Identification of human I1 receptors and their relationship to alpha 2-adrenoceptors

I1 imidazoline receptors (I1R) were defined as receptors insensitive to catecholamines and highly sensitive to [3H]clonidine and analogs. By contrast, the I2R subtype is more sensitive to [3H]idazoxan. [3H]clonidine and [3H]idazoxan imidazoline specific binding sites (IBS) have been detected in crude human membranes. Pharmacologic characterization by binding assays clearly differentiates IBS from alpha 2-adrenoceptors, whereas differences between [3H]clonidine and [3H]idazoxan IBS are less clear in crude preparations. In fact, only moderate affinity for [3H]clonidine was detectable in such preparations. However, purification procedures allowed detection of high affinity [3H]clonidine IBS in the human brain, corresponding to the I1R. Difficulties in the characterization of the I1R in crude membranes are due to multiple factors including heterogeneity of IBS, their low Bmax value, the existence of allosteric modulation, and possibly the presence of natural binding inhibitors. Immunologic studies with specific anti-idiotypic antibodies revealed a 43-kD protein as the best candidate for I1R as binding activity coincides with immunodetection. No cross-reaction was found with anti-monoamine oxidase (MAO) A/B antibodies and the 43-kD protein, ruling out the possibility of this protein being an MAO-associated I2R. Neither anti-alpha 2A- nor anti-alpha 2B-specific antibodies were able to immunodetect the 43-kD protein in crude membrane preparations or in purified fractions. These results and further biochemical characterization (pHi, N-glycosylation) of the 43-kD protein definitely assessed that human brain I1R and alpha 2-adrenoceptors clearly differ physically. However, coexpression of I1R and alpha 2-adrenoceptors in synaptic plasma membranes of the bovine brainstem reinforce the possibility of a functional relationship between the two types of receptor.

Relationship between the ventromedullary clonidine-sensitive area and the posterior hypothalamus

The connections between the areas 'S' which have been previously described as the ventromedullary sites of the action of clonidine and the posterior hypothalamus have been investigated. Superficial electrocoagulation of the left area 'S' suppresses the pressor response to electrical stimulation of the homolateral part of the posterior hypothalamus. Although such medullary lesions cause a significant reduction of the mean arterial pressure, the contralateral hypothalamic stimulation can still increase blood pressure. Clonidine it self applied topically (8 micrograms/kg) to the ventral face of the brain stem decreases the blood pressure response to liminal hypothalamic stimulation. It is concluded that efferent pathways, which are involved in vasomotor regulation, originate in the posterior hypothalamus and run through the ventrolateral part of the brain stem. The mechanism of the blocking effect of clonidine on these pathways is discussed.

GABAergic and glutaminergic modulation of centrally evoked arrhythmias in rats

A standard electrical stimulus applied to the posterior hypothalamus evoked cardiac arrhythmogenic responses in the spontaneously hypertensive rat. Isolated premature ventricular beats or doublets and nonsustained ventricular tachycardic salvos were observed. This effect was associated with a large rise in blood pressure (79 +/- 3 mm Hg). The same stimulus in normotensive Wistar-Kyoto rats produced no significant cardiac arrhythmias, and the rise in blood pressure was smaller (36 +/- 2 mm Hg). We investigated the influence of baclofen, a GABAB receptor agonist, and two N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonists on the arrhythmogenic response to hypothalamic stimulation. Intravenous baclofen (3 mg/kg) had no effect in the normotensive Wistar-Kyoto rats, but in the spontaneously hypertensive rats it enhanced the adjusted mean value of the number of extrasystoles from 0.5 +/- 0.5 to 18 +/- 1 (P < .001). This value was also increased (from 3 +/- 1 to 17 +/- 1, P < .001) by an intracisternal injection of baclofen (1 micrograms/kg). This facilitatory effect of baclofen was prevented by treatment with atenolol (0.5 mg/kg). Two glutamate receptor antagonists, ketamine (7.5 mg/kg IV) and kynurenic acid (200 micrograms/kg intracerebroventricularly), prevented both the arrhythmogenic response to the hypothalamic stimulation and its facilitation by baclofen. The study confirms that hypothalamic stimulation facilitates the development of arrhythmias through a sympathetic drive and that these arrhythmias are easier to induce in spontaneously hypertensive rats than in normotensive Wistar-Kyoto rats. Both the central GABAergic and the glutamatergic systems are implicated in the development of these ventricular arrhythmias, since baclofen could disinhibit the glutamatergic central pathway. These results could account for the ability of the spontaneously hypertensive rats to develop ventricular arrhythmias of central origin.

Hemodynamic and cardiac anti-hypertrophic actions of clonidine in Goldblatt one-kidney, one-clip rats

In congestive heart failure, the chronic sympathetic hyperactivity contributes to a poor prognosis. In this respect, clonidine, a centrally acting sympathoinhibitory drug, has previously been tested in clinical trials. The aim of the current study was to evaluate the effects of clonidine on morbidity and mortality in an experimental model of cardiac hypertrophy associated with hypertension, renal failure, and intense sympathetic activation. One-kidney, one-clip Goldblatt hypertensive rats were treated orally with clonidine (200 microg/kg/d) during 30 days and were compared with untreated rats and with sham-operated animals. Cardiac hemodynamics, left ventricular volume and elasticity, cardiac morphometry and histology, and renal function were evaluated. A survival study was also performed. Clonidine normalized cardiac function, ventricular stiffness, and prevented ventricular structural remodeling. Moreover, despite a marked renal function impairment, survival of the animals was increased in the clonidine group. The centrally acting sympathoinhibitory drug clonidine exhibited marked cardioprotective properties. This study emphasized the interest of evaluating drugs whose aim is to treat congestive heart failure, in an experimental model of cardiac and renal failure.

Chronic treatment with rilmenidine in spontaneously hypertensive rats: differences between two schedules of administration

Rilmenidine is one of the lead compounds of the second generation of centrally acting antihypertensive drugs. In the first part of this study, 2 routes of administration of chronic treatment (1 month) with rilmenidine were compared. In conscious and pentobarbital-anesthetized spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR), rilmenidine was delivered intraperitoneally either 250 microg/kg b.i.d. or 500 microg/kg/d infusion by means of minipumps. The possibility of rilmenidine-induced desensitization of central (brain cortex) and/or peripheral (kidney) alpha2-adrenoreceptors was studied in saturation experiments with the classic alpha2-adrenergic antagonist [H]rauwolscine. In the second part of this study, the cardiovascular and cardiac antihypertrophic effects of the most efficient procedure were investigated. The discontinuous administration of the drug was more effective than infusion. In rats treated with rilmenidine b.i.d., mean blood pressure was reduced by nearly 15% when no reduction occurred in SHRs treated with minipumps. With the first schedule of administration, plasma concentration of the drug reached a maximum of approximately 30 ng/ml when it was only 12 ng/ml with the continuous infusion of the same dose. Anesthesia with pentobarbital potentiated the antihypertensive effect of rilmenidine in rats treated discontinuously and unmasked an antihypertensive action in rats receiving the drug with minipumps. In saturation binding experiments, no significant changes in adrenergic receptors were observed in kidney membrane preparations. In contrast, in brain cortical membranes a reduction by about 50% of the Bmax of [H]rauwolscine value was observed in rats treated discontinuously with rilmenidine. In contrast, a 400% increase of the Bmax was observed in the brain of rats treated with minipumps. Over the one-month period of the second study, the discontinuous treatment with the 500 microg/kg/d dose of rilmenidine was still able to reduce blood pressure, at least at the peak concentration time, but did not induce any significant reduction of the ventricular mass. In conclusion, rilmenidine has only weak antihypertensive effects in conscious SHRs, even at doses higher than those that are active in rabbits and humans. As a consequence, it lacks significant cardiac antihypertrophic effects in this species. Pharmacokinetic data show that the rapid plasma withdrawal of this drug may explain this particular feature in rats.

TAG antagonises the central cardiovascular effects of taurine

The taurine antagonist TAG was examined for its blocking activity towards the central cardiovascular effects of taurine and muscimol. Intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) injections of taurine (1-1000 micrograms/kg) and muscimol (0.1-3 micrograms/kg) in the anesthetised cat led to hypotension and bradycardia. Pretreatment with TAG (1 mg/kg i.c.v.) antagonised the blood pressure effects of taurine. The selectivity of this antagonism is discussed since TAG also shifted to the right the blood pressure dose-response curve obtained with muscimol.

Nitric oxide and central antihypertensive drugs: one more difference between catecholamines and imidazolines

NO is known to be involved in the peripheral and central regulation of the cardiovascular function. It plays a neuromodulatory role via a direct action on presynaptic nerve terminals, stimulating the release of gamma-aminobutyric acid, glutamate, and norepinephrine. Our aim was to study the possible role of NO in the cardiovascular effects of the central antihypertensive drugs clonidine, rilmenidine, and alpha-methyl-norepinephrine (alpha-MNA). Sites and mechanisms of the hypotensive action of these drugs were different; clonidine and rilmenidine acted on imidazoline receptors in the nucleus reticularis lateralis, whereas alpha-MNA acted upon alpha(2)-adrenoceptors in the nucleus tractus solitarius. The influence of N:(G)-nitro-L-arginine, an NO synthase inhibitor, on the central hypotensive effects of these drugs was investigated in pentobarbital-anesthetized rabbits. The intracisternal (IC) administration of alpha-MNA (30 microg/kg) induced hypotension (79+/-2 versus 103+/-4 mm Hg) and bradycardia (222+/-8 versus 278+/-4 bpm) (P:<0.05) (n=5). Clonidine (0.07 microg/kg IC) also induced hypotension (69+/-5 versus 99+/-4 mm Hg) and bradycardia (266+/-7 versus 306+/-10 bpm) (P:<0.05) (n=5). In addition to clonidine, rilmenidine (1 microg/kg IC) induced hypotension (64+/-4 versus 97+/-4 mm Hg) and bradycardia (264+/-11 versus 310+/-4 bpm) (P:<0.05) (n=5). Pretreatment with N:(G)-nitro-L-arginine (900 microg/kg IC) completely prevented the hypotensive effect of alpha-MNA but influenced the cardiovascular effects of neither clonidine nor rilmenidine. These results confirm that imidazoline drugs, such as clonidine, rilmenidine, and the catecholamine alpha(2)-adrenoceptor agonist alpha-MNA, have distinct mechanisms of action.

Cardiovascular effects of clonidine-like drugs in pithed rabbits

Administration (3 to 100 microg/kg IV) of clonidine, rilmenidine, and an imidazoline derivative, 2-(2-chlorophenylamino)imidazoline, in pithed nonstimulated rabbits caused a dose-dependent increase in mean arterial pressure without affecting heart rate. Prazosin (0.1 mg/kg IV) almost abolished the pressor responses to 2-(2-chlorophenylamino)imidazoline, partially inhibited those induced by clonidine, but failed to affect those elicited by rilmenidine. In contrast, yohimbine (1 mg/kg IV) blunted the pressor responses of the 3 drugs. In sympathetically stimulated pithed rabbits, 2-(2-chlorophenylamino)imidazoline induced only pressor effects, whereas clonidine and rilmenidine caused a transient pressure increase followed by a dose-dependent depressor effect. Yohimbine abolished the depressor effect of both drugs, which may have involved presynaptic alpha(2)-adrenoceptors. In conclusion, peripheral effects of 2-(2-chlorophenylamino)imidazoline and clonidine involved at least alpha(1)- and alpha(2)-adrenoceptor activation, whereas pressor and depressor effects of rilmenidine were mediated by alpha(2)-adrenoceptors.

Heterogeneity of imidazoline binding sites revealed by a cirazoline derivative

The affinity of AMPI (2-[3-aminophenoxy]methyl imidazoline) for [3H]clonidine and [3H]idazoxan imidazoline binding sites was determined in various rabbit and human tissues. Although cirazoline showed a high affinity (nM range) in all the tested tissues, its derivative, AMPI, had a high affinity (nM range) in rabbit brain and kidney but a low affinity (microM range) in the human brain. These differences in affinities were very similar to those obtained with amiloride. The same results were obtained when considering [3H]clonidine or [3H]idazoxan specific imidazoline binding sites.

Pharmacological analysis of the central cardiovascular effects of four GABA analogues

The central cardiovascular effects of 4 structural analogues of GABA were investigated. The drugs were injected intracerebroventricularly (i.c.v.) in cumulative doses into pentobarbital-anaesthetized normotensive rats. Muscimol (0.01-10 micrograms/kg), THIP (0.01-100 micrograms/kg), kojic amine (0.1-100 micrograms/kg) and isoguvacine (0.1-100 micrograms/kg) produced dose-dependent hypotension and bradycardia. The maximal fall in the mean blood pressure was of about 35% of the initial values. These effects appears to be of central origin since the intravenous (i.v.) injection of the same doses of the drugs did not produce any similar cardiovascular modifications. The hypotensive effects of muscimol and kojic amine were antagonized partly by i.c.v. bicuculline. The combination of bicuculline and kainic acid almost completely prevented the blood pressure lowering effects of muscimol, kojic amine and isoguvacine. THIP however was only slightly antagonized by bicuculline and kainic acid. Atropine i.v. also prevented partly the cardiovascular effects of all these drugs. Thus, the mechanisms of the central cardiovascular actions of GABA analogues appear to be more complex than expected and variable from one drug to another. The involvement of GABA receptors of the A and B types and of cholinergic mechanisms in the hypotensive effect of the drugs is discussed.

Does rilmenidine act in vivo on central α2-adrenoceptors modulating noradrenaline release?

Noradrenaline release evoked by electrical stimulation was recorded in the rat hypothalamus by in vivo electrochemistry. Rilmenidine (0.3-10 mg kg-1 i.v.) did not diminish this evoked release while clonidine induced a dose-dependent decrease. These results further suggest that the antihypertensive action of rilmenidine is not mediated by central alpha 2-adrenoceptors and might explain why, unlike clonidine, rilmenidine does not have sedative effects.

Comparative effects of idazoxan, prazosin, and yohimbine on coronary ligation-induced arrhythmias in spontaneously hypertensive rats

We investigated whether certain drugs with alpha-adrenergic antagonist activity display anti-arrhythmic effects in hypertensive animals subjected to acute coronary artery ligation. The left anterior descending coronary artery (LAD) was ligated in open-chest pentobarbital-anesthetized spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR); arrhythmias were subsequently recorded for 30 min. Drugs were administered intravenously, (i.v.) 5 min before ligation. The effects of yohimbine and idazoxan were compared with those of prazosin. Prazosin (100 mu g/kg) increased the occurrence of ventricular tachycardia (VT). In contrast, yohimbine 1.6 mg/kg decreased both the occurrence and the duration of VT and the occurrence and the duration of ventricular fibrillation, (VF). The results obtained with idazoxan 1 mg/kg were similar to those with yohimbine. The ECG alterations induced by coronary artery ligation in rats treated with yohimbine and idazoxan were more pronounced than in controls and in rats treated with prazosin, suggesting that the antiarrhythmic effects observed were not mediated by antiischemic activity. The protective effects against ligation-induced arrhythmias were preceded by a hypotensive effect and a decrease in the rate-pressure product in yohimbine-treated but not in idazoxan-treated animals. In rats treated with prazosin, more arrhythmic events were observed, although hemodynamics were similar to those in rats treated with yohimbine. Our results suggest that the yohimbine-induced antiarrhythmic action is not due to an alteration of conduction or repolarization rates. In this model, yohimbine and idazoxan appear to protect against ligation-induced arrhythmias. These data suggest that drugs with alpha-adrenergic properties might influence the nervous drive to the heart in SHR with cardiac ischemia. However, further investigations are needed to ascertain whether the alpha-adrenoceptor blockade participates in this effect.

Nitric oxide discriminates the sites and mechanisms of action of centrally acting anti-hypertensive drugs in rabbits

The aim of the present study was to further investigate the mechanisms of the central hypotensive action of catecholamines and imidazolines, in particular the role of nitric oxide (NO). Microinjections into the nucleus reticularis lateralis (NRL/RVLM) located in the rostroventrolateral part of the medulla (RVLM) and/or into the nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS) were performed in pentobarbital-anesthetized rabbits. Microinjections of brimonidine (1 ng/kg), which binds both alpha(2)-adrenergic receptors (alpha(2)-ARs) and I(1) imidazoline receptors (I(1)Rs), into the NRL/RVLM induced hypotension (69+/-2 vs. 88+/-2 mm Hg) (p<0.05). Microinjections of S23757 (1 microg/kg), an antagonist highly selective for I(1)Rs, into the same site, prevented the hypotensive effect of brimonidine. These data show that the hypotensive effects of low doses of brimonidine involve the I(1)Rs of the NRL/RVLM. Alpha-methylnoradrenaline (alpha-MNA) (0.5 microg/kg) microinjected into the NTS induced hypotension (76+/-4 vs. 91+/-4 mm Hg) (p<0.05). Microinjections of a low dose of brimonidine (1 ng/kg) into the NTS had no blood pressure (BP) effect at all. In contrast, a higher dose (10 ng/kg) acting on alpha(2)-ARs induced hypotension (72+/-3 vs. 96+/-2 mm Hg) (p<0.05). Nomega-Nitro-L-arginine (L-NNA) (1.5 microg/kg) injected into the NRL/RVLM prevented the hypotensive effect of both alpha-MNA and the higher dose of brimonidine injected into the NTS. Bicuculline (1.5 microg/kg) injected into the NRL/RVLM prevented the hypotensive effect of alpha-MNA injected into the NTS. It is demonstrated that (i) the activation of alpha(2)-ARs of NTS triggers a neuronal GABAergic pathway projecting to the NRL/RVLM region which is NO dependent (ii) both alpha(2)-adrenergic (NTS) and non-adrenergic I(1)R (NRL/RVLM) mechanisms account for the very powerful hypotensive effect of brimonidine, a compound with high affinities at both types of receptors.

MK-801 and memantine inhibit a centrally induced increase in myocardial oxygen demand in rabbits

Electrical stimulation of the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus in the anaesthetized rabbit induces an increase in indexes of myocardial oxygen demand. This increase in myocardial oxygen demand is due to the activation of sympathetic pathways which include glutamatergic relays. In this model, systemic injection of dizolcipine (MK-801) and memantine inhibited these responses. Because these drugs have only one pharmacological property in common i.e. blockade of the NMDA receptor channel complex, these results fit with our previous results concerning the possible involvement of NMDA receptors in the central control of sympathetic activation. Memantine appears to be an interesting prototype for centrally acting cardioprotective drugs devoid of serious side effects.