Replacement by Drosophila melanogaster protamines and Mst77F of histones during chromatin condensation in late spermatids and role of sesame in the removal of these proteins from the male pronucleus

Chromatin condensation is a typical feature of sperm cells. During mammalian spermiogenesis, histones are first replaced by transition proteins and then by protamines, while little is known for Drosophila melanogaster. Here we characterize three genes in the fly genome, Mst35Ba, Mst35Bb, and Mst77F. The results indicate that Mst35Ba and Mst35Bb encode dProtA and dProtB, respectively. These are considerably larger than mammalian protamines, but, as in mammals, both protamines contain typical cysteine/arginine clusters. Mst77F encodes a linker histone-like protein showing significant similarity to mammalian HILS1 protein. ProtamineA-enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP), ProtamineB-eGFP, and Mst77F-eGFP carrying Drosophila lines show that these proteins become the important chromosomal protein components of elongating spermatids, and His2AvDGFP vanishes. Mst77F mutants [ms(3)nc3] are characterized by small round nuclei and are sterile as males. These data suggest the major features of chromatin condensation in Drosophila spermatogenesis correspond to those in mammals. During early fertilization steps, the paternal pronucleus still contains protamines and Mst77F but regains a nucleosomal conformation before zygote formation. In eggs laid by sesame-deficient females, the paternal pronucleus remains in a protamine-based chromatin status but Mst77F-eGFP is removed, suggesting that the sesame gene product is essential for removal of protamines while Mst77F removal is independent of Sesame.

Cellular expression of protamine 1 and 2 transcripts in testicular spermatids from azoospermic men submitted to TESE-ICSI

Testicular sperm extraction (TESE) combined with ICSI is used to treat azoospermia. However, the factors that influence the outcome of ICSI in this situation are ill-defined. We sought to investigate the expression of protamine 1 (PRM1) and protamine 2 (PRM2) transcripts in testicular spermatids from obstructive and non-obstructive azoospermic men with impaired spermatogenesis. The relationship between PRM1 and PRM2 transcript levels and the TESE-ICSI outcome was evaluated. The cellular expression of PRM1 and PRM2 mRNAs in single testicular spermatids from 41 azoospermic patients (in whom testicular spermatozoa were subsequently recovered and submitted for TESE-ICSI) was determined by radioactive in situ hybridization. Group I contained seven men with congenital, obstructive azoospermia and whose testicular biopsies indicated quantitatively normal spermatogenesis. Group II consisted of 18 azoospermic men with moderately impaired spermatogenesis. Sixteen men with non-obstructive azoospermia and severely deranged spermatogenesis (i.e. mixed atrophy with small foci of spermatids and spermatozoa) constituted group III. The spermatids of men with severely deranged spermatogenesis exhibited significant lower PRM1 mRNA expression than in the other patient groups. There were no significant inter-group differences in PRM2 mRNA expression. Spermatid PRM1 expression was lower in non-pregnant couples than in pregnant couples. The low number of spermatids in cases of mixed atrophy with small spermatogenic foci is associated with significantly lower PRM1 expression and a lower pregnancy rate. These results emphasize the role of PRM1 as a potentially critical factor in post-ICSI embryonic development.

Reciprocal regulation of the mouse protamine genes by the orphan nuclear receptor germ cell nuclear factor and CREMtau

Germ cell nuclear factor (GCNF) is a member of the nuclear receptor superfamily, which is expressed in the adult predominantly in the male and female germ cells. In the male, GCNF is expressed in spermatogenic cells. GCNF binds as a homodimer to direct repeat response elements of the consensus half-site sequence, AGGTCA, with 0 bp spacing (DR0). Using this information, a search of genomic databases was performed to identify candidate GCNF responsive, spermatogenic-specific, genes that contain DR0 sequences. The mouse protamine genes are the strongest candidates identified to date, as they are post-meiotically expressed in round spermatids and contain DR0 elements in their proximal promoters. Previous work has shown that both recombinant and endogenous GCNF bind to DR0 elements in the mouse protamine 1 and 2 (Prm 1 and Prm 2) promoters with high affinity and specificity. The present work shows that in transient transfection assays in GC-1 and JEG-3 cells, co-transfection of a GCNF-VP16 expression plasmid with reporter plasmids containing either the wild type Prm 1 or Prm 2 promoter established that GCNF-VP16 is able to regulate transcription from both promoters in a DR0-dependent manner. Wild type GCNF, in contrast, acts as a repressor of basal transcription on both the Prm 1 and Prm 2 promoters in a DR0-dependent manner. Furthermore, CREMtau activation of these promoters is also repressed by wild-type GCNF, indicating that GCNF also acts as a repressor of activated transcription. GCNF therefore defines a novel nuclear receptor-signaling pathway that may regulate a subset of genes involved in the terminal differentiation process of spermatogenesis, exemplified by the protamines.

Ordered progress of spermiogenesis to the fertilizable sperm of the medaka fish, Oryzias latipes, in cell culture

Spermiogenesis is significant for producing sperm with equipment for achieving fertilization. Although multiple events occur in a particular order during spermiogenesis, it is unclear how the timing of those events is controlled. In the present study, we found that primary spermatocytes obtained from the spermatogenic testes of Oryzias latipes synchronously differentiated into sperm without contact with somatic cells in culture. Because those sperm can fertilize with mature eggs (Saiki et al., 1997), any events of spermiogenesis that are essential for achieving fertilization are completed in the in vitro spermiogenesis. In the in vitro spermiogenesis, the protamine gene expression was observed in the early period and mitochondrion localization was established in the same period. Those results suggest that both nuclear remodeling and organelle replacement begin in the early period of spermiogenesis. The cytoplasmic lobe was formed after the mitochondrion localization had been established. In most spermatids differentiated in cell culture, a flagellum began to elongate during the early period and continued to elongate up to 3 days. These results revealed the timings of the spermiogenetic events under the intrinsic control of the cultured spermatids toward the formation of fertilizable sperm in O. latipes.

First combined cladistic analysis of marsupial mammal interrelationships

We combine osteological, dental, and soft tissue data with sequences from three nuclear and five mitochondrial genes, sampling all major living clades of marsupials plus several extinct taxa, to perform a simultaneous analysis of marsupial interrelationships. These data were analyzed using direct optimization and sensitivity analysis on a parallel supercomputing cluster, and compared with trees produced with conventional parsimony and likelihood algorithms using a static alignment. A major issue in marsupial phylogeny is the relationships among australidelphians. Optimal analyses using direct optimization and those based on the static alignment support the basal positions of peramelians (bandicoots) and Dromiciops ('monito del monte') within Australidelphia, and in all but one case these analyses support a monophyletic Eometatheria, a group consisting of all australidelphians excluding peramelians. Dromiciops is basal within Eometatheria in analyses that maximize congruence across partitions, including the equally weighted parameter set. The topologies resulting from direct optimization under all parameter sets show some differences, but all show a high degree of resolution. Direct optimization supports high-level clades supported by analyses of partitioned molecular (e.g., Notoryctes as sister group of Dasyuromorphia) and morphological (e.g., Diprotodontia) data.

Spermatogenesis following syngeneic testicular transplantation in Balb/c mice

Transplantation of spermatogonial stem cells in cross-species has been widely used to study the function of Sertoli cells and the effect of phylogenetic distance between donor and recipient animals on the outcome of spermatogonial transplantation, whereas there have been only a few reports on the transplantation of testis tissue. The objective of the present study was to examine the development of grafted testes and the kinetics of spermatogenesis following syngeneic testicular transplantation in both male and female recipient Balb/c mice in an effort to establish an in vivo culture system and to compare the effects of host sex on spermatogenesis. The testes from 5-day-old Balb/c mice were transplanted under the dorsal skin of four-week-old mice. Twenty male and twenty female Balb/c mice were used as the hosts and each host received 4 grafts. The recipient mice were killed at 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 12 and 15 weeks after transplantation. The graft survival rate and graft size were measured. The status of spermatogenesis was assessed by histological analyses. The expression of the spermatid-specific Protamine-2 gene was examined by RT-PCR. Overall, 70.3% of the testicular grafts in male hosts and 67.2% in female hosts survived. All recovered grafts had increased in volume, some of them had increased by more than 30-fold. The architecture of the seminiferous tubules in female hosts appeared to be better than that in male hosts. The round spermatids were the most advanced germ cells until 15 weeks after transplantation, and no complete spermatozoon was observed in any of the grafts. The expression of protamine-2 was detected in grafts from 5 weeks posttransplantation in both male and female hosts, confirming that the spermatogenic cells differentiated into spermatids. In contrast to grafts, the testes of male hosts had a normal histological appearance. The results showed the schedule of spermatogenesis following syngeneic testicular transplantation in both male and female hosts. This model could be useful for further studies involving the endocrinology of the testis and the mechanisms of spermatogenesis.

Expression of human hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL) in postmeiotic germ cells confers normal fertility to HSL-deficient mice

Hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL, Lipe, E.C.3.1.1.3) is a multifunctional fatty acyl esterase that is essential for male fertility and spermatogenesis and that also plays important roles in the function of adipocytes, pancreatic beta-cells, and adrenal cortical cells. Gene-targeted HSL-deficient (HSL-/-) male mice are infertile, have a 2-fold reduction in testicular mass, a 2-fold elevation of the ratio of esterified to free cholesterol in testis, and unique morphological abnormalities in round and elongating spermatids. Postmeiotic germ cells in the testis express a specific HSL isoform. We created transgenic mice expressing a normal human testicular HSL cDNA from the mouse protamine-1 promoter, which mediates expression specifically in postmeiotic germ cells. Testicular cholesteryl esterase activity was undetectable in HSL-/- mice, but in HSL-/- males expressing the testicular transgene, activity was 2-fold greater than normal. HSL transgene mRNA became detectable in testes between 19 and 25 days of age, coinciding with the first wave of postmeiotic transcription in round spermatids. In contrast to nontransgenic HSL-/- mice, HSL-/- males expressing the testicular transgene were normal with respect to fertility, testicular mass, testicular esterified/free cholesterol ratio, and testicular histology. Their cauda epididymides contained abundant, normal-appearing spermatozoa. We conclude that human testicular HSL is functional in mouse testis and that the mechanism of infertility in HSL-deficient males is cell autonomous and resides in postmeiotic germ cells, because HSL expression in these cells is in itself sufficient to restore normal fertility.

Nuclear Matrix Interactions at the Human Protamine Domain

The compact eukaryotic genome must be selectively opened to grant trans-factor access to cis-regulatory elements to overcome the primary barrier to gene transcription. The mechanism that governs the selective opening of chromatin domains (i.e. potentiation) remains poorly understood. In the absence of a well defined locus control region, the nuclear matrix is considered the primary candidate regulating the opening of the multigenic PRM1 --> PRM2 --> TNP2 human protamine domain. To directly examine its role, four lines of transgenic mice with different configurations of flanking nuclear matrix attachment regions (MARs) encompassing the protamine domain were created. We show that upon removal of the MARs, the locus becomes subject to position effects. The 3' MAR alone may be sufficient to protect against silencing. In concert, the MARs bounding this domain likely synergize to regulate the expression of the various members of this gene cluster. Interestingly, the MARs may convey a selective reproductive advantage, such that constructs bearing both 5' and 3' MARs are passed to their offspring with greater frequency. Thus, the MARs bounding the PRM1 --> PRM2 --> TNP2 protamine domain have many and varied functions.

All roads lead to arginine: the squid protamine gene

The protamine of squid is one of the most arginine-rich protamines (77%, mol/mol). It possesses a leading sequence that is posttranslationally removed during spermatogenesis in a manner that is analogous to that observed in some of its vertebrate protamine counterparts. In this paper we describe the gene sequence of the protamine of the squid Loligo opalescens. This represents the first complete gene sequence ever reported for an invertebrate protamine. Like those of vertebrate protamines, the messenger RNA is polyadenylated but the gene does not contain an intron. The promoter region contains the major transcriptional regulatory elements (CRE, TATA box, and CAP) that are also characteristic of the vertebrate protamine genes. It is unclear whether the similarities of protamines in species from both the deuterostome and the protostome branches represent the result of phylogenetic conservation or evolutionary convergence.

Analysis and significance of mRNA in human ejaculated sperm from normozoospermic donors: relationship to sperm motility and capacitation

The existence of a complex population of mRNA in human sperm is well documented but their role is not yet elucidated. Using discontinuous density gradients, we have isolated high and low motile sperm from the same semen sample. The levels of different transcripts coding for molecules either involved in nuclear condensation (protamines 1 and 2) or in capacitation [endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) and c-myc] were then assessed in the two populations using semi-quantitative RT-PCR. Sperm viability was estimated by eosin-nigrosin staining and by hypo-osmotic swelling test; apoptosis percentage was measured by the TdT (terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase)-mediated dUDP nick-end labelling technique. The contamination by somatic and germ cells was assessed by looking for specific molecular markers of these cells, respectively CD-45 and E-cadherin for somatic cells and c-kit for germ cells. The viability of sperm was unchanged in high and low motile fractions, as well as DNA fragmentation percentage. The amount of Prm-1 mRNA was significantly higher in low density motile than in the high motile fraction. In most of high motile sperm samples eNOS and nNOS transcripts were undetectable whereas they were present in the low motile sperm. In contrast, no significant variation was found in the c-myc/Prm-2 mRNA ratio between the two populations. Moreover, a partial or complete disappearance of c-myc transcripts was observed after capacitation. Thus analysing mRNA profiles could be helpful as a diagnostic tool and prognosis value for fertilization.

High affinity binding of the Translin/Trax complex to RNA does not require the presence of Y or H elements

Translin and its partner protein, Trax, are components of an RNA binding complex that has been implicated in suppressing translation of several mRNAs by binding to Y and H cis elements contained in these transcripts. However, it is unclear which features of these elements are critical for conferring high affinity binding to the Translin/Trax complex, information that might be useful in identifying other candidate transcripts targeted by this complex. To help clarify this issue, we have assessed the effect of truncating or mutating a segment of the 3'UTR of the protamine-2 transcript which contains both Y and H elements and binds to this complex with high affinity. Our results indicate that high affinity binding to this segment is preserved following extensive mutation of the Y and H elements as long as clusters of G residues are retained. Thus, our findings indicate that the Translin/Trax complex recognizes clusters of G residues rather than RNA sequences that closely match the primary sequence of the Y and H elements. This revised view of the cis elements recognized by the Translin/Trax complex may be useful in future studies aimed at identifying endogenous RNA species targeted by this complex.

Histone H1 and the origin of protamines

We present evidence that chordate protamines have evolved from histone H1. During the final stages of spermatogenesis, the compaction of DNA in many organisms is accomplished by the replacement of histones with a class of arginine-rich proteins called protamines. In other organisms, however, condensation of sperm DNA can occur with comparable efficiency in the presence of somatic-type histones or, alternatively, an intermediate class of proteins called protamine-like proteins. The idea that the highly specialized sperm chromosomal proteins (protamines) and somatic chromosomal proteins (histones) could be related dates back almost to the discovery of these proteins. Although this notion has frequently been revisited since that time, there has been a complete lack of supporting experimental evidence. Here we show that the emergence of protamines in chordates occurred very quickly, as a result of the conversion of a lysine-rich histone H1 to an arginine-rich protamine. We have characterized the sperm nuclear basic proteins of the tunicate Styela montereyensis, which we show consists of both a protamine and a sperm-specific histone H1 with a protamine tail. Comparison of the genes encoding these proteins to that of a sister protochordate, Ciona intestinalis, has indicated this rapid and dramatic change is most likely the result of frameshift mutations in the tail of the sperm-specific histone H1. By establishing an evolutionary link between the chromatin-condensing histone H1s of somatic tissues and the chromatin-condensing proteins of the sperm, these results provide unequivocal support to the notion that vertebrate protamines evolved from histones.

Mutation analysis of HPS1, the gene mutated in Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome, in patients with isolated platelet dense-granule deficiency

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Isolated platelet dense granule (PDG) deficiency is a heterogeneous disorder frequently found among patients with mild to moderate bleeding diatheses. However, the molecular basis of this disorder is unknown. Genes involved in other rare bleeding disorders with associated reduction in the numbers of platelet dense-granules may play a role in isolated PDG deficiency. Among such genes, HPS1 is known to play a key role in the genesis of PDG and as many as 18 different HPS1 mutations have been identified in patients with Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome. Recently, we have identified subjects with one HPS1 heterozygous mutation displaying significant reductions in PDG without the clinical phenotype of Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome. This suggested that HPS1 mutations could be involved in isolated PDG deficiency.

DESIGN AND METHODS

We sequenced all coding exons, and flanking intron regions of HPS1 in 16 patients with mild to severe PDG deficiency, most of whom had mild bleeding episodes. Nine patients reported a familial history of bleeding diathesis with PDG deficiency. We also evaluated the prevalence of HPS1 variations in 215 controls. Transmission electron microscopy was used to evaluate the number and morphology of PDG from patients and selected controls.

RESULTS

No patient with PDG deficiency carried severe mutations of the HPS1 gene. We identified 6 previously described and 5 new polymorphisms in the HPS1 gene. Platelet electron microscopy in controls carrying these polymorphisms revealed that they did not significantly modify the number or morphology of PDG.

INTERPRETATION AND CONCLUSIONS

Mutations affecting the HPS1 gene play a minor role in isolated PDG deficiency. These results support a molecular heterogeneity responsible for the number and morphology of PDG.

Molecular cloning of protamine-2 and expression with aging in Japanese monkey (Macaca fuscata)

In order to isolate genes relating spermatogenesis with postnatal development and aging, we have attempted to obtain genes showing differences in expression in testis of Japanese monkeys ( Macaca fuscata) by means of differential display PCR, and we have cloned, sequenced and characterized protamine-2 (PRM2) of Japanese monkey. The predicted open reading frame encoded a protein of 103 amino acid residues, most of which are common to those of other mammals. Northern analysis revealed that the PRM2 gene is expressed at adult and aged stages, but not at the juvenile stage. In situ hybridization revealed that the PRM2 gene is expressed mainly in late spermatids and its expressional potential is decreased from adult to aged stages. It suggests that PRM2 in spermiogenesis is mediated by the age of the animal.

Human protamines and the developing spermatid: their structure, function, expression and relationship with male infertility

During spermiogenesis, the protamine proteins play an integral role in spermatid chromatin compaction. Recent research has focused on many facets of protamine biology, including protamine gene and protein structure/function relationships, mechanisms of protamine expression regulation and involvement of the protamines in male fertility. In this paper, we review our current understanding of the structure and function of the protamine-1 (P1) and protamine-2 (P2) proteins and genes, the expression and regulation of these genes and the relationship between the protamines and male fertility. In addition, we offer a brief outlook on future investigation into protamine proteins.

Low molecular weight protamine as an efficient and nontoxic gene carrier: in vitro study

BACKGROUND

The structural similarity between low molecular weight protamine (LMWP), prepared by enzymatic digestion of protamine, and HIV-TAT protein transduction peptide suggested the feasibility of LMWP as an efficient carrier for delivering therapeutic genes while alleviating the cytotoxicity of currently employed gene carriers.

METHODS

LMWP was prepared by enzymatic digestion of protamine with thermolysine. The prepared LMWP peptide and TAT peptide, as well as their complexes with plasmid DNA (pDNA), were examined for cellular uptake behaviors by using confocal microscopy and flow cytometry. The complexation of pDNA and LMWP was monitored by gel retardation test as well as size and zeta potential measurements, and was then further assessed by DNase I protection assay. The transfection efficiency of pDNA/LMWP was examined by varying the pDNA content and charge ratio in the complex, and then compared with that of pDNA/PEI. Cytotoxicity induced by pDNA/LMWP and pDNA/PEI was also examined.

RESULTS

Prepared LMWP showed similar transcellular localization behavior and kinetics to those of TAT, and efficiently transferred the pDNA into nucleus and cytoplasm in a short time period. The size and zeta potential of the pDNA/LMWP complex were 120 nm and 30 mV, respectively, which were adequately suitable for cellular uptake. After forming the complex, LMWP appeared to effectively protect pDNA against DNase I attack. The pDNA/LMWP complex showed significantly enhanced gene transfer than both naked pDNA and the pDNA/PEI complex, while exhibiting a markedly reduced cytotoxicity than that of the pDNA/PEI complex.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study suggested that LMWP could be a useful and safe tool for enhancing delivery of bioactive molecules and therapeutic DNA products into cells when applied in gene therapy.

Protamine 2 deficiency leads to sperm DNA damage and embryo death in mice

Cytokinesis is incomplete in spermatogenic cells, and the descendants of each stem cell form a clonal syncytium. As a result, a heterozygous mutation in a gene expressed postmeiotically affects all of the haploid spermatids within a syncytium. Previously, we have found that disruption of one copy of the gene for either protamine 1 (PRM1) or protamine 2 (PRM2) in the mouse results in a reduction in the amount of the respective protein, abnormal processing of PRM2, and inability of male chimeras to transmit either the mutant or wild-type allele derived from the 129-genotype embryonic stem cells to the next generation. Although it is believed that protamines are essential for compaction of the sperm nucleus and to protect the DNA from damage, this has not been proven experimentally. To test the hypothesis that failure of chimeras to transmit the 129 genotype to offspring was due to alterations in the organization and integrity of sperm DNA, we used the single-cell DNA electrophoresis (comet) assay, ultrastructural analysis, and the intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) procedure. Comet assay demonstrated a direct correlation between the fraction of sperm with haploinsufficiency of PRM2 and the frequency of sperm with damaged DNA. Ultrastructural analysis revealed reduced compaction of the chromatin. ICSI with PRM2-deficient sperm resulted in activation of most metaphase II-arrested mouse eggs, but few were able to develop to the blastocyst stage. These findings suggest that development fails because of damage to paternal DNA and that PRM2 is crucial for maintaining the integrity of sperm chromatin.

Decreased protamine-1 transcript levels in testes from infertile men

Infertile men exhibit an aberrant protamine-1 (Prm1) to protamine-2 (Prm2) ratio at both the mRNA and protein level. We therefore investigated whether male infertility could be related to the amount of Prm1 and Prm2 mRNA by applying real time quantitative PCR following RNA extraction from routinely Bouin-fixed and paraffin-embedded testicular biopsies. Samples (n = 51) were normalized to the same amount and similar size of tissue sections. The threshold cycle (C(T)) representing a measure of the initial number of mRNA copies was significantly (P < 0.001) higher for Prm1, but not Prm2, and thus the amount of Prm1 mRNA was lower in men with at least qualitatively normal spermatogenesis (Prm1: 29.88 +/- 2.99; Prm2: 34.28 +/- 2.26) and impaired spermatogenesis (Prm1: 31.89 +/- 2.54; Prm2: 35.59 +/- 2.09) compared with men with obstructive azoospermia and quantitatively normal spermatogenesis (Prm1: 29.04 +/- 1.02; Prm2: 34.91 +/- 1.40). In addition, the Prm1 - Prm2 C(T) difference (deltaC(T)) was significantly (P < 0.001) decreased in these two groups. A negative correlation (r = -0.504; P < 0.001) was demonstrated between the score for efficiency of spermatogenesis and the C(T) for Prm1. These data suggest that the decreasing amount of Prm1 and, as a consequence, the aberrant Prm1:Prm2 mRNA ratio plays an important role for male infertility and may serve as a possible predictive factor for the outcome of ICSI.

Protamine mRNA as molecular marker for spermatozoa in semen stains

Cytological detection of spermatozoa with subsequent DNA analysis is the most important biological evidence in sexual crimes when suitable samples are available. Immunological and enzymatic detection of semen-specific proteins may be helpful but cannot replace specific identification of spermatozoa. We have recently shown that detection of cell-specific gene expression can be used to identify menstrual blood. In this paper we demonstrate that the basic nucleoproteins protamine 1 and 2 are suitable markers for spermatozoa because they are exclusively expressed in the haploid genome and that protamine mRNA can be detected in semen stains by the highly sensitive reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). With semi-nested PCR, 10-100 spermatozoa are theoretically sufficient to provide positive amplification results, with hot-start PCR at least 100-1,000 cells are required corresponding to an average semen volume of 0.01-0.1 microl. This new method thus allows specific identification of spermatozoa with molecular biology tools and may broaden the spectrum of investigations in the forensic laboratory.

Expression of mammalian spermatozoal nucleoproteins

A dramatic remodeling of sperm chromatin occurs during mammalian spermiogenesis. Nuclear elongation and chromatin condensation are concomitant with modifications in the basic protein complement associated with DNA. A number of biochemical events accompany the displacement of histones and the appearance of protamines in elongating spermatids. The mRNAs of transition proteins and protamines are transcribed and stored in the cytoplasm of spermatids until days later when they are translated. The intrinsic regulation of the expression of the transition protein and protamine genes occurs at three levels: transcription, translation, and posttranslation. The aim of this review is to cover most of the morphological, biochemical, and functional events which concern nuclear protein transitions during spermiogenesis and which are thereby involved in the nuclear status of ejaculated sperm cells.

A walk though vertebrate and invertebrate protamines

An updated comparative analysis of protamines and their corresponding genes is presented, including representative organisms from each of the vertebrate classes and one invertebrate (squid, Loligo opalescens). Special emphasis is placed on the implications for sperm chromatin organization and the evolutionary significance. The review is based on some of the most recent publications in the field and builds upon previously published reviews on this topic.

Single nucleotide polymorphisms in the protamine-1 and -2 genes of fertile and infertile human male populations

Although various genetic factors have been implicated in human male infertility, the causative genes for the different types of idiopathic male infertility have not been elucidated. Protamines, which are the major DNA-binding proteins in the sperm nucleus, package the DNA into the sperm head. Analysis of the human protamine-1 (PRM1) and -2 (PRM2) gene sequences in 226 sterile male patients and in 270 proven-fertile male volunteers revealed four single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the PRM1 coding region, which did not cause any amino acid substitutions, and one SNP in the PRM2 gene, which produced translation termination. We also observed one SNP in the 3' non-coding region of the PRM1 gene, and two SNPs within the intron of the PRM2 gene. The prevalence of these SNPs was similar in both infertile patients and in proven-fertile volunteers, except that the c248t alteration in the PRM2 gene induced a nonsense codon under conditions of heterozygosity in one infertile patient. Although the PRM1 and PRM2 genes are highly conserved, the single SNP in the PRM2 gene that induces translation termination may result in male infertility due to haploinsufficiency of PRM2.

Mouse germ cell-less as an essential component for nuclear integrity

A mouse homologue of the Drosophila melanogaster germ cell-less (mgcl-1) gene is expressed ubiquitously, and its gene product is localized to the nuclear envelope based on its binding to LAP2 beta (lamina-associated polypeptide 2 beta). To elucidate the role of mgcl-1, we analyzed two mutant mouse lines that lacked mgcl-1 gene expression. Abnormal nuclear morphologies that were probably due to impaired nuclear envelope integrity were observed in the liver, exocrine pancreas, and testis. In particular, functional abnormalities were observed in testis in which the highest expression of mgcl-1 was detected. Fertility was significantly impaired in mgcl-1-null male mice, probably as a result of severe morphological abnormalities in the sperm. Electron microscopic observations showed insufficient chromatin condensation and abnormal acrosome structures in mgcl-1-null sperm. In addition, the expression patterns of transition proteins and protamines, both of which are essential for chromatin remodeling during spermatogenesis, were aberrant. Considering that the first abnormality during the process of spermatogenesis was abnormal nuclear envelope structure in spermatocytes, the mgcl-1 gene product appears to be essential for appropriate nuclear-lamina organization, which in turn is essential for normal sperm morphogenesis and chromatin remodeling.