 SD) was higher than that of the flyers (3.09 +/- 0.47 ml O2 X (min X mm Hg X kg)-1 SD). The divers, however, had a notably thicker blood-gas (tissue) barrier with a harmonic mean thickness of 0.212 +/- 0.03 micron SD compared to that of the flyers (0.138 +/- 0.02 micron SD). The data acquired here commensurate the modes of life exhibited by these two groups of bird. The divers, which are relatively energetic birds, expend a lot of energy to move and stay underwater, concomitantly undergoing prolonged asphyxia during submergence and may hence need to extract as much of the oxygen in the pulmonary air as possible to prolong a dive. These birds appear in general to have structurally better adapted lungs than those of the gulls, birds which to a large extent exhibit relatively less energetic soaring and gliding flights.

The morphology and morphometry of the adult normal baboon lung (Papio anubis)

The gross, histological and ultrastructural organisation of the baboon lung was found to be similar to that of the human lung. It is suggested that, in general, the lungs of the non-human primates would serve as ideal models for the study of the human lung. The baboon lung comprises the parenchyma, the gas exchange part of the lung which consists of alveoli, blood capillaries and the tissue of the interalveolar septum, and the non-parenchyma made up of the air conducting passages like bronchi, bronchioles, larger blood vessels, connective tissue and pleura. On morphometric analysis, the parenchyma was found to constitute 87% of the lung, the rest being made up of the elements of the non-parenchyma. The alveoli, blood capillaries and the interalveolar tissue respectively constituted 76, 8 and 16% of the parenchyma. The harmonic mean thickness of the blood-gas (tissue) barrier was 0.475 micron and the arithmetic mean 1.12 micron, the ratio being 1:2.3. The weight specific surface area of the blood-gas (tissue) barrier was 37 cm2/g and the surface density of the tissue barrier in the parenchyma 92 mm2/mm3. The total morphometric pulmonary diffusion per unit body weight was 4 ml O2/min/mmHg/kg and the volume of the pulmonary capillary blood per unit surface area of the tissue barrier 0.84 cm3/m2. Morphometrically the baboon lung was thus observed to be better adapted for gas exchange than that of man but less specialised than that of the smaller monkeys such as Macaca mulatta.

Correlations between structure and function in the design of the bat lung: a morphometric study

The lungs of five species of bat Pipistrellus pipistrellus, Miniopterus minor (Peters), Tadarida mops (De Blainville), Cynopterus brachyotis (Muller) and Cheiromeles torquatus (Horstield) have been analysed by morphometric techniques. The mean body weight (W) ranged from 5 g in Pipistrellus pipistrellus to 173 g in Cheiromeles torquatus; the lung volume (VL) ranged from 0.3 cm3 in Pipistrellus to 10 cm3 in Cheiromeles. The volume densities or the main components of the bat lung, namely the parenchyma [VV(p,L)] (the gas exchange region) and the non-parenchyma [VV(np,L)], were closely similar, the VV(p,L) constituting a mean value of 84.2% and the VV(np,L) 15.8% in the five species. The VL, the surface area of the blood--gas (tissue) barrier (St), the pulmonary capillary blood volume (Vc), and the total morphometric pulmonary diffusing capacity (DLO2) were all strongly correlated with body weight. The harmonic mean thickness of the blood--gas (tissue) barrier (tau ht) and the surface density of the blood--gas (tissue) barrier [SV(t,p)] were poorly correlated with W. The bats had a remarkably higher VL than either birds or terrestrial mammals. The Vc in the bat lung was similar to that in the bird lung but higher than that of the terrestrial mammals. The bats had a more extensive St than either the birds or the terrestrial mammals. In the bats the tau ht was thicker than in the birds but thinner than that of the terrestrial mammals. These pulmonary structural adaptations culminated in a higher DLO2 in the bat than either in the birds or in the terrestrial mammals. The superior morphometric properties of the bat lung coupled with the established physiological adaptations may help to explain how the bat lung is capable of providing the immense amount of oxygen demanded by flight.

The design and the role of the nasal passages in temperature regulation in the dik-dik antelope (Rhynchotragus kirkii) with observations on the carotid rete

Exhaled air temperatures (Tex) and rectal temperatures (Trec) were measured in five dik-dik antelopes under controlled environmental temperatures (Ta) between 15 and 40 degrees C. In addition morphometric analysis of the nasal passages, gross and histological identification of the carotid rete were carried out in an attempt to illustrate a possible brain cooling system in this small ungulate. Below Ta of 30 degrees C, Tex decreased with decreasing Ta leading to the establishment of a temperature gradient of about 20 degrees C between Ta and Trec at a Ta of around 15 degrees C. At Ta of 30 degrees C Tex was approximately half a degree lower than the Trec. Gross and histological studies revealed the presence of carotid rete and profuse vascularisation of the nasal turbinates. Morphometric analysis established a mean volume density of the nasal passages (np) in the splanchnocranium (sp) (VV(np,sp], surface density (SV(np,sp] and harmonic mean width of the nasal passages (W) of 9.5%, 2.15 cm2/cm3 and 1.23 mm, respectively. Combined physiological and anatomical measurements suggest that the dik-dik may possess an efficient brain cooling and water conserving system. The design of the upper respiratory system in these antelopes may help these animals to tolerate the extremes of temperatures and insolation encountered in their habitat.

Morphometrics of the avian lung. 3. The structural design of the passerine lung

The lungs of 46 adult, wild passerine birds belonging to 8 species have been analysed morphometrically, both by light and electron microscope. Volumes were estimated by point counting, surface areas by intersection counting, and thicknesses by intercept length measurements. The mean values obtained for these passerine species appertaining to both lungs together were: volume of the lung per kilogram body weight 25 cm3/kg, volume density of the exchange tissue 52%, surface area of the blood-gas (tissue) barrier per gram body weight 47.48 cm2/g, surface density of the blood-gas (tissue) barrier 323.8 mm2/mm3, capillary loading 1.15 cm3/m2, harmonic mean thickness of the blood-gas (tissue) barrier 0.127 micron, arithmetic mean thickness 0.745 micron and the total morphometric pulmonary diffusion capacity 7.08 ml O2/min/mm Hg/kg. These values indicate that the passerine lung is specially well adapted for gas exchange, mainly by having a thin and extensive blood-gas (tissue) barrier, in response to the high oxygen demand by this group of bird.

Trace elements in grass, cattle liver and sheep liver from districts surrounding Karatina, Kenya. I. Selenium

Samples of grass, cattle and sheep livers from the districts surrounding Karatina, Kenya, were analysed for their contents of selenium. The following mean values were found: Grass (n = 31): 0.19 +/- 0.17 mg Se/kg on dry matter basis, cattle liver (n = 96): 0.31 +/- 0.10 mg Se/ kg on wet weight, and sheep liver (n = 93): 0.55 +/- 0.25 mg Se/kg on wet weight. It is concluded that selenium deficiency is unlikely to occur in the districts included in this investigation.

Trace elements in grass, cattle liver and sheep liver from districts surrounding Karatina, Kenya. II. Copper, molybdenum, zinc and sulphur

Thirty-one samples of pasture grass from districts surrounding Karatina, Kenya were analysed for contents of copper, molybdenum, zinc and sulphur. The following mean values and standard deviations were found: Copper: 8.2 +/- 5.0 mg/kg DM; molybdenum: 1.4 +/- 2.6 mg/kg DM; zinc: 33 +/- 10 mg/kg DM and sulphur: 0.17 +/- 0.06% DM. Mean value of the ratio between copper and molybdenum was 13 +/- 11. Samples of cattle liver (n = 96) and sheep liver (n = 93) were analysed for copper and zinc with the following results: Cattle liver: 21 +/- 16 mg Cu/kg WW and 37 +/- 11 mg Zn/kg WW. Sheep liver: 59 +/- 37 mg Cu/kg WW and 30 +/- 6.4 mg Zn/kg WW. It is concluded that subclinical copper deficiency may occur in cattle in the districts included in the investigation. The copper status of sheep seems to be adequate. The levels of zinc may indicate a marginal intake of this element in sheep.

Morphometrics of the avian lung. 2. The wild mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) and graylag goose (Anser anser)

The lungs of 5 wild mallard ducks (Anas platyrhynchos) and 5 feral graylag geese (Anser anser) of mean body weight 1.04 and 3.84 kg, respectively, were fixed in situ by intratracheal infusion of 2.3% glutaraldehyde, pH 7.4 and total osmolarity 350 mOsm, at a pressure head of 25 cm, and analysed by standard morphometric techniques. The following data apply to both lungs together, in the fixed state, the first value relating to Anas and the second to Anser in each case: lung volume, 30.4 and 95.3 cm3; volume of exchange tissue, 12.32 and 38.50 cm3; volume of capillary blood, 4.06 and 12.49 cm3; surface area of blood-gas (tissue) barrier per unit body weight, 28.56 and 23.10 cm2/g; surface area of the blood-gas (tissue) barrier per unit volume of lung, 977 and 932 cm2/cm3; surface area of blood-gas (tissue) barrier per unit volume of exchange tissue, 241 and 230 mm2/mm3; harmonic mean thickness of tissue barrier, 0.133 and 0.118 microns; arithmetic mean thickness of tissue barrier, 0.903 and 0.887 microns; harmonic mean thickness of plasma layer, 0.369 and 0.322 microns; mean total morphometric pulmonary diffusing capacity per unit body weight, 3.85 and 3.59 ml O2/min/mm Hg/kg. These morphometric parameters of Anas and Anser are compared with those reported in the literature for the domestic fowl (Gallus gallus), the budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus), the house sparrow (Passer domesticus), and the violet-eared hummingbird (Colibri coruscans). The lungs of these six avian species show progressively advancing adaptations, from Gallus, through Anser, Anas, Melopsittacus and Passer, to Colibri, which appear to be consistent with the energetic characteristics of these birds.

A morphometric analysis of the lung of a species of bat

The lungs of five adult Epauleted Fruit-bats (Epomophorus wahlbergi) of mean body weight 96 g were analysed morphometrically. The lung volume per unit body weight was 0.043 cm3/g, the surface area of the tissue barrier (i.e., the effective alveolar surface area) component of the blood-gas pathway per unit body weight was 138 cm2/g, and the surface density of the tissue barrier (surface area of the tissue barrier per unit volume of parenchyma) was 121 mm2/mm3. The harmonic mean thickness of the tissue barrier was between 0.267 and 0.349 micron. The morphometric pulmonary diffusing capacity per unit body weight (DLO2/W) was 0.02 ml O2 per min per mm Hg per g. These values are compared with those of shrews and birds. It is suggested that in bats enlargement of the lungs, small subdivisions of the air spaces, and a thin blood-gas barrier, could be linked with previously reported circulatory adaptations to account for the high oxygen consumption during flight.

A scanning electron microscopic study of the air and blood capillaries of the lung of the domestic fowl (Gallus domesticus)

Air and blood capillaries of the lung of the domestic fowl constitute the functional gas exchange units. They anastomose profusely and interlace with each other in 3 dimensions. Air capillaries are not blind-ending tubules as has occasionally been suggested.

The thickness of avian blood-gas barrier: qualitative and quantitative observations

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Morphometrics of the avian lung. 1. The domestic fowl (Gallus gallus variant domesticus)

The lungs of 5 domestic fowls have been analysed electron microscopically by standard morphometric methods. The anatomical diffusing capacity has been calculated from the relevant parameters. The blood-gas barrier consisted essentially of endothelium, basal lamina, and a very thin squamous epithelial cell. Granular cells are absent and interstitial tissue is minimal. The following measurements are mean values applying to both lungs together, in the fixed state: lung volume, 25.0 cm3; total intrapulmonary blood volume, 6.9 cm3; volume of the exchange tissue, 11.6 cm3; pulmonary capillary blood volume, 3.51 cm3; pulmonary capillary haematocrit, 62.7%; total intrapulmonary air volume, 16.61 cm3; air capillary volume, 6.68 cm3; surface area of the blood-gas barrier, 2.08 m2; surface area of the barrier per unit volume of exchange tissue, 179.5 mm2/mm3; arithmetic mean thickness of the tissue barrier, 1.20 micrometers; harmonic mean thickness of the tissue barrier, 0.314 micrometers; harmonic mean thickness of the plasma layer, 0.342 micrometers. The values of the maximum and minimum morphometric diffusing capacities for the lung (DL02 m) were respectively 3.55 and 1.50 ml O2/min/mm Hg; those for the membrane (Dmo2 m) were 13.61 and 12.01 ml O2/min/mm Hg.

Light microscopic morphometry of the lung of 19 avian species

The lungs of 107 birds of 19 different species from seven orders were fixed in situ. The mean volumes of both fixed lungs together ranged from 0.15 to 95.31 cm3. Histological sections of one lung from each bird were analyzed by point counting with a Zeiss integrating eyepiece to determine the volume densities and thence the absolute volumes of the main functional components of the lung. The mean volume density of the exchange tissue was highest in the 11 passeriform species (53.5%) and lowest in the 2 charadriiform species (34.6%); that for all of the 8 non-passeriform species was 42.6%. The possible significance of these variations in relation to the differing oxygen requirements of these groups of birds is discussed. The parabronchi showed minor variations in the degree of development of the interparabronchial septa, atria, interatrial septa, and atrial muscles. The diameter of the parabronchi (including the mantle of exchange tissue) ranged from about 0.34 mm in the passeriform species to about 0.63 mm in Anser anser; the lumen of the parabronchus accounted for about half of this diameter. Body weight an lung volume were strongly correlated (0.995); the allometric function relating lung volume to body weight was 29.5 w0.988.