New Monomeric Stilbenoids from Peanut (Arachis hypogaea) Seeds Challenged by an Aspergillus flavus Strain

Two new stilbene derivatives have been isolated from peanut seeds challenged by an Aspergillus flavus strain, along with chiricanine B, which has not been previously reported from peanuts, as well as a stilbenoid reported previously only as a synthetic product. The structures of these new putative phytoalexins were determined by analysis of (1)H and (13)C NMR, HRESIMS, MS(n), and UV data. The new stilbenoids were named arahypin-13 (21), arahypin-14 (22), and arahypin-15 (23). Together with other known bioactive peanut stilbenoids that were also produced in the challenged seeds, these new compounds may play a defensive role against invasive fungi.

Immunotherapy for food allergies: a myth or a reality?

Food allergy is a worldwide issue, with an estimated prevalence of 2-10%. An effective treatment is not available for people affected and the only management is the avoidance of the allergen. Oral immunotherapy and sublingual immunotherapy have been tested by several authors, in particular for milk, egg and peanuts allergy, with significant results in term of desensitization induction. The achievement of tolerance is by the contrary doubtful, with different results obtained. In this review, we reviewed protocols of oral and sublingual immunotherapy for food allergy published in literature, mainly against milk, egg and peanut. At present, immunotherapy does not represent the gold standard in the treatment of food allergy, even if it can desensitize patients.

Variation in fungal microbiome (mycobiome) and aflatoxin in stored in-shell peanuts at four different areas of China

The contamination of peanuts with Aspergillus sp. and subsequently aflatoxins is considered to be one of the most serious safety problems in the world. Mycobiome in peanuts is critical for aflatoxin production and food safety. To evaluate the biodiversity and ecological characteristics of whole communities in stored peanuts, the barcoded Illumina paired-end sequencing of the internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) region of rDNA was used to characterize the peanut mycobiome monthly over a period of 1 year at four main peanut grown areas, i.e., Liaoning (LN, North East), Shandong (SD, East), Hubei (HB, Central), and Guangdong (GD, South) provinces. The fungal diversity of peanuts stored in SD was the highest with 98 OTUs and 43 genera, followed by LN, HB and GD. In peanuts stored in SD, Rhizopus, Emericella, and Clonostachys were predominant. In peanuts from LN, Penicillium, Eurotium, and Clonostachys were abundant. In peanuts from HB, Penicillium, Eurotium, and Aspergillus were higher. In GD peanuts, Eurotium, Aspergillus, and Emericella were mainly seen. The abundances of Aspergillus in LN, SD, HB, and GD were 0.53, 6.29, 10.86, and 25.75%, respectively. From the North of China to the South, that increased over the latitude, suggesting that the higher temperature and relative humidity might increase the risk of peanuts contaminated with Aspergillus and aflatoxins. During the storage, Aspergillus levels were higher at 7–12 months than in 0–6 months, suggesting that the risk increases over storage time. At 7–10 months, AFB₁ was higher in four areas, while declined further. The reduction of AFB₁ might be attributed to the inhibition and degradation of AFB₁ by Aspergillus niger or to the combination with the compounds of peanuts. This is the first study that identified the mycobiome and its variation in stored peanuts using ITS2 sequencing technology, and provides the basis for a detailed characterization of whole mycobiome in peanuts.

In situ analysis of soybeans and nuts by probe electrospray ionization mass spectrometry

The probe electrospray ionization (PESI) is an ESI-based ionization technique that generates electrospray from the tip of a solid metal needle. In the present work, we describe the PESI mass spectra obtained by in situ measurement of soybeans and several nuts (peanuts, walnuts, cashew nuts, macadamia nuts and almonds) using different solid needles as sampling probes. It was found that PESI-MS is a valuable approach for in situ lipid analysis of these seeds. The phospholipid and triacylglycerol PESI spectra of different nuts and soybean were compared by principal component analysis (PCA). PCA shows significant differences among the data of each family of seeds. Methanolic extracts of nuts and soybean were exposed to air and sunlight for several days. PESI mass spectra were recorded before and after the treatment. Along the aging of the oil (rancidification), the formation of oxidated species with variable number of hydroperoxide groups could be observed in the PESI spectra. The relative intensity of oxidated triacylglycerols signals increased with days of exposition. Monitoring sensitivity of PESI-MS was high. This method provides a fast, simple and sensitive technique for the analysis (detection and characterization) of lipids in seed tissue and degree of oxidation of the oil samples.

Ochratoxin A levels in spices and dried nuts consumed in Tunisia

A total of 112 samples of spices (24 caraway, 20 coriander, 25 curcuma, 20 black pepper and 23 red pepper) and 110 samples of dried nuts (44 almonds, 42 peanuts and 24 pistachio) purchased from popular markets in 24 regions of Tunisia were analyzed for ochratoxin A (OTA) by fluorescence HPLC. The average levels of contamination of OTA found in spice samples were 244, 206, 290, 274 and 203 µg/kg, respectively, for caraway, coriander, curcuma, black pepper and red pepper. Concerning dried nut samples, the average levels were 61, 60 and 89 µg/kg, respectively, for almonds, peanuts and pistachio. Contamination levels were higher than the usual norms (10.0 OTA µg/kg) established by the European Commission in 2005 . This survey is the first to be carried out on the natural occurrence of OTA in the main spices and dried nuts consumed by the Tunisian population.

Studies on the reaction of trans-2-heptenal with peanut proteins

Hexanal, 2-heptenal, and nonanal were identified as relevant reaction products formed in the course of the lipid peroxidation of heated peanut oil. For the identification of potential amino acid side chain adducts, kinetic studies between N(α)-benzoylglycyl-l-lysine as a model for protein-bound lysine and trans-2-heptenal were performed, showing a strong decrease of the lysine-derivative whereupon the loss of trans-2-heptenal was moderate. Following acid hydrolysis of the incubation mixture of N(α)-acetyl-l-lysine and trans-2-heptenal, two UV-active major lipation products were observed, isolated and identified as isomeric pyridinium-derivatives, namely (Z)- and (E)-1-(5-amino-5-carboxypentyl)-4-butyl-3-(pent-1-en-1-yl)pyridin-1-ium (cis- and trans-BPP-lysine). After heating of a native peanut protein extract with trans-2-heptenal, both derivatives were quantitated by LC-ESI-MS/MS after acid hydrolysis and the modification of lysine was measured by amino acid analysis. At low, "food-relevant", concentrations of trans-2-heptenal, up to 80% of the lysine modification could be explained by the formation of cis- and trans-BPP-lysine, showing that these two lipation derivatives represent good markers for a protein modification by the lipid peroxidation product trans-2-heptenal.

Identification of Maillard reaction products on peanut allergens that influence binding to the receptor for advanced glycation end products

BACKGROUND

Recent immunological data demonstrated that dendritic cells preferentially recognize advanced glycation end product (AGE)-modified proteins, upregulate expression of the receptor for AGE (RAGE), and consequently bias the immune response toward allergy.

METHODS

Peanut extract was characterized by mass spectrometry (MS) to elucidate the specific residues and specific AGE modifications found in raw and roasted peanuts and on rAra h 1 that was artificially glycated by incubation with glucose or xylose. The binding of the RAGE-V1C1 domain to peanut allergens was assessed by PAGE and Western analysis with anti-Ara h 1, 2, and 3 antibodies. IgE binding to rAra h 1 was also assessed using the same methods.

RESULTS

AGE modifications were found on Ara h 1 and Ara h 3 in both raw and roasted peanut extract. No AGE modifications were found on Ara h 2. Mass spectrometry and Western blot analysis demonstrated that RAGE binds selectively to Ara h 1 and Ara h 3 derived from peanut extract, whereas the analysis failed to demonstrate Ara h 2 binding to RAGE. rAra h 1 with no AGE modifications did not bind RAGE; however, after AGE modification with xylose, rAra h 1 bound to RAGE.

CONCLUSIONS

AGE modifications to Ara h 1 and Ara h 3 can be found in both raw and roasted peanuts. Receptor for AGE was demonstrated to selectively interact with AGE-modified rAra h 1. If sensitization to peanut allergens occurs in dendritic cells via RAGE interactions, these cells are likely interacting with modified Ara h 1 and Ara h 3, but not Ara h 2.

Determining the contents of protein and amino acids in peanuts using near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy

BACKGROUND

The protein and amino acid contents of peanuts play a key role in determining their quality and value. Therefore, accurate, nondestructive, quick, and automated measurement of these components would be valuable in a commercial environment. This study explored the feasibility of determining the contents of protein and amino acids in peanuts using near infrared-reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS).

RESULTS

141 peanut samples were collected from 12 provinces in China. The spectra were scanned and obtained with an NIRS system. The determination coefficient and the ratio of the standard deviation in the validation set to the standard error of validation corresponded to 0.99 and 6.53 for protein, 0.88 and 2.52 for Asp, 0.83 and 3.00 for Thr, 0.86 and 2.40 for Ser, 0.87 and 2.57 for Glu, 0.88 and 2.36 for Gly, 0.88 and 3.00 for Leu, 0.89 and 2.88 for Arg, and 0.96 and 7.50 for Cys.

CONCLUSIONS

NIRS combined with multivariate calibration has significant potential in determining the protein and amino acid contents of peanuts. This method is suitable for use in an industrial setting owing to its ease of use as well as the relatively low cost of obtaining and running the necessary equipment.

Changes in Major Peanut Allergens Under Different pH Conditions

Regional dietary habits and cooking methods affect the prevalence of specific food allergies; therefore, we determined the effects of various pH conditions on major peanut allergens. Peanut kernels were soaked overnight in commercial vinegar (pH 2.3) or acetic acid solutions at pH 1.0, 3.0, or 5.0. Protein extracts from the sera of seven patients with peanut-specific IgE levels >15 kU_A/L were analyzed by SDS-PAGE and immunolabeling. A densitometer was used to quantify and compare the allergenicity of each protein. The density of Ara h 1 was reduced by treatment with pH 1.0, 3.0, or 5.0 acetic acid, or commercial vinegar. Ara h 2 remained largely unchanged after treatment with pH 5.0 acetic acid, and was decreased following treatment with pH 1.0, 2.3, or 3.0 acetic acid. Ara h 3 and Ara h 6 appeared as a thick band after treatment with pH 1.0 acetic acid and commercial vinegar. IgE-binding intensities to Ara h 1, Ara h 2, and Ara h 3 were significantly reduced after treatment with pH 1.0 acetic acid or commercial vinegar. These data suggest that treatment with acetic acid at various pH values affects peanut allergenicity and may explain the low prevalence of peanut allergy in Korea.

Biological activity of peanut (Arachis hypogaea) phytoalexins and selected natural and synthetic Stilbenoids

The peanut plant (Arachis hypogaea L.), when infected by a microbial pathogen, is capable of producing stilbene-derived compounds that are considered antifungal phytoalexins. In addition, the potential health benefits of other stilbenoids from peanuts, including resveratrol and pterostilbene, have been acknowledged by several investigators. Despite considerable progress in peanut research, relatively little is known about the biological activity of the stilbenoid phytoalexins. This study investigated the activities of some of these compounds in a broad spectrum of biological assays. Since peanut stilbenoids appear to play roles in plant defense mechanisms, they were evaluated for their effects on economically important plant pathogenic fungi of the genera Colletotrichum, Botrytis, Fusarium, and Phomopsis. We further investigated these peanut phytoalexins, together with some related natural and synthetic stilbenoids (a total of 24 compounds) in a panel of bioassays to determine their anti-inflammatory, cytotoxic, and antioxidant activities in mammalian cells. Several of these compounds were also evaluated as mammalian opioid receptor competitive antagonists. Assays for adult mosquito and larvae toxicity were also performed. The results of these studies reveal that peanut stilbenoids, as well as related natural and synthetic stilbene derivatives, display a diverse range of biological activities.

Health benefits of nut consumption

Nuts (tree nuts and peanuts) are nutrient dense foods with complex matrices rich in unsaturated fatty and other bioactive compounds: high-quality vegetable protein, fiber, minerals, tocopherols, phytosterols, and phenolic compounds. By virtue of their unique composition, nuts are likely to beneficially impact health outcomes. Epidemiologic studies have associated nut consumption with a reduced incidence of coronary heart disease and gallstones in both genders and diabetes in women. Limited evidence also suggests beneficial effects on hypertension, cancer, and inflammation. Interventional studies consistently show that nut intake has a cholesterol-lowering effect, even in the context of healthy diets, and there is emerging evidence of beneficial effects on oxidative stress, inflammation, and vascular reactivity. Blood pressure, visceral adiposity and the metabolic syndrome also appear to be positively influenced by nut consumption. Thus it is clear that nuts have a beneficial impact on many cardiovascular risk factors. Contrary to expectations, epidemiologic studies and clinical trials suggest that regular nut consumption is unlikely to contribute to obesity and may even help in weight loss. Safety concerns are limited to the infrequent occurrence of nut allergy in children. In conclusion, nuts are nutrient rich foods with wide-ranging cardiovascular and metabolic benefits, which can be readily incorporated into healthy diets.

Health benefits of nut consumption

We investigated the effect of a mixture of long-chain fructo-oligosaccharides, galacto-oligosaccharides and acidic oligosaccharides on the number and consistency of stools and on immune system biomarkers in 104 supplemented and non-supplemented subjects (aged 9-24 months) with acute diarrhea. Interleukin-1 (IL-1), IL-1RA, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, TNF-α and sIL-2R cytokine levels were determined. The significant decrease in number of stools and increase in stool consistency in the supplemented group was of little clinical relevance. The only significant change in pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines was decreased TNF-α levels in the supplemented group. Prebiotic supplementation during acute diarrhea episodes did not influence the clinical course.

Determination of aflatoxins in peanut products in the northeast region of São Paulo, Brazil

The aim of the present study was to determine aflatoxin levels in peanut products traded in the Northeast region of São Paulo, Brazil. To this end, 240 samples of peanut products traded in the cities of Araras, Leme, Pirassununga and Porto Ferreira were collected from June 2006 to May 2007. The samples were analyzed for aflatoxins (AF) B(1), B(2), G(1) and G(2) by high performance liquid chromatography. Results showed 44.2% samples positive for AF at levels of 0.5 to 103.8 microg x kg(-1). Nine of the positive samples (3.7% of the analysed samples) had total aflatoxin concentrations (B(1)+B(2)+G(1)+G(2)) higher than the limit established by Brazilian regulations (20 microg x kg(-1)). Based on the above data, the probable mean daily intake (PDI(M)) of aflatoxins from peanut products in the Northeast region of São Paulo was estimated to be 0.23 ng kg b.w. day(-1). Although this PDI(M) value was relatively low, results indicate that aflatoxin contamination of peanut products may be a public health concern in Brazil, when considering the potential exposure of highly susceptible consumers. For example, it should be emphasized that children are potentially exposed to aflatoxins, since they consume large quantities of peanut candies, and these products had the highest number of samples positive for AFB(1).

Ethylene inhibits aflatoxin biosynthesis in Aspergillus parasiticus grown on peanuts

The filamentous fungi Aspergillus parasiticus and Aspergillus flavus synthesize aflatoxins when they grow on a variety of susceptible food and feed crops. These mycotoxins are among the most carcinogenic naturally occurring compounds known and they pose significant health risks to humans and animals. We previously demonstrated that ethylene and CO2 act alone and together to reduce aflatoxin synthesis by A. parasiticus grown on laboratory media. To demonstrate the potential efficacy of treatment of stored seeds and grains with these gases, we tested ethylene and CO2 for ability to inhibit aflatoxin accumulation on Georgia Green peanuts stored for up to 5 days. We demonstrated an inverse relationship between A. parasiticus spore inoculum size and the level of toxin accumulation. We showed that ethylene inhibits aflatoxin synthesis in a dose-dependent manner on peanuts; CO2 also inhibits aflatoxin synthesis over a narrow dose range. Treatments had no discernable effect on mold growth. These observations support further exploration of this technology to reduce aflatoxin contamination of susceptible crops in the field and during storage.

The Development of a Quantitative ELISA for Aflatoxin B1 in Ground Peanuts Using Antibodies Isolated From the Yolk of a Laying Hen

Antibodies directed against Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) were produced in laying hens, isolated from egg yolk and applied in an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for AFB₁ in ground peanuts. The ELISA sensitivity was improved by reduction of the amount of the coating antigen absorbed onto the microplate well surfaces. The main aflatoxins B₁, B₂, G₁, G₂, M₁, aflatoxicol, sterigmatocystin were found to cross-react in the competitive ELISA, 100, 25, 23, 4, 0, 0, 0%, respectively. Aflatoxin B₁ could be reproducibly detected and quantified in spiked ground peanuts at levels greater than 5 ppb using a hexane and methanol solvent based peanut extraction protocol.

Aspergillus parasiticus NRRL 2667 Growth and Aflatoxin Synthesis as Affected by Calcium Content and Initial Spore Load in Single Peanuts

Mycelial growth of Aspergillus parasiticus NRRL 2667 and aflatoxin production on Florunner peanuts grown under different calcium supplementation levels (CSL) (550, 1,100, 2,200 and 4,400 kg gypsum/ha) with initial spore loads of 10², 10⁴ and 10⁶ spores/g were investigated. Growth at 25°C for 0, 4, 7 and 14 days was determined by viable plate counts on Aspergillus flavus/parasiticus agar (AFPA) medium. Irrespective of the initial spore load, maximum growth of 10⁸ to 10⁹ CFU/g was attained after 14 days except for the 4,400 kg/ha Ca-supplemented nuts on which the maximum populations were one log less. Aflatoxins B₁ and G₁ concentrations measured by thin layer chromatography (TLC) ranged from 0-3460 (μg/g and 0-3740 (μg/g, respectively. Toxin production was highest in single peanuts with CSL of 2,200 kg/ha. A reduction of 50% or higher was observed as CSL was increased to 4,400 kg/ha.