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Black MH, Chen NT, Iyer KK, Lipp OV, Bölte S, Falkmer M, Tan T, Girdler S. Mechanisms of facial emotion recognition in autism spectrum disorders: Insights from eye tracking and electroencephalography. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2017; 80:488-515. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2016] [Revised: 05/07/2017] [Accepted: 06/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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77
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Zhang J, Lipp OV, Hu P. Individual Differences in Automatic Emotion Regulation Interact with Primed Emotion Regulation during an Anger Provocation. Front Psychol 2017; 8:614. [PMID: 28484412 PMCID: PMC5399079 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2016] [Accepted: 04/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The current study investigated the interactive effects of individual differences in automatic emotion regulation (AER) and primed emotion regulation strategy on skin conductance level (SCL) and heart rate during provoked anger. The study was a 2 × 2 [AER tendency (expression vs. control) × priming (expression vs. control)] between subject design. Participants were assigned to two groups according to their performance on an emotion regulation-IAT (differentiating automatic emotion control tendency and automatic emotion expression tendency). Then participants of the two groups were randomly assigned to two emotion regulation priming conditions (emotion control priming or emotion expression priming). Anger was provoked by blaming participants for slow performance during a subsequent backward subtraction task. In anger provocation, SCL of individuals with automatic emotion control tendencies in the control priming condition was lower than of those with automatic emotion control tendencies in the expression priming condition. However, SCL of individuals with automatic emotion expression tendencies did no differ in the automatic emotion control priming or the automatic emotion expression priming condition. Heart rate during anger provocation was higher in individuals with automatic emotion expression tendencies than in individuals with automatic emotion control tendencies regardless of priming condition. This pattern indicates an interactive effect of individual differences in AER and emotion regulation priming on SCL, which is an index of emotional arousal. Heart rate was only sensitive to the individual differences in AER, and did not reflect this interaction. This finding has implications for clinical studies of the use of emotion regulation strategy training suggesting that different practices are optimal for individuals who differ in AER tendencies.
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78
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Craig BM, Lipp OV. Facial age cues and emotional expression interact asymmetrically: age cues moderate emotion categorisation. Cogn Emot 2017; 32:350-362. [DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2017.1310087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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79
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Krys K, Capaldi CA, van Tilburg W, Lipp OV, Bond MH, Vauclair CM, Manickam LSS, Domínguez-Espinosa A, Torres C, Lun VMC, Teyssier J, Miles LK, Hansen K, Park J, Wagner W, Yu AA, Xing C, Wise R, Sun CR, Siddiqui RS, Salem R, Rizwan M, Pavlopoulos V, Nader M, Maricchiolo F, Malbran M, Javangwe G, Işık İ, Igbokwe DO, Hur T, Hassan A, Gonzalez A, Fülöp M, Denoux P, Cenko E, Chkhaidze A, Shmeleva E, Antalíková R, Ahmed RA. Catching up with wonderful women: The women-are-wonderful effect is smaller in more gender egalitarian societies. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2017; 53 Suppl 1:21-26. [PMID: 28295294 DOI: 10.1002/ijop.12420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2016] [Accepted: 02/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Inequalities between men and women are common and well-documented. Objective indexes show that men are better positioned than women in societal hierarchies-there is no single country in the world without a gender gap. In contrast, researchers have found that the women-are-wonderful effect-that women are evaluated more positively than men overall-is also common. Cross-cultural studies on gender equality reveal that the more gender egalitarian the society is, the less prevalent explicit gender stereotypes are. Yet, because self-reported gender stereotypes may differ from implicit attitudes towards each gender, we reanalysed data collected across 44 cultures, and (a) confirmed that societal gender egalitarianism reduces the women-are-wonderful effect when it is measured more implicitly (i.e. rating the personality of men and women presented in images) and (b) documented that the social perception of men benefits more from gender egalitarianism than that of women.
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80
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Luck CC, Lipp OV. Startle modulation and explicit valence evaluations dissociate during backward fear conditioning. Psychophysiology 2017; 54:673-683. [DOI: 10.1111/psyp.12834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2015] [Accepted: 12/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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81
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Thompson A, Lipp OV. Extinction during reconsolidation eliminates recovery of fear conditioned to fear-irrelevant and fear-relevant stimuli. Behav Res Ther 2017; 92:1-10. [PMID: 28171767 DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2017.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2016] [Revised: 01/25/2017] [Accepted: 01/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Extant literature suggests that extinction training delivered during the memory reconsolidation period is superior to traditional extinction training in the reduction of fear recovery, as it targets the original fear memory trace. At present it is debated whether different types of fear memories are differentially sensitive to behavioral manipulations of reconsolidation. Here, we examined post-reconsolidation recovery of fear as a function of conditioned stimulus (CS) fear-relevance, using the unconditioned stimulus (US) to reactivate and destabilize conditioned fear memories. Participants (N = 56; 25 male; M = 24.39 years, SD = 7.71) in the US-reactivation and control group underwent differential fear conditioning to fear-relevant (spiders/snakes) and fear-irrelevant (geometric shapes) CSs on Day 1. On Day 2, participants received either reminded (US-reactivation) or non-reminded extinction training. Tests of fear recovery, conducted 24 h later, revealed recovery of differential electrodermal responding to both classes of CSs in the control group, but not in the US-reactivation group. These findings indicate that the US reactivation-extinction procedure eliminated recovery of extinguished responding not only to fear-irrelevant, but also to fear-relevant CSs. Contrasting previous reports, our findings show that post-reconsolidation recovery of conditioned responding is not a function of CS fear-relevance and that persistent reduction of fear, conditioned to fear-relevant CSs, can be achieved through behavioral manipulations of reconsolidation.
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Luck CC, Lipp OV. Verbal instructions targeting valence alter negative conditional stimulus evaluations (but do not affect reinstatement rates). Cogn Emot 2017; 32:61-80. [DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2017.1280449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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83
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Craig BM, Koch S, Lipp OV. The influence of social category cues on the happy categorisation advantage depends on expression valence. Cogn Emot 2016; 31:1493-1501. [DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2016.1215293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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84
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Craig BM, Lipp OV. The influence of facial sex cues on emotional expression categorization is not fixed. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 17:28-39. [PMID: 27379894 DOI: 10.1037/emo0000208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The speed of recognizing facial expressions of emotion is influenced by a range of factors including other concurrently present facial attributes, like a person's sex. Typically, when participants categorize happy and angry expressions on male and female faces, they are faster to categorize happy than angry expressions displayed by females, but not displayed by males. Using the same emotional faces across tasks, we demonstrate that this influence of sex cues on emotion categorization is dependent on the other faces recently encountered in an experiment. Altering the salience of gender by presenting male and female faces in separate emotion categorization tasks rather than together in a single task changed the influence of sex cues on emotion categorization, whereas changing the evaluative dimension by presenting happy and angry expressions in separate tasks alongside neutral faces rather than together within 1 task did not. These results suggest that the way facial attributes influence emotion categorization depends on the situation in which the faces are encountered and specifically on what information is made salient within or across tasks by other recently encountered faces. (PsycINFO Database Record
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85
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Luck CC, Lipp OV. The influence of contingency reversal instructions on electrodermal responding and conditional stimulus valence evaluations during differential fear conditioning. LEARNING AND MOTIVATION 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lmot.2016.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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86
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Luck CC, Lipp OV. When orienting and anticipation dissociate — a case for scoring electrodermal responses in multiple latency windows in studies of human fear conditioning. Int J Psychophysiol 2016; 100:36-43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2015.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2015] [Revised: 12/07/2015] [Accepted: 12/10/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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87
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Krys K, -Melanie Vauclair C, Capaldi CA, Lun VMC, Bond MH, Domínguez-Espinosa A, Torres C, Lipp OV, Manickam LSS, Xing C, Antalíková R, Pavlopoulos V, Teyssier J, Hur T, Hansen K, Szarota P, Ahmed RA, Burtceva E, Chkhaidze A, Cenko E, Denoux P, Fülöp M, Hassan A, Igbokwe DO, Işık İ, Javangwe G, Malbran M, Maricchiolo F, Mikarsa H, Miles LK, Nader M, Park J, Rizwan M, Salem R, Schwarz B, Shah I, Sun CR, van Tilburg W, Wagner W, Wise R, Yu AA. Be Careful Where You Smile: Culture Shapes Judgments of Intelligence and Honesty of Smiling Individuals. JOURNAL OF NONVERBAL BEHAVIOR 2015; 40:101-116. [PMID: 27194817 PMCID: PMC4840223 DOI: 10.1007/s10919-015-0226-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Smiling individuals are usually perceived more favorably than non-smiling ones—they are judged as happier, more attractive, competent, and friendly. These seemingly clear and obvious consequences of smiling are assumed to be culturally universal, however most of the psychological research is carried out in WEIRD societies (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic) and the influence of culture on social perception of nonverbal behavior is still understudied. Here we show that a smiling individual may be judged as less intelligent than the same non-smiling individual in cultures low on the GLOBE’s uncertainty avoidance dimension. Furthermore, we show that corruption at the societal level may undermine the prosocial perception of smiling—in societies with high corruption indicators, trust toward smiling individuals is reduced. This research fosters understanding of the cultural framework surrounding nonverbal communication processes and reveals that in some cultures smiling may lead to negative attributions.
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88
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Lipp OV, Cronin SL, Alhadad SSJ, Luck CC. Enhanced sensitization to animal, interpersonal, and intergroup fear-relevant stimuli (but no evidence for selective one-trial fear learning). Psychophysiology 2015; 52:1520-8. [PMID: 26283264 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.12513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2014] [Accepted: 07/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Selective sensitization has been proposed as an alternative explanation for enhanced responding to animal fear-relevant stimuli--snakes and spiders--during extinction of Pavlovian fear conditioning. The current study sought to replicate the phenomenon using a shock workup procedure as the sensitizing manipulation and to extend it to interpersonal and intergroup fear-relevant stimuli--angry faces and other-race faces. Assessment of selective sensitization was followed by a one-trial fear learning procedure. Selective sensitization, larger electrodermal responses to fear-relevant than to control stimuli after sensitization, or a larger increase in electrodermal responding to fear-relevant than to control stimuli after sensitization was observed across stimulus domains. However, the one-trial fear learning procedure failed to provide evidence for enhanced fear conditioning to fear-relevant stimuli. One-trial fear learning was either absent or present for fear-relevant and nonfear-relevant stimuli. The current study confirms that electrodermal responses to fear-relevant stimuli across stimulus domains are subject to selective sensitization.
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89
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Rees CS, Hasking P, Breen LJ, Lipp OV, Mamotte C. Group mindfulness based cognitive therapy vs group support for self-injury among young people: study protocol for a randomised controlled trial. BMC Psychiatry 2015; 15:154. [PMID: 26152135 PMCID: PMC4495689 DOI: 10.1186/s12888-015-0527-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2015] [Accepted: 06/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) is a transdiagnostic behaviour that can be difficult to treat; to date no evidence based treatment for NSSI exists. Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) specifically targets the mechanisms thought to initiate and maintain NSSI, and thus appears a viable treatment option. The aims of the current study are to test the ability of MBCT to reduce the frequency and medical severity of NSSI, and explore the mechanisms by which MBCT exerts its effect. METHODS/DESIGN We will conduct a parallel group randomised controlled trial of Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) versus Supportive Therapy (ST) in young people aged 18-25 years. Computerised block randomisation will be used to allocate participants to groups. All participants will meet the proposed DSM-5 criteria for NSSI (i.e. five episodes in the last twelve months). Participants will be excluded if they: 1) are currently receiving psychological treatment, 2) have attempted suicide in the previous 12 months, 3) exhibit acute psychosis, 4) have a diagnosis of borderline personality disorder, or 5) have prior experience of MBCT. Our primary outcome is the frequency and medical severity of NSSI. As secondary outcomes we will assess changes in rumination, mindfulness, emotion regulation, distress tolerance, stress, and attentional bias, and test these as mechanisms of change. DISCUSSION This is the first randomised controlled trial to test the efficacy of MBCT in reducing NSSI. Evidence of the efficacy of MBCT for self-injury will allow provision of a brief intervention for self-injury that can be implemented as a stand-alone treatment or integrated with existing treatments for psychiatric disorders. TRIAL REGISTRATION Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry Number ACTRN12615000023550 . Registered 16 January 2015.
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90
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Luck CC, Lipp OV. To remove or not to remove? Removal of the unconditional stimulus electrode does not mediate instructed extinction effects. Psychophysiology 2015; 52:1248-56. [DOI: 10.1111/psyp.12452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2015] [Accepted: 04/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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91
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Marinovic W, de Rugy A, Lipp OV, Tresilian JR. Reply to Maslovat et al. J Neurophysiol 2015; 113:3455-6. [PMID: 26025180 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00154.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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92
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Savage RA, Becker SI, Lipp OV. Visual search for emotional expressions: Effect of stimulus set on anger and happiness superiority. Cogn Emot 2015; 30:713-30. [PMID: 25861807 DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2015.1027663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Prior reports of preferential detection of emotional expressions in visual search have yielded inconsistent results, even for face stimuli that avoid obvious expression-related perceptual confounds. The current study investigated inconsistent reports of anger and happiness superiority effects using face stimuli drawn from the same database. Experiment 1 excluded procedural differences as a potential factor, replicating a happiness superiority effect in a procedure that previously yielded an anger superiority effect. Experiments 2a and 2b confirmed that image colour or poser gender did not account for prior inconsistent findings. Experiments 3a and 3b identified stimulus set as the critical variable, revealing happiness or anger superiority effects for two partially overlapping sets of face stimuli. The current results highlight the critical role of stimulus selection for the observation of happiness or anger superiority effects in visual search even for face stimuli that avoid obvious expression related perceptual confounds and are drawn from a single database.
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93
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Luck CC, Lipp OV. A potential pathway to the relapse of fear? Conditioned negative stimulus evaluation (but not physiological responding) resists instructed extinction. Behav Res Ther 2015; 66:18-31. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2015.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2014] [Revised: 01/09/2015] [Accepted: 01/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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94
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Hagger MS, Rebar AL, Mullan B, Lipp OV, Chatzisarantis NLD. The subjective experience of habit captured by self-report indexes may lead to inaccuracies in the measurement of habitual action. Health Psychol Rev 2014; 9:296-302. [PMID: 25189762 DOI: 10.1080/17437199.2014.959728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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95
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Vromen JMG, Lipp OV, Remington RW. The spider does not always win the fight for attention: Disengagement from threat is modulated by goal set. Cogn Emot 2014; 29:1185-96. [DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2014.969198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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96
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Savage RA, Lipp OV. The effect of face inversion on the detection of emotional faces in visual search. Cogn Emot 2014; 29:972-91. [DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2014.958981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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97
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Lipp OV, Kempnich C, Jee SH, Arnold DH. Fear conditioning to subliminal fear relevant and non fear relevant stimuli. PLoS One 2014; 9:e99332. [PMID: 25198514 PMCID: PMC4157738 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0099332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2013] [Accepted: 05/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A growing body of evidence suggests that conscious visual awareness is not a prerequisite for human fear learning. For instance, humans can learn to be fearful of subliminal fear relevant images--images depicting stimuli thought to have been fear relevant in our evolutionary context, such as snakes, spiders, and angry human faces. Such stimuli could have a privileged status in relation to manipulations used to suppress usually salient images from awareness, possibly due to the existence of a designated sub-cortical 'fear module'. Here we assess this proposition, and find it wanting. We use binocular masking to suppress awareness of images of snakes and wallabies (particularly cute, non-threatening marsupials). We find that subliminal presentations of both classes of image can induce differential fear conditioning. These data show that learning, as indexed by fear conditioning, is neither contingent on conscious visual awareness nor on subliminal conditional stimuli being fear relevant.
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98
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Lipp OV, Craig BM, Dat MC. A Happy Face Advantage With Male Caucasian Faces. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PERSONALITY SCIENCE 2014. [DOI: 10.1177/1948550614546047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Happy faces are categorized faster as “happy” than angry faces as “angry,” the happy face advantage. Here, we show across three experiments that the size of the happy face advantage for male Caucasian faces varies as a function of the other faces they are presented with. A happy face advantage was present if the male Caucasian faces were presented among male African American faces, but absent if the same faces were presented among female faces, Caucasian or African American. The modulation of the happy face advantage for male Caucasian faces was observed even if the female Caucasian/male African American faces had neutral expressions. This difference in the happy face advantage for a constant set of faces as a function of the other faces presented indicates that it does not reflect on a stimulus-dependent bottom-up process but on the evaluation of the expressive faces within a specific context.
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99
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Craig BM, Lipp OV, Mallan KM. Emotional expressions preferentially elicit implicit evaluations of faces also varying in race or age. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 14:865-77. [PMID: 25046242 DOI: 10.1037/a0037270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Both facial cues of group membership (race, age, and sex) and emotional expressions can elicit implicit evaluations to guide subsequent social behavior. There is, however, little research addressing whether group membership cues or emotional expressions are more influential in the formation of implicit evaluations of faces when both cues are simultaneously present. The current study aimed to determine this. Emotional expressions but not race or age cues elicited implicit evaluations in a series of affective priming tasks with emotional Caucasian and African faces (Experiments 1 and 2) and young and old faces (Experiment 3). Spontaneous evaluations of group membership cues of race and age only occurred when those cues were task relevant, suggesting the preferential influence of emotional expressions in the formation of implicit evaluations of others when cues of race or age are not salient. Implications for implicit prejudice, face perception, and person construal are discussed.
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100
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Craig BM, Becker SI, Lipp OV. Different faces in the crowd: a happiness superiority effect for schematic faces in heterogeneous backgrounds. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 14:794-803. [PMID: 24821397 DOI: 10.1037/a0036043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Recently, D.V. Becker, Anderson, Mortensen, Neufeld, and Neel (2011) proposed recommendations to avoid methodological confounds in visual search studies using emotional photographic faces. These confounds were argued to cause the frequently observed Anger Superiority Effect (ASE), the faster detection of angry than happy expressions, and conceal a true Happiness Superiority Effect (HSE). In Experiment 1, we applied these recommendations (for the first time) to visual search among schematic faces that previously had consistently yielded a robust ASE. Contrary to the prevailing literature, but consistent with D.V. Becker et al. (2011), we observed a HSE with schematic faces. The HSE with schematic faces was replicated in Experiments 2 and 3 using a similar method in discrimination tasks rather than fixed target searches. Experiment 4 isolated background heterogeneity as the key determinant leading to the HSE.
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