Placentation and hormonal maintenance of pregnancy in the impala (Aepyceros melampus)

INTRODUCTION

The impala is a widely distributed African ungulate. Detailed studies of the placenta and ovaries in impala undertaken in the 1970s did not address the endocrine functions of the placenta.

METHODS

The uteri of 25 pregnant impala estimated to be between 49 and 113 days of the 190 day gestation were examined grossly, histologically and immunohistochemically.

RESULTS

A single corpus luteum was present in either maternal ovary but the conceptus was always situated in the right uterine horn. The fetal membranes extended to the tips of both uterine horns. The amnion was in intimate contact with, but not fused to, the allantochorion. Placentation was typically ruminant with fetal macrocotyledons attached to the rows of maternal caruncles. The fetal villi were highly branched, especially in the centre of each placentome where the attenuated maternal epithelium lining the placental crypts was absent in some places. Both the corpus luteum and the uninucleate trophoblast cells of the interplacentomal allantochorion stained strongly for 3-β hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, and progestagen concentrations in allantoic and amniotic fluids increased significantly as gestation progressed, with a tendency to do likewise in maternal serum. Binucleate trophoblast cells stained positively for bovine placental lactogen, but neither the placenta nor the maternal corpus luteum showed evidence of oestrogen synthesis.

DISCUSSION

Despite exhibiting the same basic type of placentation, both the gross and histological structure of the impala placenta, along with its immunohistochemical properties, demonstrates that great variation exists across ruminant placentas.

Morphology of the lingual papillae of the eland (Taurotragus oryx)

We examined the dorsal lingual surfaces of an adult eland (Taurotragus oryx) by scanning electron microscopy. Filiform, fungiform and vallate papillae were observed. The filiform papillae of the lingual apex consisted of a larger main papilla and smaller secondary papillae. The connective tissue core of the filiform papilla was U-shaped. The fungiform papillae were round in shape. The connective tissue core of the fungiform papilla was flower-bud shaped. The filiform papillae of the lingual body consisted of a main papilla and were big as compared to that of the lingual apex. The connective tissue core of the filiform papilla resembled that of the lingual apes. The lenticular papillae of large size were limited on the lingual prominence. The connective tissue core of the lenticular papilla consisted of numerous small spines. The vallate papillae were located on both sides of the posterolateral aspects. The vallate papillae were flattened-oval shaped and the papillae were surrounded by a semicircular trench. The connective tissue core of the vallate papilla was covered with numerous small spines. The lingual surface of the eland closely resembled that of the family Bovidae.

Female reproductive tract anatomy of the endangered Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx) in Jordan

Female reproductive anatomy of the Arabian oryx is unknown. In this study, reproductive tracts of seven female Arabian oryx (aged 2 to 7 years) were examined to characterize their reproductive anatomy. Observations and measurements were obtained in situ from dead animals during necropsy. Animals were allocated into two groups: cycling (n = 3; follicles or corpora lutea present) and not-cycling (n = 4; follicles or corpora lutea absent). Different reproductive tract segments for each animal in both groups were measured using a digital caliper. The mean, SD and range for each reproductive tract segment were generated and compared between groups. Female oryx reproductive anatomy share some anatomical characteristics with that of domestic ruminants except that the oryx uterus has no distinct uterine body and the cervix has two internal openings for each respective uterine horn. In addition, there were more than 8 rows of caruncles within each uterine horn. There were significant differences in the length and width (P < 0.05), but not in height, of both the right and left ovaries between cycling and not-cycling animals (P > 0.05). Posterior and anterior vaginal lengths varied between cycling and not-cycling groups (P < 0.05). Length of right and left oviducts, left and right uterine horns, cervix and vulva did not vary between cycling and not-cycling groups (P > 0.05). Defining this unique morphology of female Arabian oryx reproductive anatomy will help in the development of appropriate reproductive techniques in order to propagate this endangered species and control its reproduction.

Analysis and identification of different animal horns by a three-stage infrared spectroscopy

In this study, a new method, a three-stage infrared spectroscopy (Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) integrated with second derivative infrared spectroscopy and two-dimensional correlation infrared spectroscopy (2D-IR)) was developed to analyze the organic and inorganic compositions of three different horns (Cornu Antelopis, Cornu Bubali and Pulvis Cornus Bubali Concentratus). In IR spectra, all the three horns had their own macroscopic fingerprints especially for those compositions containing amide groups, CH groups and Ca(3)(PO(4))(2). Their second derivative spectra amplified the differences and revealed the potentially characteristic IR absorption bands 1350-400 cm(-1) to be investigated in 2D-IR. Subsequently, many covered characteristic fingerprints were disclosed in 2D-IR spectra in the range of 1350-400 cm(-1) and the three horns were therefore effectively discriminated. Meanwhile, the analysis results of inorganic constituents were verified by atomic spectroscopy. Furthermore, thirty different horn samples including ten of each horn were also successfully classified by soft independent modeling of class analogy (SIMCA). It was demonstrated that the above three-stage infrared spectroscopy could be applicable for quick, non-destructive and effective analysis and identification of very complicated and similar mixture systems (e.g. traditional Chinese medicines).

Morphology of the lingual papillae in the roan antelope

We examined the dorsal lingual surfaces of an adult roan antelope (Hippotragus equinus) by scanning electron microscopy. Filiform, fungiform and vallate papillae were observed. The filiform papillae consisted of a larger main papilla and smaller secondary papillae. A top of the connective tissue core of the filiform papilla showed several depressions. The connective tissue core of the papilla with a long process was rarely observed. The fungiform papillae were round in shape. The connective tissue core of the fungiform papilla was flower-bud shaped. The lenticular papillae of large size were limited on the torus lingua. The connective tissue core of the lenticular papilla consisted of numerous small spines. The vallate papillae were located on both sides of the posterolateral aspects. The vallate papillae were flattened oval shaped and the papillae are surrounded by circular trench. The connective tissue core of the vallate papilla was covered with numerous small spines.

Morphology, constraints, and scaling of frontal sinuses in the hartebeest,Alcelaphus buselaphus (Mammalia: Artiodactyla, Bovidae)

The frontal sinuses of bovid mammals display a great deal of diversity, which has been attributed to both phylogenetic and functional influences. In-depth study of the hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus), a large African antelope, reveals a number of previously undescribed details of frontal sinus morphology. In A. buselaphus, the frontal sinuses conform closely to the shape of the frontal bone, filling nearly the entire element. However, the horncores are never extensively pneumatized, contrasting with the condition seen in many other bovids. This evidence is inconsistent with the hypothesis that sinuses are opportunistic pneumatizing agents, suggesting that phylogenetic factors also play a role in determining sinus size. Both cranial sutures and neurovasculature appear to constrain the growth of sinuses in part. In turn, the sinus also affects the growth of the parietal; apparently this element is not truly pneumatized by the sinus in most cases, but the bone's shape changes under the influence of the sinus. Furthermore, the sinuses present relatively few struts when compared with the sinuses of some other bovids, such as Ovis. By adapting methods previously developed for measuring structural parameters of trabecular bone, it is possible to quantify certain aspects of sinus morphology. These include the number of bony struts within the sinus, the spacing of these struts, and the size of individual cavities within the sinus. Some differences in the number of struts are evident between subspecies. Similarly, significant differences occur in the relative number of struts between male and female A. buselaphus, which may be related to behavior. The volume of the sinus is strongly correlated with the size of the frontal, but less so with overall cranial size. This finding illustrates the importance of choosing variables carefully when comparing sinus sizes and growth between species.

Physiological adjustments of sand gazelles (Gazella subgutturosa) to a boom-or-bust economy: standard fasting metabolic rate, total evaporative water loss, and changes in the sizes of organs during food and water restriction

To test the hypothesis that desert ungulates adjust their physiology in response to long-term food and water restriction, we established three groups of sand gazelles (Gazella subgutturosa): one that was provided food and water (n = 6; CTRL) ad lib. for 4 mo, one that received ad lib. food and water for the same period but was deprived of food and water for the last 4.5 d (n = 6; EXPT(1)), and one that was exposed to 4 mo of progressive food and water restriction, an experimental regime designed to mimic conditions in a natural desert setting (n = 6; EXPT(2)). At the end of the 4-mo experiment, we measured standard fasting metabolic rate (SFMR) and total evaporative water loss (TEWL) of all sand gazelles and determined lean dry mass of organs of gazelles in CTRL and EXPT(2). Gazelles in CTRL had a mean SFMR of 2,524 +/- 194 kJ d(-1), whereas gazelles in EXPT(1) and EXPT(2) had SFMRs of 2,101+/- 232 and 1,365 +/- 182 kJ d(-1), respectively, values that differed significantly when we controlled for differences in body mass. Gazelles had TEWLs of 151.1 +/- 18.2, 138.5 +/- 17.53, and 98.4 +/- 27.2 g H(2)O d(-1) in CTRL, EXPT(1), and EXPT(2), respectively. For the latter group, mass-independent TEWL was 27.1% of the value for CTRL. We found that normally hydrated sand gazelles had a low mass-adjusted TEWL compared with other arid-zone ungulates: 13.6 g H(2)O kg(-0.898) d(-1), only 17.1% of allometric predictions, the lowest ever measured in an arid-zone ungulate. After 4 mo of progressive food and water restriction, dry lean mass of liver, heart, and muscle of gazelles in EXPT(2) was significantly less than that of these same organs in CTRL, even when we controlled for body mass decrease. Decreases in the dry lean mass of liver explained 70.4% of the variance of SFMR in food- and water-restricted gazelles. As oxygen demands decreased because of reduced organ sizes, gazelles lost less evaporative water, probably because of a decreased respiratory water loss.

A Large Cost of Female Mate Sampling in Pronghorn

We measured the energy cost of mate sampling by female pronghorn (Antilocapra americana), a species for which there are no apparent direct benefits of mate choice and for which the sampling tactic most closely resembles best-of-n or comparative Bayes. We used Global Positioning System collars to record the position of individuals at 10-min intervals during the 2 weeks preceding estrus in females that actively sampled and in females that did not sample. The difference in the 2-week energy costs of these two classes of females was 8,200 (+/-2,300) kJ, or roughly one-half of the energy cost of a single day. This value, expressed as the fraction of total yearly energy expenditure, is 59 times the value reported for a lekking bird. Our finding calls into question the common assumption in models of mate search that the cost of search is negligible as well as the common assumption that the cost of sampling must be small when there are only indirect benefits of female choice.

Extrinsic cardiac nerve distribution in goitred gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa)

Extrinsic cardiac nerves and their patterns are described based on anatomical dissections of five goitred gazelle. Sympathetic cardiac innervation was mainly provided by the cervicothoracic and thoracic cardiac nerves. No left caudal cervicothoracic nerves, middle cervical cardiac nerves and vertebral cardiac nerves from the vertebral ganglion were observed. Parasympathetic cardiac innervation was supplied by the nerve fibres from the caudal vagal cardiac rami only. No cardiac rami from the cranial vagal cardiac nerves present in small ruminants were observed in this study. The caudal laryngeal and phrenic cardiac nerves also contributed to the cardiac innervation.

XY MALE PSEUDOHERMAPHRODITISM IN A CAPTIVE ARABIAN ORYX (ORYX LEUCORYX)

A 2-yr-old Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx) was presented for evaluation of abnormal genitalia and infantile behavior. The oryx had a penis and a scrotum, but testes were not palpable within the scrotum or inguinal canal. The total serum testosterone for the individual was lower than in age-matched males of the same species. Surgical exploration showed markedly hypoplastic intra-abdominal gonads, which demonstrated both testicular and uterine tissue on histologic examination. After karyotype analysis, the individual was classified as an XY male pseudohermaphrodite. This condition resembles two human intersex syndromes: embryonic testicular regression syndrome and partial gonadal dysgenesis syndrome, which occur in familial lines.

Reduction of Brain and Sense Organs in the Fossil Insular Bovid Myotragus

Our study of the fossil rupicaprine bovid Myotragus [Bate, 1909] from the Mediterranean island Majorca (Spain) provides evidence that this animal underwent significant changes (reduction) in the relative size of brain and sense organs after geographic isolation at the end of the Messinian Salinity Crisis (Miocene-Pliocene boundary, 5.2 Mya). The changes in the central nervous system of Myotragus parallel the pattern reported for domesticated animals, in which decrease in relative brain size is accompanied by a decrease in the relative size of their sense organs. We interpret the important size reduction of brain and sense organs in Myotragus as an adaptive strategy for more efficient energy use under the special environmental conditions of the insular ecosystem, characterized by absence of predation and limitation of trophic resources.

The highly specialized vocal tract of the male Mongolian gazelle (Procapra gutturosa Pallas, 1777--Mammalia, Bovidae)

The entire head and neck of a wild adult male Mongolian gazelle (Procapra gutturosa) was dissected with special reference to its enlarged larynx. Two additional adult male specimens taken from the wild were analysed by computer tomography. The sternomandibularis, omohyoideus, thyrohyoideus and hyoepiglotticus muscles are particularly enlarged and improve laryngeal suspension and stabilization. The epiglottis is exceptionally large. A permanent laryngeal descent is associated with the evolution of an unpaired palatinal pharyngeal pouch. A certain momentary descent seems to occur during vocalization. The high lateral walls of the thyroid cartilage are ventrally connected by a broad keel. The large thyroarytenoid muscle is divided into two portions: a rostral ventricularis and a caudal vocalis muscle. A paired lateral laryngeal ventricle projects between these two muscles. The massive vocal fold is large and lacks any rostrally directed flexible structures. It is supported by a large cymbal-like fibroelastic pad. Vocal tract length was measured in the course of dissection and in computer tomographic images. Two representative spectrograms, one of an adult male and one of a juvenile, recorded in the natural habitat of the Mongolian gazelle are presented. In the spectrograms, the centre frequency of the lowest band is about 500 Hz in the adult male and about 790 Hz in the juvenile. The low pitch of the adult male's call is ascribed to the evolutionary mass increase and elongation of the vocal folds. In the habitat of P. gutturosa a call with a low pitch and, thus, with an almost homogeneous directivity around the head of the vocalizing animal may be optimally suited for multidirectional advertisement calls during the rut. The signal range of an adult male's call in its natural habitat can therefore be expected to be larger than the high-pitched call of a juvenile.

[Pharmacognostical identification of antelope horn(Cornu Saigae Tataricae) and its adulterants]

OBJECTIVE

To provide appropriate information and scientific basis for identifying antelope horn (Saiga tatarica) contained in traditional Chinese patent medicines, and formulate relevant quality criteria through experiments.

METHOD

Conducting comparative identification of macroscopic and microscopic characteristics of antelope horn(Saige tatarica) and its adulterants (Procapra gutturosa, Pantholops hodgsoni, Ovis ammon and Capra hircus) and giving a comparative table and an indented key to the main characteristics.

RESULT AND CONCLUSION

There are remarkable differences between the authentic product and adulterants in both macroscopic and microscopic characteristics.

A comparative study of ejaculate traits in three endangered ungulates with different levels of inbreeding: fluctuating asymmetry as an indicator of reproductive and genetic stress

We studied three closely related species of endangered gazelles (Gazella dorcas, Gazella dama and Gazella cuvieri) with different levels of inbreeding in order to determine at which intensities inbreeding influences ejaculate traits. We also examined whether fluctuating asymmetry (FA) is a reliable indicator of genetic as well as reproductive stress. Our results show that, within each population, the individual coefficient of inbreeding is inversely related to ejaculate quality only in the species with the highest levels of inbreeding (G. cuvieri). In addition, FA is a reliable indicator of individual levels of inbreeding in both the species with the highest levels of inbreeding (G. cuvieri) and the species with intermediate levels of inbreeding (G. dama). Thus, FA appears in individuals whose levels of inbreeding are still not high enough to affect male reproductive potential and should therefore be considered a sensitive indicator of genetic stress. Finally, FA is also a reliable indicator of male reproductive stress since it is related to individual semen quality in all the species studied.

Morphology of the dorsal lingual papillae in the blackbuck, Antilope cervicapra

The dorsal lingual surface of a blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra) was examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The tongue was about 125 mm in length. There were about 30 vallate papillae on both sides. Filiform, conical, fungiform and vallate papillae were found. The filiform papillae were distributed over the entire dorsal surface of the tongue, excepted for the lingual torus where conical papillae were present. The fugiform papillae were present rounded bodies, and more densely distributed on the tip and ventral surface of ligual apex. No foliate papillae were seen on the dorsal surface. The vallate papillae were located on both sides of the midline in the caudal part. Each papilla was surrounded by a groove. These findings indicate that the tongue of the blackbuck is similar to that of the formosan and japanese serow.

Cutaneous glands of male and female impalas (Aepyceros melampus): seasonal activity changes and secretory mechanisms

The cutaneous glands of the forehead and the metatarsus were studied by histological and histochemical methods and electron microscopy in adult male and female impalas in various seasons of the year. All glandular areas consist of apocrine and holocrine glands, which, however, occur in different proportions. Our findings in the apocrine gland cells suggest (1) the synthesis and exocytosis of a glycoproteinaceous secretory product stored in secretory granules, (2) typical apocrine secretion of the transformed apical cytoplasm, and (3) transepithelial fluid transport. The Golgi apparatus and apical membrane have binding sites for several lectins (PNA, HPA, RCA I, WGA). Cytokeratins 7, 14 and 19 are expressed at various intracellular localizations, suggesting an active role in the secretory mechanisms. The glands of the male forehead show marked seasonal changes in activity that are correlated with the main phases of the reproductive cycle, with the highest cellular activity occurring during the rut in April/May. The female forehead glands are only moderately developed and do not undergo seasonal changes. The metatarsal glands are of equal size in males and females and show no seasonal changes in activity. This study supports the hypothesis that (1) forehead glands in the male have a signaling role in the rut and (2) the metatarsal glands have a more general, probably social role maintaining and restoring contact between herd members.

Distribution of endocrine cells in the gut of the impala (Aepyceros melampus)

Immunocytochemical methods were employed to demonstrate endocrine cells, containing peptides and serotonin, in the gut of the impala. Cells immunoreactive to serotonin, somatostatin, gastrin, cholecystokinin, glucagon, neurotensin, secretin, glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide and motilin were detected. Antisera raised to substance P and pancreatic polypeptide failed to stain any cells. The distribution of these peptide-containing cells is more in line with the situation in sheep than other ruminants. In contrast, the distribution and abundance of serotonin cells in the gut of the impala parallels the situation seen in game herbivores.

Distribution and morphology of luteinising hormone-releasing hormone neurones in a species of wild antelope, the springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis)

The distribution and morphology of luteinising hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) neurones varies between species. The primary purpose of this study was to characterize the distribution and morphology of the LHRH system in a species of antelope, the springbok. This wild antelope has a well-defined social structure in which reproductive activity is confined to a few dominant, territorial rams. We also sought to determine whether social or reproductive status could be accounted for by differences in the distribution or morphology of hypothalamic LHRH neurones. Eleven anoestrous female, nine breeding territorial male (TM) and eight "bachelor" male (BM) springbok were obtained, and their reproductive and body conditions were assessed. By using standard immunocytochemical techniques, the LHRH system was visualised in the brains of four animals from each group. Immunoreactive neurones were located in a continuum from the septum to the arcuate nucleus, with the majority at the level of the organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis. Neither the distribution nor the number of cells differed among the three groups. Furthermore, the area of LHRH perikarya was similar in both groups of males, suggesting that reproductive differences between TMs and BMs lie at another level of the neuroendocrine axis. The anoestrous females had significantly larger neurones than males (TM plus BM). This may reflect a sex difference in the LHRH system of this wild antelope. However, an alternative explanation is that the male/female difference is related to the comparatively inactive reproductive neuroendocrine state of the females.

Infraorbital glands of a male Formosan serow (Capricornis crispus swinhoei)

The morphology of the infraorbital glands of a male Formosan serow was examined. The glands consisted of an inner sebaceous portion and an outer apocrine portion. The inner sebaceous portion was much larger than that of the male Japanese serow. The sebaceous portion of the gland consisted of the ordinary and modified types of tissue that are present in the infraorbital gland of the female Japanese serow, and the modified tissue contained some melanin granules and melanocytes. The apocrine portion of the glands was composed of tubules in which the myoepithelial cells stained intensely to very weakly upon immunohistochemical staining with antibody against a smooth muscle actin. Nerve fibers that contained calcitonin gene-related peptide were scattered in the apocrine portion. These findings indicate that the sebaceous gland of the male Formosan serow is different from that of the male Japanese serow but rather similar to that of the female Japanese serow. Moreover, the apocrine gland is innervated by peptide-containing nerve fibers.

Myoepithelial cells and innervation in the infraorbital gland of the Japanese serow (Capricornis crispus)

Both the apocrine and the sebaceous portions of the infraorbital gland of the Japanese serow were examined to obtain morphological evidence related to the mechanism of secretion. The examination was carried out by an immunohistochemical method using antibodies against alpha-smooth muscle actin for myoepithelial cells and protein gene product 9.5 for nerve fibers. Immunostaining for alpha-smooth muscle actin was apparent in the myoepithelial cells of apocrine tubules and varied within the same glands and among individual glands. Immunostaining for protein gene product 9.5 revealed the presence of nerve fibers around apocrine tubules. The immunoreactive nerve fibers were fine or varicose. In the sebaceous glands of the ordinary type and of the modified type, no immunoreactivity specific for alpha-smooth muscle actin or protein gene product 9.5 was observed. These results suggest that apocrine tubular activity of the infraorbital gland occurs independently in each tubule and that secretion by the apocrine tubules is controlled by the myoepithelial cells via nerve fibers.

Macroscopic observations of mammary glands and teats of Japanese serows, Capricornis crispus, with special reference to past gestation

Mammary glands and teats were examined to estimate the reproductive history of Japanese serows. The presence of milk was an indicator of reproduction in the previous year. The thickness of the mammary glands is indicative of their function. The females whose mammary glands are more than 10 mm thick may be regarded as having delivered half a year before. The distance between teats is not always indicative of the function of the mammary glands. Animals with teats 10 mm or less in length and those with teats longer than 10 mm may be judged to be nulliparous and multiparous, respectively.

Morphology of intestinal villi in African antelope (Artiodactyla: Bovidae)

Villous morphology in 16 species of African antelope varied from finger-like and leaf-like to ridge-like forms. Some species showed uniform villi whereas it was variable in others. There was a slight indication that leaf-like and finger-like forms become more frequent in the distal regions of the small intestine. The variation in morphology was not associated with body size or phylogeny, but did show a significant correlation with diet: species with high moisture content and/or high fibre levels (equivalent to low bulk values) in the digesta were more likely to have ridges, which were the lowest of the villi.

The anatomy of the omasum of some Zambian game species

The gross anatomy of the omasum of 11 different Zambian game species are described. These include Roan Antelope, Sable Antelope, Wildebeest, Kudu, Kafue Lechwe, Puku, Reedbuck, Impala, Bushbuck, Oribi and Duiker. Lamellar area and papilla density and shape are reported.

Anatomical studies on the spinal cord segments of the impala (Aepyceros melampus)

The anatomy of the spinal cord segments was studied and recorded for the impala. The root attachment lengths were greatest at C3, T10 and L3 cord segment levels in the respective regions. As to the root emergence length the greatest lengths were observed at C7, T10, L5 and S1 cord segment levels respectively. The interroot interval was longest at C2, T8 and L1 segments respectively. The longest cord segments were C2, T13, L2 and S2 segments. The widest cord segments of their respective regions were C7, T1, L5 and S1 cord segments. As to segment volume C3, T13, L2 and S1 were the most voluminous cord segments in the respective cord regions. Statistical analysis revealed a high correlation among all of the study parameters suggesting a high degree of multicolinearity. Gross anatomical relationships concerning the location of the spinal cord segments with respect to the vertebrae were studied. The cord segments C1, T1-T4 and L1-L3 were within their vertebral limits. In the impala the spinal cord terminated at the midlevel of S4 vertebra.

Apocrine secretion in the infraorbital gland of the Japanese serow, Capricornis crispus: a scanning electron-microscopic study

The infraorbital gland of the Japanese serow was examined under the scanning electron microscope to clarify the nature of apocrine secretion. The size and number of apocrine blebs on secretory cells varied markedly from cell to cell; as the size of blebs increased, their numbers decreased. After pinching off of blebs, crown-shaped structures were retained on the remaining apical surface of secretory cells. Detached free blebs in the lumen were spherical in shape with smooth surfaces. Secretory cells having blebs of similar size formed small clusters in tubules, and these clusters consisted of cells without blebs, cells with small blebs, cells with medium-sized blebs and cells with large blebs. The present evidence obtained by scanning electron microscopy is very much in harmony with results obtained at the light-microscopic level in terms of the sizes and numbers of blebs during apocrine secretion. Moreover, our evidence suggests the capacity for production of variously sized blebs in secretory cells and the presence of segmentary differences, in terms of apocrine activity, in tubules.

The stomach of the Kafue lechwe (Kobus leche kafuensis)

The Kafue lechwe is endemic to the Kafue Flats area of Zambia. It is semi-aquatic in habit, feeding upon grasses above and below the waterline. The volume of the lechwe rumen is 17 L in the male and 14 L in the female. It has strong and definite pillars. The interior of the rumen is papillated except in the roof area and on the pillars. The omasum has more than 70 laminae which are papillated on the reticular end. The anatomy of the lechwe stomach is similar to the stomachs of other water dependent grazers such as Bohor Reedbuck, Waterbuck, Uganda Kob and Puku.

Osteomorphological features of the appendicular skeleton of gazelles, genus Gazella Blainville 1816, bohor reedbuck, Redunca redunca (Pallas, 1767) and bushbuck, Tragelaphus scriptus (Pallas, 1766)

Examined the osteomorphological features of the appendicular skeleton of Grant's gazelle (Gazella granti), bohor reedbuck (Redunca redunca) and bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus). Osseous remains of these medium sized antelopes are often encountered in African late Quaternary archaeological sites, but their specific identification poses considerable problems to the archaeozoologist. A key has been developed to meet this recurrent problem and a number of diagnostic osteomorphological features, allowing a distinction between the bovids mentioned, are established. The osteomorphological characteristics, typical for Grant's gazelle have also been observed in the eight other extant African gazelles and in two Asian species, the goitred gazelle (Gazella subgutterosa) and the mountain gazelle (Gazella gazella).

[Presence of epithelial crypts in the chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra L.) epididymis. Preliminary note]

The Authors refer the presence of epithelial crypts in the epididymis of chamois, previously described only in the bull by Nicander, in the camel by Singh, in the cat by Arrighi and in the roe-buck by Gentile et al. These crypts consist of cavities bored into the epithelium lining the epididymis and are rounded by the epithelial cells which are, sometimes, squamous and thin. Some crypts open into the lumen of the epididymis, some others crypt are filled with floccular, gelatinous material and, at times, with spermatozoa. The Authors think to undertake other morphological researches to find out the physiologic meaning of crypts, which could have an important role in the seasonal reproductive biology of wild ruminants.

The lamination of the masseter muscle in the Japanese serow (Capricornis crispus)

The lamination of the masseter muscle in 21 Japanese serows of different sexes and ages was studied by the method of Yoshikawa et al. who proposed a lamination theory for this muscle. The masseter muscle in the Japanese serow was found to be composed of I) the proper masseter muscle which included 1) the first superficial, 2) the second superficial, 3) the intermediate and 4) the deep masseter muscles, in which the deep masseter muscle could be subdivided into a pars anterior and pars posterior and II) the improper masseter muscle which included 5) the maxillomandibular and 6) the zygomaticomandibular muscles, in which the maxillomandibular muscle was further divided into first and second layers. These findings indicate that the lamination of the masseter muscle in the Japanese serow is the same as that in the goat and sheep.

Peripolar cells form the majority of granulated cells in the kidneys of antelopes and goats

Investigation of renal cortical tissue in 5 adult hartebeests (Alcelaphus buselaphus cokii), 3 impalas (Aepyceros melampus), 1 defassa waterbuck (Kobus defassa) and 5 goats (Capra hircus) revealed large granulated peripolar cells at the junction between the parietal and the visceral epithelial layers of the renal corpuscles. All four animal species under study contained 1 or more peripolar cells for the majority of renal corpuscles sectioned through the vascular pole. In the hartebeests, up to 3 parietal cells and the first podocyte were granulated. Peripolar cells contained intracytoplasmic electron-dense membrane-bounded granules-200-2,800 nm in diameter in the hartebeests, 200-1,740 nm in the impalas, 150-950 nm in the waterbuck and 200-2,140 nm in the goats. Epithelioid granulated juxtaglomerular cells around afferent and efferent arterioles were rarely seen. When observed, they contained smaller granules than those of the peripolar cells. This distribution suggests that peripolar cells play a role in the regulation of body electrolytes and water, probably acting in concert with the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system.

Alteration in vomeronasal system anatomy in alcelaphine antelopes: correlation with alteration in chemosensory investigation

Ruminants typically have an incisive papilla and incisive ducts located on the hard palate just behind the dental pad which are involved in transferring fluid-borne stimulus material from the oral cavity to the vomeronasal organs (VNOs) during flehmen. This behavior in males is presumably involved in the detection of chemosensory cues in female urine which indicate sexual status. Two species of alcelaphine antelopes, topi and Coke's hartebeest, were found to lack the incisive papilla and incisive ducts constituting the oral connection to the VNOs. This distinctive anatomical feature is complemented in these species not only by lack of flehmen behavior, but also a de-emphasis on chemosensory interest in female urine during sexual encounters. The common wildebeest, which is also an alcelaphine antelope, lacks the incisive papilla, but has small incisive ducts. Wildebeest males do perform flehmen to urine from females. However, during flehmen in the wildebeest, intermittent nostril licking apparently delivers the stimulus material to the VNOs via the nasal route, possibly compensating for reduced oral access to the VNOs. These observations on alcelaphine antelopes would appear to represent a unique feature among the world's ruminants.

Ovarian morphology of the springbok, Antidorcas marsupialis

The ovarian morphology of the springbok is described, using material of 1 290 ewes collected at the De Beers farm, Benfontein. A deep longitudinal recess in foetal ovaries. The right ovary was slightly larger than the left ovary according to its linear and mass measurements. Considerable distortion of the amygdaloidal ovarian shape occurred in the presence of a protruding corpus luteum. Ovaries were much flattened during advanced pregnancy. A description of the appearance of intra-ovarian corpora observed in macroscopical sections is given. No predilection for the site of ovulation was observed.

Comparison of two subsampling methods for electron microscopic morphometry

The purpose of the present paper is twofold. Firstly, to compare the accuracy per unit cost achieved by two different methods of subsampling micrographs from sections of a material for stereology when the sections cannot be analysed as a whole at the required magnification. Secondly, to illustrate, by means of real data, the application of some of the methods and formulae proposed in the companion paper (Cruz-Orive & Weibel, 1981) for estimating ratios at the electron microscopic level. The final estimates of a same ratio obtained by either subsampling method (namely systematic (SQ) and systematic area-weighted quadrats (SAWQ)) agreed in the mean and they were about equally precise. The former fact indicates that the new SAWQ method is at least as reliable as the SQ method as far as bias is concerned. The latter result is a consequence of the well-known fact that subsampling is relatively unimportant in two-stage sampling. Yet, SAWQ subsampling enjoys definite practical advantages over other subsampling methods in certain situations.

The anatomy of the female reproductive tract of the springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis)

The anatomy of the female reproductive tract of the springbok is described, using material of 25 ewes collected at the S.A. Lombard Nature Reserve and 300 ewes collected at the De Beers farm Benfontein. No difference in the length of left and right fallopian tubes (104 +/- 24 mm) was observed, and from the funnel to the isthmus it narrows considerably from 15 mm to 1,25 mm. A distinct flexure is formed by the utero-tubal juncture. A complete ovarian bursa with a ventral orifice occurs. The reproductive tract increases in mass from 9.2 g in infants to 38,0 g in adults. The right uterine horn of the bicornuate tract is consistently longer. Caruncles are more numerous in the right (60,2 +/- 9,37) than the left (45,8 +/- 10,18) uterine horn. The intricate cervical lumen consisting of four to six valves in non-pregnant ewes becomes a simple S-shaped canal with advanced pregnancy.

Comparative aspects of muscle fibre size and succinic dehydrogenase distribution in the longissimus dorsi muscle of several species of East African mammals

The distribution of succinic dehydrogenase enzyme activity was investigated in frozen sections of longissimus dorsi muscle taken from several species of East African game animal (giraffe, hartebeest, wildebeest, oryx, gerenuk and dik-dik) as well as local zebu cattle. Muscle fibres were classified as red (high succinic dehydrogenase activity), white (low activity) or intermediate. The mean diameter and percentage distribution of each fibre type were noted as well as the overall mean muscle fibre diameter (MFD) for each species. The diameters of red muscle fibres were found to be between 54 and 62% of the diameters of the white muscle fibres for all species with MFD differences between species being up to over 100%. The variation in MFD was found to be significantly and positively correlated with live weight, when zebu values were omitted. It was found that the variation in MFD was significantly related to the diameter of muscle fibre types and not to the percent distribution of these fibre types.

The micromorphology of the glands of the infra-orbital cutaneous sinus of the steenbok (Raphicerus campestris)

The infra-orbital cutaneous sinus produces a black secretion which is the combined secretion of melanaceous, branched, alveolar, sebaceous and enlarged, coiled apocrine glands. The micromorphology of these glands is described with special emphasis on the sebaceous glands and melanin transfer. The secretion, which may be used for unintentional territorial demarcation, is possibly produced as small black granules and is most likely important for short range communication.

The micromorphology of the apocrine glands of the intermandibular region of the steenbok (Raphicerus campestris)

The histological structure of the newly-discovered intermandibular glandular region in male and female steenbok is described. This region consists of enlarged sebaceous and apocrine glands which secrete a substance used for demarcating grazing territories and for marking females. Migratory lymphoid cells in the epithelium of the apocrine glands resemble Langerhans cells of the epidermis and forestomach epithelium but do not contain Langerhans cell granules. Cells, which are probably of lymphoid origin and resemble sebaceous gland cells, sometimes occur in the apocrine glands.

Evidence of a specific nidation site in ruminants

The site of umbilical cord attachment in ruminants indicates the limited segment of the uterus where the blastocyst attachment occurs and could have potential significance for locating presumptive nidation sites. Measurements of the site of cord attachment were made on impala (Aepyceros melampus) and common duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia) at several stages of gestation. Both implant only in the right uterine horn although they ovulate from either ovary. Relative to uterine length, cord attachment in impala is somewhat closer to the cervix than it is in common duiker. As pregnancy advances in common duiker, the relative position of cord attachment becomes closer to the tubal end. This relationship was not seen in impala and may perhaps to be attributed inadequate data. Upon extrapolation of the data from common duiker, a presumptive attachment area is suggested for this species. This region is located at about 41% of the distance from the internal cervical os to the uterotubal junction. Similar cord attachment data could be used in any ruminant species to indicate the existence and location of a specific nidation site.

Further compounds from the pedal gland of the bontebok (Damaliscus dorcas dorcas)

The identification of four further major constituents of the pedal gland exudate of the bontebok, Damaliscus dorcas dorcas, viz. alpha-terpineol, 2-n-heptylpyridine, m-cresol and (A)-6-dodecen-4-olide and the investigation of the stereochemistry of the double bond in (Z)-6-dodecen-4-olide by means of iterative computer analysis are described. An improved synthesis of this compound is outlined.

Phylo- and -ontogenetically determined local changes in the structure of the arterial wall of vertebrates. Macroscopical findings

It has been shown, by means of comparative anatomical, phylo- and -ontogenetic studies, that the focal structural changes occuring at seven points in the wall of the aortic arch and brachiocephalic arteries of reptiles, birds, and mammals, and in human-beinmnants of certain vessels which have regressed during embryonic development. They are considered to be loci minoris resistentiae and might therefore represent a site of predilection for pathological lesions, such as atherosclerosis. The existence of these "scars" in human-beings and birds has already been described. This paper presents definitive proof of their occurrence in reptiles (sea-turtle and crocodile) and mammals (dog, calf, sheep and monkey). It is therefore concluded that the "scars" in the aortic arch and brachiocephalic arteries are of phylogenetic origin.