Kinetics and mechanisms of cylindrospermopsin destruction by sulfate radical-based advanced oxidation processes

Cylindrospermopsin (CYN) is a potent cyanobacterial toxin frequently found in water bodies worldwide raising concerns over the safety of drinking and recreational waters. A number of technologies have been investigated to remove and/or degrade cyanotoxins with advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) being among the most promising and effective for water detoxification. In this study, the degradation of CYN by sulfate radical-based UV-254 nm-AOPs was evaluated. The UV/S2O8(2-) (UV/peroxydisulfate) was more efficient than UV/HSO5(-) (UV/peroxysulfate) and UV/H2O2 (UV/hydrogen peroxide) processes when natural water samples were used as reaction matrices. The observed UV fluence based pseudo-first-order rate constants followed the expected order of radical quantum yields. The presence of 200 μM natural organic matter (NOM) as carbon slightly inhibited the destruction of CYN; 1.24 mg L(-1)NO3(-) (nitrate) had no significant influence on the removal efficiency and 50 μg L(-1) Fe(2+) [iron (2+)] or Cu(2+) [copper (2+)] improved the performance of UV/S2O8(2-). The addition of tert-butyl alcohol (t-BuOH; hydroxyl radical scavenger) in the reaction yielded byproducts that indicated specific sites in CYN preferentially attacked by sulfate radicals (SRs). The predominant CYN degradation byproduct was P448 consistent with fragmentation of the C5C6 bond of the uracil ring. The subsequent formation of P420 and P392 through a stepwise loss of carbonyl group(s) further supported the fragmentation pathway at C5C6. The byproduct P432 was identified exclusively as mono-hydroxylation of CYN at tricyclic guanidine ring, whereas P414 was detected as dehydrogenation at the tricyclic ring. The elimination of sulfate group and the opening of tricyclic ring were also observed. The possible degradation pathways of CYN by SR-AOP were presented.

Photo-Fenton decomposition of β-blockers atenolol and metoprolol; study and optimization of system parameters and identification of intermediates

Active pharmaceutical compounds reach the wastewater treatment plants mainly through excretion and improper disposal, and, because of insufficient treating methods, they end up to surface water or even potable water in some cases. Atenolol and metoprolol are β-blockers, members of cardiovascular pharmaceuticals group. They are generally used in the treatment of disorders such as hypertension, angina and arrhythmias. They have been in long-term use in Europe and North America, and they have also been detected in the aquatic environment. In this study the degradation of atenolol and metoprolol in aqueous solutions by means of the photo-Fenton reaction was investigated. The purpose of this study was: (i) to investigate the influence of the concentrations of iron and hydrogen peroxide, by means of central composite design, (ii) to study the degradation kinetics in aqueous solutions, (iii) to evaluate the mineralization and the toxicity evolution of the target compounds and (iv) to identify the degradation products. It has been found that increase of iron and hydrogen peroxide concentration accelerate the degradation of atenolol and metoprolol, while the kinetics of the process can be characterized as pseudo-first order. In general the photo-Fenton method has proved to be effective in decomposing and mineralizing the target compounds. The determination of the by-products formed during the degradation using LC-MS/MS equipment and the evaluation of the toxicity of the treated solution in different stages of the process would offer significant, innovative information regarding the treatment of water and wastewater containing active pharmaceutical compounds, especially of the β-blocker group.

Review of iron-free Fenton-like systems for activating H2O2 in advanced oxidation processes

Iron-catalyzed hydrogen peroxide decomposition for in situ generation of hydroxyl radicals (HO(•)) has been extensively developed as advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) for environmental applications. A variety of catalytic iron species constituting metal salts (in Fe(2+) or Fe(3+) form), metal oxides (e.g., Fe2O3, Fe3O4), and zero-valent metal (Fe(0)) have been exploited for chemical (classical Fenton), photochemical (photo-Fenton) and electrochemical (electro-Fenton) degradation pathways. However, the requirement of strict acidic conditions to prevent iron precipitation still remains the bottleneck for iron-based AOPs. In this article, we present a thorough review of alternative non-iron Fenton catalysts and their reactivity towards hydrogen peroxide activation. Elements with multiple redox states (like chromium, cerium, copper, cobalt, manganese and ruthenium) all directly decompose H2O2 into HO(•) through conventional Fenton-like pathways. The in situ formation of H2O2 and decomposition into HO(•) can be also achieved using electron transfer mechanism in zero-valent aluminum/O2 system. Although these Fenton systems (except aluminum) work efficiently even at neutral pH, the H2O2 activation mechanism is very specific to the nature of the catalyst and critically depends on its composition. This review describes in detail the complex mechanisms and emphasizes on practical limitations influencing their environmental applications.

Cost-effectiveness analysis of TOC removal from slaughterhouse wastewater using combined anaerobic-aerobic and UV/H2O2 processes

The objective of this study is to evaluate the operating costs of treating slaughterhouse wastewater (SWW) using combined biological and advanced oxidation processes (AOPs). This study compares the performance and the treatment capability of an anaerobic baffled reactor (ABR), an aerated completely mixed activated sludge reactor (AS), and a UV/H2O2 process, as well as their combination for the removal of the total organic carbon (TOC). Overall efficiencies are found to be up to 75.22, 89.47, 94.53, 96.10, 96.36, and 99.98% for the UV/H2O2, ABR, AS, combined AS-ABR, combined ABR-AS, and combined ABR-AS-UV/H2O2 processes, respectively. Due to the consumption of electrical energy and reagents, operating costs are calculated at optimal conditions of each process. A cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) is performed at optimal conditions for the SWW treatment by optimizing the total electricity cost, H2O2 consumption, and hydraulic retention time (HRT). The combined ABR-AS-UV/H2O2 processes have an optimal TOC removal of 92.46% at an HRT of 41 h, a cost of $1.25/kg of TOC removed, and $11.60/m(3) of treated SWW. This process reaches a maximum TOC removal of 99% in 76.5 h with an estimated cost of $2.19/kg TOC removal and $21.65/m(3) treated SWW, equivalent to $6.79/m(3) day.

Efficient removal of endosulfan from aqueous solution by UV-C/peroxides: a comparative study

This study explored the efficiency of UV-C-based advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), i.e., UV/S2O8(2-), UV/HSO5(-), and UV/H2O2 for the degradation of endosulfan, an organochlorine insecticide and an emerging water pollutant. A significant removal, 91%, 86%, and 64%, of endosulfan, at an initial concentration of 2.45 μM and UV fluence of 480 mJ/cm(2), was achieved by UV/S2O8(2-), UV/HSO5(-), and UV/H2O2 processes, respectively, at a [peroxide]0/[endosulfan]0 molar ratio of 20. The efficiency of these processes was, however, inhibited in the presence of radical scavengers, such as alcohols (e.g., tertiary butyl alcohol and isopropyl alcohol) and natural organic matter (NOM). The inhibition was also influenced by common inorganic anions in the order of nitrite > bicarbonate > chloride > nitrate ≈ sulfate. The observed pseudo-first-order rate constant decreased while the degradation rate increased with increasing initial concentration of the target contaminant. The degradation mechanism of endosulfan by the AOPs was evaluated revealing the main by-product as endosulfan ether. Results of this study suggest that UV-C-based AOPs are potential methods for the removal of pesticides, such as endosulfan and its by-products, from contaminated water.