Role of furin in delivery of a CTL epitope of an anthrax toxin-fusion protein

Anthrax toxin lethal factor (LF) in combination with anthrax toxin protective antigen (PA) was endocytosed and translocated to the cytosol of mammalian cells. Residues 1-255 of anthrax toxin lethal factor (LFn) was fused to a cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) epitope of an influenza virus. For processing the toxins, PA must be cleaved into a 63-kDa fragment (PA63) by furin, which is a subtilisin-like processing endo-protease expressed by many eukaryotic cells. To test the ability of cells treated with the LFn fusion protein plus PA to deliver the epitope, CTL assay was performed. Two types of cell lines were identified, one was able to deliver CTL epitope while the other failed to efficiently deliver the epitope. To further elucidate the differences between these cells, the role of furin in these cells was examined. Disruption of the furin gene reduced its ability to deliver the CTL epitope. Furin expression in cells capable of efficiently delivering CTL epitope was quantitatively higher than in cells unable to deliver the epitope. The results suggest that furin plays a critical role in delivery of the CTL epitope of LFn fusion protein.

Use of antiserum-coated latex particles for serotyping Streptococcus pneumoniae

The Quellung reaction provides a standard means for serotyping Streptococcus pneumoniae, but it requires microscopic examination with skillful technique. We have developed an improved agglutination method with anti-rabbit IgG-coated latex particles, which are sensitized with pooled antisera for serotyping/serogrouping S. pneumoniae. Our method is as specific and sensitive as the Quellung test, and much easier to perform.

Aerogenous spread of primary lung adenocarcinoma induces ultrastructural remodeling of the alveolar capillary endothelium

To determine whether pulmonary alveolar capillaries manifest ultrastructural remodeling at areas of neoplastic invasion of primary lung adenocarcinomas, we examined 17 well-differentiated adenocarcinomas of lung (2 bronchioloalveolar and 15 papillary adenocarcinomas) by electron microscopy. The expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) was demonstrated by immunohistochemical stainings. VEGF messenger RNA (mRNA) isoforms were detected by reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) in alveolar walls microdissected from normal and tumor-associated tissues. Cytoplasm of neoplastic cells expressed VEGF protein in all patients. Endothelial cell nuclei of alveolar capillaries showed positive reaction for PCNA. Alveolar capillary lumina were distended like venules, and some intercellular junctions remained open. The cytoplasm of the capillary endothelial cells was enlarged and developed numerous organelles such as Weibel-Palade bodies and vesiculovacuolar organelles, in contrast to marked attenuation in their normal counterpart. Capillary sprouting occurred from proper alveolar capillaries in 2 patients. Cytoplasmic segments became extremely attenuated and developed diaphragm-like fenestrae in 65% of the patients. A relatively higher expression of diffusable isoforms of VEGF mRNA was seen in the tumor-bearing alveolar walls than in normal walls. Expression of KDR (one of the VEGF receptors) mRNA in tumor exceeded that in normal tissues. These results suggest that diffusable isoforms of VEGF mRNA released from the neoplastic cells are deeply involved in the induction of growth activity of alveolar capillary endothelial cells as much as in the characterization of tumor-associated microvessels in primary lung adenocarcinomas.

Ebola hemorrhagic fever (EHF): mechanism of transmission and pathogenicity

Hemorrhagic fevers represent a wide spectrum of viral infectious diseases, out-breaking mostly as epidemics, some of them being highly lethal. They range from those caused by bunyaviridae, associated with renal or pulmonary syndromes and those recently emerging and caused by the filoviridae family of thread-like viruses. Among the latter, Ebola hemorrhagic fever (EHF) bears the highest mortality and morbidity rates. One form of the disease has been documented only in monkeys. The human form, has occurred mainly in areas surrounding rain forests in central Africa. Patients present with signs of hemorrhagic diathesis, fever, diarrhea and neurological disorders, leading sometimes to confusion with local endemic diseases. Fatal victims of the disease die of dehydration. Poor hygienic conditions facilitate the spread of the virus. Biologically, the virus seems to target both the host blood coagulative and immune defense systems. Intensive epidemiologic search have failed to establish the definitive natural host of the virus. Twice, with a 19-year interval, major outbreaks have taken place in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The second major outbreak in the northwestern city of Kikwit in April 1995 will serve here to elucidate the mechanism of the viral infection.

[The effects of ideal-real self discrepancy and irrational belief on self acceptance]

The purpose of the present study was to clarify the effects of positive ideal-real self discrepancy, negative ideal-real self discrepancy, and irrational belief on self acceptance. A total of 464 university and vocational school students, an average of 21.1 years old, participated. Results confirmed the prediction that the smaller the positive ideal-real discrepancy, and the larger negative ideal-real discrepancy, the higher is the self acceptance score. It was also found that the effects of the positive ideal-real self discrepancy depended on the intensity of irrational belief, and the belief was thus a moderator of the effect. On the other hand, the intensity of irrational belief did not moderate the effect of negative ideal-real self discrepancy. Finally, the findings were discussed in relation to the effectiveness of psychotherapeutic and counseling efforts to enhance self acceptance.

In vitro activities of moxifloxacin and other fluoroquinolones against Mycoplasma pneumoniae

A total of 105 isolates of Mycoplasma pneumoniae were evaluated for susceptibility to moxifloxacin, sparfloxacin, levofloxacin, and ciprofloxacin. Moxifloxacin, a newly synthesized compound, showed the greatest activity. The MICs and MBCs at which 50 and 90% of isolates were affected were 0.15 (MIC(50) and MBC(50)) and 0.3 microg/ml (MIC(90) and MBC(90)) respectively. The results indicate that moxifloxacin might be promising an antimycoplasmal agent.

[Refractory idiopathic cold agglutinin disease successfully treated with intermittent high-dose cyclophosphamide]

A 56-year-old woman, who had been suffering from idiopathic cold agglutinin disease and treated unsuccessfully with prednisolone and cyclosporine A for 6 months, was referred to our hospital in November 1998. She was given methylprednisolone pulse therapy followed by low-dose cyclophosphamide, but her anemia did not improve. We then began administration of intermittent high-dose cyclophosphamide (1,200 mg/day, every 4 weeks), and this resulted in a dramatic increase of her hemoglobin level and improvement of her symptoms. She is currently receiving 500 mg of cyclophosphamide every 2 months and showing a good response. Intermittent high-dose cyclophosphamide therapy can be an effective treatment for refractory cold agglutinin disease.

Angiogenesis and phenotypic alteration of alveolar capillary endothelium in areas of neoplastic cell spread in primary lung adenocarcinoma

Normal alveolar capillary endothelium is quiescent in nature and displays anticoagulant thrombomodulin (TM) on its surface. The cytoplasms of these endothelial cells are ultrastructurally non-fenestrated type, and they barely express von Willebrand factor (vWf). Alveolar fibrosis is accompanied by a capillary endothelium reactive for vWf, and a loss of TM expression. In primary lung adenocarcinoma, neovascularization occurs in association with alveolar fibrosis. In order to study basic factors related to angiogenesis and phenotypic changes of the capillaries located in tumor-bearing alveolar walls, we examined 37 primary lung adenocarcinomas with electron microscopy and confocal laser scanning microscopy with antibodies for TM, vWf, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and its receptors (KDR and Flt-1), and proliferating markers (Ki-67/proliferating cell nuclear antigen). Tissues microdissected specifically from alveolar walls were used for reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) to assess expressions of mRNA isoforms of VEGF and its receptors. New capillary branching was found by ultrastructural study in the alveolar walls in 12% of the patients. Nuclei of the capillary endothelial cells were reactive for proliferating cell markers. Endothelial fenestrae were developed in 65% of the patients, TM reactivity was lost in the alveolar capillaries, and their cell cytoplasms obtained a reactivity for vWf through a transitional mosaic-like distribution pattern of both antigens. Besides cytoplasmic VEGF expression in neoplastic cells, tumor-bearing alveolar walls showed significant expression of mRNA of VEGF165 and KDR. These findings imply that angiogenesis and phenotypic changes of the alveolar capillaries are closely related to a higher expression of tumor-associated VEGF165 and of KDR in the alveolar walls in primary lung adenocarcinoma.

Identification and characterization of mouse bone marrow stromal cell lines immortalized by temperature-sensitive SV40 T antigen: supportive activity for osteoclast differentiation

Osteoblasts are derived from mesenchymal/stromal cells in bone marrow, and gain the ability to support osteoclastogenesis during differentiation though the expression of receptor activator of NF-kappaB ligand (RANKL) and macrophage-colony stimulating factor (M-CSF). However, the properties (differentiation stage and expression of osteoblast marker genes) of stromal or osteoblastic cells that have the capacity to support osteoclast differentiation are unclear. Therefore, we sought to establish and characterize bone marrow-derived stromal cell lines (TSB) from temperature-sensitive SV40 T-antigen transgenic mice to define them at the clonal level. Of the 24 randomly selected cell lines, only 2 cell lines, TSB13 and TSB20, could support osteoclast differentiation in the presence of 1alpha,25(OH)(2)D(3). In both cell lines, RANKL mRNA was induced and osteoprotegerin (OPG) mRNA was decreased in response to treatment with 1alpha,25(OH)(2)D(3) for 2 days. Other RNA expression analyses of osteoblast-specific marker genes demonstrated the following characteristics of TSB13 and TSB20: (1) alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and type I collagen genes are expressed; (2) osteocalcin and osteopontin genes are expressed at low levels, and their expression levels are upregulated after induction of differentiation by a temperature shift from 33 degrees C to 37 degrees C, or 1alpha,25(OH)(2)D(3) treatment. Consequently, the long-term culture of TSB13 and TSB20 cell lines strongly stimulated osteocalcin expression and effectively induced calcified nodule formation in the presence of phosphate. The results suggest that the supportive cells for osteoclastogenesis are restricted to a specialized population of bone marrow stromal cells, and the high ratio of RANKL vs. OPG expression found in this population after 1alpha,25(OH)(2)D(3) treatment might be a general property of osteoclast-supporting cells.

Synthesis and biological activities of novel structural analogues of 2-arachidonoylglycerol, an endogenous cannabinoid receptor ligand

Novel analogues of 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), an endogenous cannabinoid receptor ligand, were developed. Chemical synthesis of these analogues (2-AGA105 and 2-AGA109) was accomplished starting from 2-octyn-1-ol and diethyl malonate and employing Wittig coupling of triene phosphonate with an aldehyde intermediate in a convergent and stereoselective manner. These analogues should be useful lead compounds for the development of novel 2-AG mimetics.

In situ high resolution electron microscopy/electron energy loss spectroscopy observation of wetting of a Si surface by molten Al

Electron energy loss spectroscopy was used to observe the segregation of Al on a Si surface above the melting point of Al. A mixture of Al and Si particles was heated above the melting point of Al in a vacuum of 1 x 10(-5) Pa. The Si surface, which initially had been covered with an amorphous oxide layer before heating, became clean and atomically facetted when the Al melted. It was shown that the Si surface was segregated with Al.

Trehalose suppresses lipopolysaccharide-induced osteoclastogenesis bone marrow in mice

We have previously shown that trehalose suppresses bone loss in ovariectomized (OVX) mice by way of inhibiting osteoclast differentiation in bone marrow. Also, trehalose inhibits the secretion of interleukin-6 in bone marrow cell cultures, resulting in a decrease in osteoclast formation. In this study, we examined the effect of trehalose on osteoclastogenesis using another model of bone resorption, namely lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated osteoclast induction. Mice were given trehalose (1g/kg) by gastric intubation for 5 consecutive days, and 24 hours later, 14 mg/kg of LPS was injected intraperitoneally. Trehalose significantly suppressed LPS-induced tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha production after 90 min and decreased the number of osteoclasts in the bone marrow 48 hours after LPS injection. These results indicate that trehalose suppresses excessive osteoclastogenesis not only in OVX mice but also in a LPS-induced bone resorption mouse model and further suggest that the latter finding may be mediated at least in part through a decrease in TNF-alpha production.

[Experience of pediatric cardiac transplantation in the Cleveland Clinic Foundation]

Brain death was not approved on the patients under 6 years old in Japan now. It is impossible to perform cardiac transplantation on the small children. Between October 1997 and November 1998, cardiac transplantation was performed by pediatric cardiac surgical team in 11 children at the Cleveland Clinic Foundation. 7 patients were cardiomyopathy under 18 years old and 4 were congenital heart diseases in all ages. 8 were status 1 and 2 were requiring extracorporeal membrane support. Bicaval technique was exclusively utilized. There was one early death due to multiple organ failure. 10 patients underwent myocardial biopsy and the half of them had more than 3 A rejection. These acute rejections were controlled with steroid pulse therapy and OKT-3 treatment. We took part in the management of patients with pediatric cardiac transplantation at the Cleveland Clinic Foundation. Practical patient cares were described in this report.

[Right ventricular outflow tract reconstruction using monocusp valved outflow patch for pulmonary atresia with ventricular septal defect: influence of the presence of major aorto-pulmonary collateral arteries]

We have preferably utilized monocusp valved outflow patch (MVOP) for right ventricular outflow tract (RVOT) reconstruction in pulmonary atresia with ventricular septal defect (PA + VSD). The purpose of this study was to evaluate the influence of the presence of major aorto-pulmonary collateral arteries (MAPCAs) on probability of MVOP reconstruction and development of RVOT restenosis in midterm. 49 patients underwent complete repair (either MVOP reconstruction or Rastelli procedure) of PA + VSD in our service. These patients were divided into 2 groups: group 1; 21 patients with MAPCAs, group 2; 28 patients without MAPCAs. There was one operative death (group 1). The probably of MVOP reconstruction was similar between group 1 and group 2 (71 vs 79%, p = 0.57, chi 2 test). Follow-up was completed for 48 survivors with the period ranged 3-108 months (mean 47 months). In group 1, one patient died suddenly at home 10 months after surgery. For 47 long-term patients, the ratio of freedom from RVOT restenosis was 72% (95% CI: 52-92%, Kaplan-Meier method) at 5 year. There was no difference between 2 groups (group 1; 73%, 95% CI: 45-100%, group 2; 74%, 95% CI: 48-99%, respectively, p = 0.85 by Log-Rank test). The presence of MAPCAs in PA + VSD was not a risk factor for either the probably of MVOP reconstruction or development of RVOT restenosis in midterm.

Mycophenolate mofetil for the prevention and treatment of graft-versus-host disease following stem cell transplantation: preliminary findings

The therapeutic benefits of allogeneic stem cell transplantation in patients with hematologic disorders are limited by the significant morbidity and mortality of graft-versus-host disease (GVHD). Current agents for the prevention and treatment of GVHD have limited efficacy and often result in toxic side-effects. Mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) is a new immunosuppressant with a selective mechanism of action. When employed following solid organ transplantation, MMF reduces the incidence and severity of acute rejection episodes. By selectively targeting activated lymphocytes, the active metabolite of MMF, mycophenolic acid (MPA), appears to augment the actions of standard immunosuppressant agents without adding overlapping toxicities. Studies of combination regimens that include MMF report that this agent permits a dose reduction of cyclosporine, tacrolimus, or corticosteroid, without increasing the incidence of acute rejection in solid organ transplants. Reports on the efficacy of MMF following stem cell transplantation in animal studies were mixed. However, the use of a non-myeloablative conditioning regimen with a post-graft immunosuppressive regimen of MMF and cyclosporine was able to sustain stable mixed chimeras in 60% to 80% of dogs who received hematopoietic grafts from DLA-identical littermates. MMF has demonstrated activity in preliminary clinical trials for GVHD prophylaxis, and treatment of acute or chronic GVHD. Larger clinical trials are warranted to determine the optimum dose and route of MMF administration for GVHD, as well as the comparative safety and efficacy of MMF-containing regimens.

Activation by 2-arachidonoylglycerol, an endogenous cannabinoid receptor ligand, of p42/44 mitogen-activated protein kinase in HL-60 cells

2-Arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), an endogenous cannabinoid receptor ligand, was shown to induce rapid phosphorylation of p42/44 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAP kinase) in HL-60 cells. We confirmed that the enzyme activity of p42/44 MAP kinase in HL-60 cells was augmented markedly when the cells were stimulated with 2-AG. The addition of SR144528, a cannabinoid CB2 receptor-specific antagonist, to the cells prior to the addition of 2-AG abolished the response induced by 2-AG, indicating that the CB2 receptor is involved in the response. G protein G(i) or G(o) is also assumed to be involved, because pertussis toxin treatment of the cells nullified the response induced by 2-AG. CP55940 and anandamide also induced the activation of p42/44 MAP kinase, although the activation by anandamide was less pronounced than that by 2-AG or CP55940. These results suggest that 2-AG may play an important physiological role in this type of cell through the activation of the p42/44 MAP kinase cascade.

An improved method for the rapid preparation of 2-amino-4,4a-dihydro-4a,7-dimethyl-3H-phenoxazine-3-one, a novel antitumor agent

A simple and rapid preparation method for a novel antitumor agent, 2-amino-4,4a-dihydro-4a,7-dimethyl-3H-phenoxazine-3-one (Phx) was described. The procedure included (1) the reaction of bovine hemolysates with 2-amino-5-methylphenol, (2) one-shot denaturation of hemoglobin and proteins by methanol, and removal of the denatured hemoglobin and proteins, (3) concentration of the reaction products, and (4) purification by a Sephadex column. These procedures yielded Phx in 34% yield.

Cloning and functional characterization of chicken p160 coactivator family members

The factors SRC-1, TIF2 and ACTR were identified as interacting with nuclear receptors in a highly ligand-dependent manner. Because the molecular mass of each of these factors is approximately 160 kDa, they are collectively termed p160 coactivators. So far, p160 coactivators have been cloned from human, mouse and Xenopus. We report here the cloning of the chicken homologues of p160 coactivator members. As in human and mouse, chicken has three p160 coactivators. Each gene encodes an approximately 160 kDa protein which exhibits 70-80% amino acid sequence identity to human and mouse p160 coactivators. Chicken p160 coactivators also have the property of interacting with several liganded nuclear receptors. Moreover, we describe an imperfect LXXLL sequence, termed NR box 4, which is located downstream of NR box 3 and conserved between evolutionarily diverse species. The loss of NR box 4 results in a decrease of interaction with the nuclear receptor, which indicates that NR box 4 is required for efficient interaction.

Pulmonary carcinogenesis induced by ferric nitrilotriacetate in mice and protection from it by Brazilian propolis and artepillin C

In experiments using the renal carcinogen ferric nitrilotriacetate (Fe-NTA) in male ddY mice, primary pulmonary cancers were also induced in bronchiolar and alveolar tissues. 4-Hydroxy-2-nonenal (4-HNE) and 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), products of oxidative processes, increased in bronchiolar and alveolar cells after administration of Fe-NTA. These substances disappeared after oral administration of propolis or artepillin C, as shown histochemically, and correlated with an anticancer prophylactic effect of propolis and artepillin C. From our investigation, lipid peroxidation seems to play an important role in pulmonary carcinogenesis. Malignant progression from adenoma of bronchiolar or alveolar origin to malignant tumors has been proposed to involve a stepwise transformation. In our study, adenomas developed into adenocarcinomas and large cell carcinomas after treatment with Fe-NTA. In contrast, after oral administration of propolis or artepillin C, adenomas did not progress to carcinomas. Instead of developing into large cell cancers, as induced by Fe-NTA in control mice, adenomas showed remarkable proliferation of macrophages and local anti-oxidant activity after treatment with either propolis or artepillin C. Propolis and artepillin C therefore appear to inhibit lipid peroxidation and the development of pulmonary cancers.

Chemical and nutritional properties of hypoallergenic wheat flour

The chemical and nutritional properties were investigated of hypoallergenic wheat flour (HWF) prepared by the cellulase-actinase treatment. HWF was composed mainly of oligopeptides and free amino acids, and its average molecular weight was lower than 1,000. Feeding tests on rats showed that, with respect to the PER, GOT and GPT activities and other nutritional indices, the HWF diet was almost equivalent to the control diet which had been prepared from normal wheat flour (NWF). No abnormality was apparent in the main organs after the HWF diet had been fed for 3 weeks. The small intestinal absorption of the HWF diet was found normal by measuring the free amino acid concentration in the intestinal tract and in the portal vein plasma. These data suggest that the absorption of amino acids from the HWF diet was comparable with or more efficient than that from a simulated free amino acid diet.

Blockade of Salmonella enteritidis passage across the basolateral barriers of human intestinal epithelial cells by specific antibody

Antibodies specific to Salmonella enteritidis (S.E.) were obtained from immunized egg yolk, and their protective effects against S.E. were studied by using monolayer-cultured human intestinal epithelial cells, Caco-2 and T84. The Salmonella adherence and entry to the cells were partially inhibited by the antibodies. The antibodies inhibited the decrease in transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) of the intestinal epithelial monolayers and IL-8 secretion of the cells induced by S.E. invasion. Also, the antibodies blocked the penetration of bacteria through the cell layer although they did not inhibit the growth of bacteria in the cells. Confocal microscopic photographs revealed the bacteria in the infected monolayer cells were bound to antibodies. These results indicate that anti-S.E. antibodies may protect the cells from destruction induced by S.E. invasion in intestinal epithelial cells in addition to the partial inhibition of adhesion and invasion of S.E. at the cell surface. Passive antibodies against invasive bacteria would be useful to prevent the migration of S.E. to blood not only at the cell surface but also inside of intestinal epithelial cells.

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone in third ventricular cerebrospinal fluid of the heifer during the estrous cycle

The release profile of GnRH in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and its correlation with LH in peripheral blood of ovary-intact heifers during the estrous cycle were investigated. A silicon catheter was placed into the third ventricle of six heifers using ultrasonography. During the mid-luteal phase, the heifers were injected with prostaglandin F(2alpha) to induce luteolysis. Surges of CSF GnRH (66.7 h after prostaglandin F(2alpha) administration) and peripheral LH (66.3 h) occurred simultaneously and were coincident with the onset of estrus (67.0 h). Duration of elevated GnRH concentration considerably overlapped with the estrous phase in each of the heifers. Mean pulse frequencies of both GnRH and LH were significantly higher during the proestrous and early luteal phases than during the mid-luteal phase, while mean concentration and pulse amplitude of both GnRH and LH were not different between these three phases. Of all the GnRH pulses identified, more than 80% were accompanied by an LH pulse during the proestrous and early luteal phases. However, the proportion of GnRH pulses that were coincident with an LH pulse during the mid-luteal phase decreased to 60%. The results clearly demonstrate that a dynamic (pulse) and longer-term (surge) changes of GnRH release into CSF are physiologically expressed during the estrous cycle in heifers, and the pattern of pulsatile GnRH secretion in heifers depends upon their estrous cycle.

Apoptosis of human leukemia cells induced by Artepillin C, an active ingredient of Brazilian propolis

Artepillin C (3,5-diprenyl-4-hydroxycinnamic acid) is an active ingredient of Brazilian propolis that possesses anti-tumor activity. When Artepillin C was applied to human leukemia cell lines of different phenotypes, namely, lymphocytic leukemia (7 cell lines of T-cell, 5 cell lines of B-cell), myeloid and monocytic leukemia and non-lymphoid non-myeloid leukemia cell lines in vitro, Artepillin C exhibited potent cytocidal effects and induced marked levels of apoptosis in all the cell lines. The most potent effects were observed in the T-cell lines. Apoptotic bodies and DNA fragmentation were induced in the cell lines after exposure to Artepillin C. DNA synthesis in the leukemia cells was clearly inhibited and disintegration of the cells was confirmed microscopically. Apoptosis of the leukemia cells may be partially associated with enhanced Fas antigen expression and loss of mitochondrial membrane potential. In contrast, although Artepillin C inhibited the growth of pokeweed mitogen (PWM)-stimulated normal blood lymphocytes, it was not cytocidal to normal unstimulated lymphocytes. These results suggested that Artepillin C, an active ingredient of Brazilian propolis, has anti-leukemic effects with limited inhibitory effects on normal lymphocytes.

Molecular cloning, characterization, and expression of wheat cystatins

We cloned four kinds of cDNAs of wheat cystatins (WCs), WC1, WC2, WC3, and WC4, from the seed. They had 47-68% amino acid sequence similarities to other plant cystatins. WC1, WC2, and WC4 had 63-67% similalities to one another while 93% of amino acids were identical between WC1 and WC3. This suggested that WCI, WC2, and WC4 should be regarded as the isoforms of wheat cystatins. The mRNAs for WC1, WC2, and WC4 were all expressed in seed at an early stage of maturation and, after that, their quantities decreased gradually. However, each of the mRNAs was again expressed one day after the start of germination and the expression continued for the following five days. WC1 seemed to be expressed at a higher level than WC2 and WC4. Immunostaining for looking at site-specific expression of each WC demonstrated that both WC1 and WC4 existed in the aleuron layer and embryo, but in the endosperm the only existing species was WC1. Differences in mRNA level and tissue localization found for the WCs may suggest their differential physiological roles.