Carbohydrate structural analysis of wheat flour arabinogalactan protein

The water-extractable arabinogalactan protein (AGP) was isolated from bread wheat flour (Triticum aestivum L. variety Cadenza) and the structure of the arabinogalactan (AG) carbohydrate component was studied. Oligosaccharides, released by hydrolysis of the AG with a range of AGP-specific enzymes, were characterised by Matrix Assisted Laser Desorption Ionisation (MALDI)-Time of Flight (ToF)-Mass Spectrometry (MS), MALDI-ToF/ToF high energy collision induced dissociation (CID) and Polysaccharide Analysis by Carbohydrate gel Electrophoresis (PACE). The AG is composed of a β-(1→3)-D-galactan backbone with β-(1→6)-D-galactan side chains. These side chains are highly variable in length, from one to at least 20 Gal residues and are highly substituted with α-L-Araf. Single GlcA residues are also present at the non-reducing termini of some short β-(1→6)-galactan side chains. In addition, the β-(1→6)-galactan side chains are also substituted with β-L-Arap. We propose a polysaccharide structure of the wheat flour AGP that is substantially revised from earlier models.

Effects of genotype and environment on the content and composition of phytochemicals and dietary fiber components in rye in the HEALTHGRAIN diversity screen

The effects of genotype and environment on the content of bioactive components in rye were determined with four varieties being grown on one site for three years and on three additional sites in the third year and a fourth variety being included in all trials except year 1. Clear differences were observed in the extent to which the contents of dietary fiber components (arabinoxylan, beta-glucan, total dietary fiber) and phytochemicals (folates, alkylresorcinols, sterols, tocols, phenolic acids) varied between varieties and between the same varieties grown in different sites (United Kingdom, France, Hungary, Poland) and years (2005-2007 in Hungary), with sterols being the most stable and phenolic acids the least. However, no single variety could be selected as having the highest overall level of bioactive components or as being more stable in comparison across environments.

The HEALTHGRAIN wheat diversity screen: effects of genotype and environment on phytochemicals and dietary fiber components

Analysis of the contents of bioactive components (tocols, sterols, alkylresorcinols, folates, phenolic acids, and fiber components) in 26 wheat cultivars grown in six site x year combinations showed that the extent of variation due to variety and environment differed significantly between components. The total contents of tocols, sterols, and arabinoxylan fiber were highly heritable and hence an appropriate target for plant breeding. However, significant correlations between the contents of bioactive components and environmental factors (precipitation and temperature) during grain development also occurred, with even highly heritable components differing in amount between grain samples grown in different years on different sites.

Effects of environment and genotype on phenolic acids in wheat in the HEALTHGRAIN diversity screen

Phenolic acid content and composition have been determined in 26 wheat genotypes grown in Hungary over three consecutive years and at three additional locations (France, United Kingdom, and Poland) during the third year. Fractions comprising free, soluble conjugated, and bound phenolic acids were analyzed using HPLC with measurements being made for individual phenolic acids in each fraction. Statistically significant differences in phenolic acid content occurred across the different growing locations with the average total phenolic acid content being highest in the genotypes grown in Hungary. The growth year in Hungary also had a large impact, especially on the free and conjugated phenolic acid contents. Certain genotypes were more resistant to environmental impacts than others. Of the genotypes with high levels of total phenolic acids, Lynx, Riband, Tommi, and Cadenza were most stable with respect to their total contents, whereas Valoris, Herzog, and Malacca, also high in phenolic acid content, were least stable. Of the three fractions analyzed, the free and conjugated phenolic acids were most variable and were also susceptible to the effect of environment, whereas bound phenolic acids, which comprised the greatest proportion of the total phenolic acids, were the most stable.

Combined meta-genomics analyses unravel candidate genes for the grain dietary fiber content in bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)

Grain dietary fiber content in wheat not only affects its end use and technological properties including milling, baking and animal feed but is also of great importance for health benefits. In this study, integration of association genetics (seven detected loci on chromosomes 1B, 3A, 3D, 5B, 6B, 7A, 7B) and meta-QTL (three consensus QTL on chromosomes 1B, 3D and 6B) analyses allowed the identification of seven chromosomal regions underlying grain dietary fiber content in bread wheat. Based either on a diversity panel or on bi-parental populations, we clearly demonstrate that this trait is mainly driven by a major locus located on chromosome 1B associated with a log of p value >13 and a LOD score >8, respectively. In parallel, we identified 73 genes differentially expressed during the grain development and between genotypes with contrasting grain fiber contents. Integration of quantitative genetics and transcriptomic data allowed us to propose a short list of candidate genes that are conserved in the rice, sorghum and Brachypodium chromosome regions orthologous to the seven wheat grain fiber content QTL and that can be considered as major candidate genes for future improvement of the grain dietary fiber content in bread wheat breeding programs.

Temporal and spatial changes in cell wall composition in developing grains of wheat cv. Hereward

A combination of enzyme mapping, FT-IR microscopy and NMR spectroscopy was used to study temporal and spatial aspects of endosperm cell wall synthesis and deposition in developing grain of bread wheat cv. Hereward. This confirmed previous reports that changes in the proportions of the two major groups of cell wall polysaccharides occur, with beta-glucan accumulating earlier in development than arabinoxylan. Changes in the structure of the arabinoxylan occurred, with decreased proportions of disubstituted xylose residues and increased proportions of monosubstituted xylose residues. These are likely to result, at least in part, from arabinoxylan restructuring catalysed by enzymes such as arabinoxylan arabinofurano hydrolase and lead to changes in cell wall mechanical properties which may be required to withstand stresses during grain maturation and desiccation.

Accumulation, distribution, and speciation of arsenic in wheat grain

Food can be an important source of inorganic As for human intake. Recent studies have focused on rice, while little information is available on As accumulation, distribution, and speciation in wheat, which is the second most important food grain cereal. Grain samples of 26 wheat cultivars grown in five field trials located in productive farming regions in Europe were therefore analyzed for As concentration and speciation. Grain from four trials contained low concentrations of total As (7.7 +/- 5.4 microg kg(-1)), reflecting low levels of As in the soils (1.3-11 mg kg(-1)). In contrast, at one of the trial sites the As level in the soil was greater (29 mg kg(-1)), and much higher As concentrations (69 +/- 17 microg kg(-1)) were present in the wheat grain. Milling of wheat grain into bran and white flour fraction showed the concentration of As in the bran, with a 3.8-4.7-fold higher As concentration than in the white flour. Two methods (a phosphate buffer solution and 1% HNO(3)) were used to extract As species from wholemeal, bran, and white flour of wheat, with average extraction efficiencies of 65% and 88%, respectively. Only inorganic As was found in the extracts, with no methylated As being detected. The contribution of wheat to human intake of inorganic As is small for wheat crops grown in uncontaminated soils but becomes significant for those grown in soils with elevated As. In the latter case, milling can be used to reduce the As concentration in the white flour.

Structural stability and surface activity of sunflower 2S albumins and nonspecific lipid transfer protein

The structural and interfacial properties of five different fractions of sunflower ( Helianthus annuus L.) seed storage proteins were studied. The fractions comprised lipid transfer protein (LTP), the methionine-rich 2S albumin SFA8 (sunflower albumin 8), and three mixtures of non-methionine-rich 2S albumins called Alb1 and Alb2 proteins (sunflower albumins 1 and 2). Heating affected all of the proteins studied, with SFA8 and LTP becoming more surface active than the native proteins after heating and cooling. LTP appeared to be less thermostable than homologous LTPs from other plant species. SFA8 generated the greatest elastic modulus and formed the most stable emulsions, whereas LTP showed poorer emulsification properties. The mixed 2S albumin fractions showed moderate levels of surface activity but had the poorest emulsification properties among the proteins studied.

The structural characteristics of nonspecific lipid transfer proteins explain their resistance to gastroduodenal proteolysis

The structure and stability of the allergenic nonspecific lipid transfer protein (LTP) of peach were compared with the homologous LTP1 of barley and its liganded form LTP1b. All three proteins were resistant to gastric pepsinolysis and were only slowly digested at 1 to 2 out of 14 potential tryptic and chymotryptic cleavage sites under duodenal conditions. Peach LTP was initially cleaved at Tyr79-Lys80 and then at Arg39-Thr40 (a site lost in barley LTP1). Molecular dynamics simulations of the proteins under folded conditions showed that the backbone flexibility is limited, explaining the resistance to duodenal proteolysis. Arg39 and Lys80 side chains were more flexible in simulations of peach compared with barley LTP1. This may explain differences in the rates of cleavage observed experimentally for the two proteins and suggests that the flexibility of individual amino acid side chains could be important in determining preferred proteolytic cleavage sites. In order to understand resistance to pepsinolysis, proteins were characterized by NMR spectroscopy at pH 1.8. This showed that the helical regions of both proteins remain folded at this pH. NMR hydrogen exchange studies confirmed the rigidity of the structures at acidic pH, with barley LTP1 showing some regions with greater protection. Collectively, these data suggest that the rigidity of the LTP scaffold is responsible for their resistance to proteolysis. Gastroduodenal digestion conditions do not disrupt the 3D structure of peach LTP, explaining why LTPs retain their ability to bind IgE after digestion and hence their allergenic potential.

Effects of crop nutrition on wheat grain composition and end use quality

Increasing applications of nitrogen fertilizer to wheat (from 0 to 288 kg/ha) resulted in an increased proportion of gliadin proteins and increased dough extensibility. Flour from a plot receiving 192 kg/ha N (and no S) was similar to that from a plot receiving 192 kg/ha N and 53 kg/ha S, but the proportion of omega-gliadins was increased and dough strength was more similar to that from plots with lower N. The grain %N from a plot receiving 35 t/ha farmyard manure was similar to that from the plot receiving 144 kg/ha N, indicating that much of the applied N was unavailable. The protein composition and dough properties of flour from this plot were similar to those of grain from conventionally fertilized plots with similar grain N contents. Similar differences in grain N content, protein composition, and functional properties were observed in grain samples from commercial organic and conventional farms.

Down-regulation of the CSLF6 gene results in decreased (1,3;1,4)-beta-D-glucan in endosperm of wheat

(1,3;1,4)-beta-d-Glucan (beta-glucan) accounts for 20% of the total cell walls in the starchy endosperm of wheat (Triticum aestivum) and is an important source of dietary fiber for human nutrition with potential health benefits. Bioinformatic and array analyses of gene expression profiles in developing caryopses identified the CELLULOSE SYNTHASE-LIKE F6 (CSLF6) gene as encoding a putative beta-glucan synthase. RNA interference constructs were therefore designed to down-regulate CSLF6 gene expression and expressed in transgenic wheat under the control of a starchy endosperm-specific HMW subunit gene promoter. Analysis of wholemeal flours using an enzyme-based kit and by high-performance anion-exchange chromatography after digestion with lichenase showed decreases in total beta-glucan of between 30% and 52% and between 36% and 53%, respectively, in five transgenic lines compared to three control lines. The content of water-extractable beta-glucan was also reduced by about 50% in the transgenic lines, and the M(r) distribution of the fraction was decreased from an average of 79 to 85 x 10(4) g/mol in the controls and 36 to 57 x 10(4) g/mol in the transgenics. Immunolocalization of beta-glucan in semithin sections of mature and developing grains confirmed that the impact of the transgene was confined to the starchy endosperm with little or no effect on the aleurone or outer layers of the grain. The results confirm that the CSLF6 gene of wheat encodes a beta-glucan synthase and indicate that transgenic manipulation can be used to enhance the health benefits of wheat products.

Free amino acids and sugars in rye grain: implications for acrylamide formation

Acrylamide forms from free asparagine and sugars during cooking, and products derived from the grain of cereals, including rye, contribute a large proportion of total dietary intake. In this study, free amino acid and sugar concentrations were measured in the grain of a range of rye varieties grown at locations in Hungary, France, Poland, and the United Kingdom and harvested in 2005, 2006, and 2007. Genetic and environmental (location and harvest year) effects on the levels of acrylamide precursors were assessed. The data showed free asparagine concentration to be the main determinant of acrylamide formation in heated rye flour, as it is in wheat. However, in contrast to wheat, sugar, particularly sucrose, concentration also correlated both with asparagine concentration and with acrylamide formed. Free asparagine concentration was shown to be under genetic (G), environmental (E), and integrated (G x E) control. The same was true for glucose, whereas maltose and fructose were affected mainly by environmental factors and sucrose was largely under genetic control. The ratio of variation due to varieties (genotype) to the total variation (a measure of heritability) for free asparagine concentration in the grain was 23%. Free asparagine concentration was closely associated with bran yield, whereas sugar concentration was associated with low Hagberg falling number. Rye grain was found to contain much higher concentrations of free proline than wheat grain, and less acrylamide formed per unit of asparagine in rye than in wheat flour.

Expression of the 1Ax1 transgene in an elite Chinese wheat variety and its effect on functional properties

BACKGROUND

The transfer of transgenes from 'model' wheat genotypes into elite wheat cultivars using conventional plant breeding is an alternative strategy for improving the dough quality of wheat. Thus a cross was made between a popular Chinese elite wheat cultivar of the Yangzi River down-central area that expresses high-molecular-weight glutenin subunit (HMW-GS): 1Bx7 + 1By8 plus 1Dx2 + 1Dy12, and a model transgenic wheat line B102-1-2 which over-expresses HMW-GS 1Ax1 in an L88-31 genetic background that includes HMW-GS 1Bx17 + By18.

RESULTS

F(1) to F(6) generations of crosses between B102-1-2 (paternal) and Emai (maternal) were analysed for their HMW-GS compositions, allowing the selection of pure F(6) lines over-expressing HMS-GS 1Ax1 in the presence of the endogenous HMW-GS: 1Bx7 + 1By8 with 1Dx2 + 1Dy12, and 1Bx17 + 1By18 with 1Dx2 + 1Dy12. Analysis of the F(6) lines showed changes in the extensograph parameters, with increases in peak area, resistance to extension, and extensibility and peak resistance to extension, similar to those observed in the transgenic paternal line B102-1-2.

CONCLUSION

This work showed that the expression levels of the 1Ax1 transgene and the effects on dough properties were similar in the transgenic parental line B102-1-2 and the F(6) progeny generated from a cross with an elite Chinese cultivar Emai. The feasibility of using transgenic lines expressing HMW-GS subunits in conventional breeding programmes was demonstrated.

NanoSIMS analysis of arsenic and selenium in cereal grain

*Cereals are an important source of selenium (Se) to humans and many people have inadequate intakes of this essential trace element. Conversely, arsenic (As) is toxic and may accumulate in rice grain at levels that pose a health risk. Knowledge of the localization of selenium and arsenic within the cereal grain will aid understanding of their deposition patterns and the impact of processes such as milling. *High-resolution secondary ion mass spectrometry (NanoSIMS) was used to determine the localization of Se in wheat (Triticum aestivum) and As in rice (Oryza sativa). Combined synchrotron X-ray fluorescence (S-XRF) and NanoSIMS analysis utilized the strengths of both techniques. *Selenium was concentrated in the protein surrounding the starch granules in the starchy endosperm cells and more homogeneously distributed in the aleurone cells but with Se-rich hotspots. Arsenic was concentrated in the subaleurone endosperm cells in association with the protein matrix rather than in the aleurone cells. NanoSIMS indicated that the high intensity of As identified in the S-XRF image was localized in micron-sized hotspots near the ovular vascular trace and nucellar projection. *This is the first study showing subcellular localization in grain samples containing parts per million concentrations of Se and As. There is good quantitative agreement between NanoSIMS and S-XRF.

NanoSIMS analysis of arsenic and selenium in cereal grain

*Cereals are an important source of selenium (Se) to humans and many people have inadequate intakes of this essential trace element. Conversely, arsenic (As) is toxic and may accumulate in rice grain at levels that pose a health risk. Knowledge of the localization of selenium and arsenic within the cereal grain will aid understanding of their deposition patterns and the impact of processes such as milling. *High-resolution secondary ion mass spectrometry (NanoSIMS) was used to determine the localization of Se in wheat (Triticum aestivum) and As in rice (Oryza sativa). Combined synchrotron X-ray fluorescence (S-XRF) and NanoSIMS analysis utilized the strengths of both techniques. *Selenium was concentrated in the protein surrounding the starch granules in the starchy endosperm cells and more homogeneously distributed in the aleurone cells but with Se-rich hotspots. Arsenic was concentrated in the subaleurone endosperm cells in association with the protein matrix rather than in the aleurone cells. NanoSIMS indicated that the high intensity of As identified in the S-XRF image was localized in micron-sized hotspots near the ovular vascular trace and nucellar projection. *This is the first study showing subcellular localization in grain samples containing parts per million concentrations of Se and As. There is good quantitative agreement between NanoSIMS and S-XRF.

A novel transcriptomic approach to identify candidate genes for grain quality traits in wheat

A novel methodology is described in which transcriptomics is combined with the measurement of bread-making quality and other agronomic traits for wheat genotypes grown in different environments (wet and cool or hot and dry conditions) to identify transcripts associated with these traits. Seven doubled haploid lines from the Spark x Rialto mapping population were selected to be matched for development and known alleles affecting quality. These were grown in polytunnels with different environments applied 14 days post-anthesis, and the whole experiment was repeated over 2 years. Transcriptomics using the wheat Affymetrix chip was carried out on whole caryopsis samples at two stages during grain filling. Transcript abundance was correlated with the traits for approximately 400 transcripts. About 30 of these were selected as being of most interest, and markers were derived from them and mapped using the population. Expression was identified as being under cis control for 11 of these and under trans control for 18. These transcripts are candidates for involvement in the biological processes which underlie genotypic variation in these traits.