A novel [186/188Re]-labelled porphyrin for targeted radiotherapy

The concept of labelling a porphyrin, a tumour-avid agent, with a radionuclide to evaluate its potential as a therapeutic modality is reported. A novel water-soluble porphyrin, namely meso-tetrakis[3,4-bis(carboxymethyleneoxy)phenyl]porphyrin, with suitable dicarboxylic acid groups as aromatic substituents in the periphery, was synthesized and characterized. The labelling of this porphyrin with 186/188Re, a beta(-) emitter, was optimized by varying the reaction conditions. The complexation yield was >98% as estimated by paper chromatography in acetone and in saline. The radiochemical purity was found to remain at >98% when stored at 4 degrees C for 24 h. Biodistribution studies in Swiss mice bearing fibrosarcomas showed an uptake of approximately 3.5% per gram of tumour at 30 min post-injection. This uptake in the tumour was retained until 24 h post-injection with major activity showing renal clearance; no significant activity was present in other organs of interest. The tumour/blood and tumour/muscle ratios were observed to be 38 and 5, respectively, at 24 h post-injection, thereby indicating a possible therapeutic potential for tumours.

Clinical profile and outcome in Bacillus endophthalmitis

OBJECTIVE

To study the clinical presentation, microscopic and organismal culture correlation of vitreous, and species-specific outcome in Bacillus endophthalmitis

DESIGN

Retrospective noncomparative case series.

INTERVENTION

Thirty-one culture proven Bacillus endophthalmitis patients between January 1991 and February 1998 underwent vitrectomy and intravitreal antibiotic injection. Lensectomy was combined when considered essential, and on a few occasions intravitreal dexamethasone was added. The patients also received topical and systemic antibiotics. The undiluted vitreous biopsy was the source for microbiologic evaluation (microscopy and culture sensitivity).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The duration of symptoms, the presenting visual acuity, and influence of intravitreal dexamethasone with intravitreal antibiotics were examined for any statistical correlation with the final visual acuity.

RESULTS

Trauma was the major cause of infection. Vitreous biopsy microscopy demonstrated gram-positive bacillus in 28 of 31 cases, and polymicrobial infection was seen in 12 instances. All Bacillus species were sensitive to gentamicin, followed by vancomycin and ciprofloxacin. Clinical treatment within 7 days of symptoms, use of intravitreal vancomycin, and absence of polymicrobial infection were associated with better visual outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

With appropriate treatment that essentially consists of vitrectomy and intravitreal antibiotics, patients with Bacillus endophthalmitis are likely to benefit in many instances. Gram-positive bacilli detected on vitreous microscopy should be empirically treated as Bacillus species unless otherwise proved.

Excimer laser revascularisation: current indications, applications and techniques

The ultraviolet pulsed excimer laser (308 nm wavelength) is currently the only laser approved by the FDA for percutaneous intervention in patients with ischemic coronary artery disease. The clinical presentation of the treated patients varies from stable and unstable angina to acute myocardial infarction. Potential advantages of excimer laser revascularisation in acute coronary syndromes and in ischaemic obstructive peripheral vascular disease include concomitant plaque debulking and thrombus removal; absence of systemic lytic state; shortened thrombus clearing time and facilitation of adjunct balloon angioplasty and stenting. Improved understanding of laser-tissue interactions and positive clinical outcomes through the use of safe lasing techniques have led to expansion of indications/applications for laser angioplasty. These include stent restenosis, complex lesions and thrombotic stenoses, bifurcation lesions, balloon failure, total occlusions, focal saphenous vein graft lesions and peripheral arterial obstructions. The excimer laser can be effectively utilised in patients with depressed left ventricular ejection fraction and does not require implantation of a temporary pacemaker as no-reflow phenomenon and severe arrhythmias are rarely encountered. Careful case selection, proper utilisation of equipment and incorporation of efficient lasing techniques play a crucial role in effective and safe cardiovascular laser applications.

Evaluation of glutaraldehyde and povidone iodine for sterilization of wide-field contact vitrectomy lenses

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Wide-field vitrectomy contact lenses are currently sterilized with ethylene oxide gas, and other lenses with autoclaving. To maintain a large inventory or possibly run the risk of loss of lens quality with repeated autoclaving, glutaraldehyde 2% and povidone iodine 5% solution were evaluated as possible sterilizing agents.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ethylene oxide presterilized lenses were contaminated with known concentrations (10(5) organisms/mL) of bacteria (S. epidemidis, P. aeruginosa, B. subtilis), and fungi (A. flavus, C. albicans) for 5 minutes. The test lenses were treated with glutaraldehyde or povidone iodine for 5, 10, 30, 60, and 120 minutes, and controls with sterilized water for a similar duration. Following treatment, both test and control lenses were sampled with sterile cotton swabs. The swabs were cultured for bacteria (tryptone soya broth 48 hours), and fungi (Saubourd's dextrose broth 5 days).

RESULTS

The culture was negative for both glutaraldehyde- and povidone iodine-treated lenses against all organisms at all time points except B subtilis, which needed 120 minutes treatment.

CONCLUSION

Two hours contact time with glutaraldehyde 2% or providone iodine 5% can sterilize vitrectomy contact lenses against common bacteria and fungi without affecting lens quality.

Potential (166)Ho radiopharmaceuticals for intravascular radiation therapy (IVRT)-I: [(166)Ho] holmium labeled ethylene dicysteine

The use of beta(-) emitting radionuclides in the control of restenosis in post angioplasty patients is currently under intense investigation at many leading cardiovascular research centers. (32)P coated metallic stents, (192)Ir wire source and balloons filled with an appropriate radionuclide solution such as of (188)Re, attached to catheter are being studied. (166)Ho has comparable radionuclidic properties to that of (188)Re, can be more easily produced and hence is an attractive alternative to (188)Re. Ethylene dicysteine complex of (166)Ho was prepared and its pharmacological behavior studied. Optimum conditions for the preparation of complex with respect to the reaction time, ligand concentration, pH of the reaction mixture as well as reaction temperature were standardized. The stability of the labeled complex at room temperature as well as at 4 degrees C was determined. Biodistribution pattern of the injected complex in Wistar rats was estimated at 10 min, 30 min and 3 h post injection. This study indicated that >90% of the injected (166)Ho-EC complex was excreted in urine within 3 h post injection, with insignificant retention in any major organ. These studies reveal that (166)Ho-EC could be a viable substitute for (188)Re compounds in radioactive liquid-filled balloon IVRT.

Studies on central nervous system function in diabetes mellitus

Fifty-seven insulin dependent (IDDM) and non-insulin dependent (NIDDM) diabetic patients and 25 controls were studied. Patients with history of strokes, hypoglycaemia, hearing impairment, diabetic retinopathy, etc, were excluded. Clinical examination of central nervous system (CNS) and computerised tomography scan of brain were absolutely normal in all cases. Neuroelectrophysiological tests done were the visual evoked potential (VEP), brainstem auditory evoked response (BAER) and somatosensory evoked potential (SEP). The mean VEP latency was significantly raised in both NIDDM and IDDM compared with controls. The mean BAER and SEP latencies were both significantly raised in NIDDM but not in IDDM. The percentage of cases with abnormally raised CNS latencies were as follows: In NIDDM, VEP-16.7%, BAER-50% and SEP-26.7%; in IDDM, VEP-11.1%, BAER-14.8% and SEP-18.5%. Thus, subclinical CNS dysfunction is common in diabetes mellitus particularly in NIDDM and this can be reliably detected by measuring the CNS latencies, specially VEP.

Protection of apoptotic cell death by protein A

The word "Apoptosis" or pragrammed cell death is described as the ultimate end of multiple cellular events converging from numerous initiating events to the ultimate death of a cell or organism. Several processes, such as initiation of death signals at the plasma membrane, expression of pro-apoptotic oncoproteins, activation of death proteases, endonucleases etc., that ultimately coalesce to a common irreversible execution phase, lead to cell demise. Counteracting the death signals are cell survival factors. A balance between the cell death and cell survival factors plays a major role in the decision making process as to whether a cell should die or must live. It is, therefore, hypothesized that if the balance can be shifted in favor of cell survival, one might be able to arrest the aging process, save the injured cells or else if the balance is shifted toward cell-kill it might help destroy tumors and other undesirable cells. Protein A (PA) of Staphylococcus aureus has been found to have multifarious biological response modifying properties. It has been shown to possess anti-tumor, antitoxic, anti-parasitic and antifungal activities. It also acts as a potent immunostimulator. PA can protect bone marrow progenitor cells from zidovudin(AZT)-induced apoptosis and can stimulate immunocyte proliferation, thereby helping to replenish/restore the depleted hematopoietic cell pool. Such ability to replenish hematopoietic cells is a common property of PA observed against a number of toxic drugs/chemicals, such as cyclophosphamide, benzene, aflatoxin, salmonella endotoxin, etc. Interestingly, it was further demonstrated in our laboratory that PA can selectively kill tumor cells without affecting normal cells of the host. A search for the mechanisms of PA action revealed that this bacterial protein could shift the balance between pro- and anti-apoptotic proteins in favor of survival in normal cells, but in favor of cell death in tumor cells at a particular dose level. This unique property of PA suggests that controlled use of such type of Biological Response Modifier might help in controlling both cell growth and death phenomena.

New approaches in the management of choroidal neovascular membrane in age-related macular degeneration

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a leading cause of blindness in the elderly population. The prevalence is reported to be 1.2-1.4% in several population-based epidemiological studies. Currently 25-30 million people worldwide are blind due to AMD. With the aging world population it is bound to increase significantly, and could become a significant public health problem in next two decades, with serious socio-economic implications. Several strategies are today available to treat the wet form of AMD, which is responsible for significant visual loss. These were until recently confined to laser photocoagulation, and subretinal surgery, but today two other modalities, namely, radiation and photodynamic therapy, are available. These treatment modalities however, are aimed at preservation of vision only, and not at reversing the process of the disease. Further research on antiangiogenic drugs and gene therapy could significantly help AMD patients.

Polyunsaturated fatty acid-specific elongation enzymes

We have isolated a novel gene (GLELO) from Mortierella alpina and its homologue (CEELO1) from Caenorhabditis elegans and demonstrate the involvement of their encoded proteins in the elongation of C(18) polyunsaturated fatty acids.

High-level expression of biologically active human prolactin from recombinant baculovirus in insect cells

We examined the feasibility of high-level production of recombinant human prolactin, a multifunctional protein hormone, in insect cells using a baculovirus expression system. The human prolactin cDNA with and without the secretory signal sequence was cloned into pFastBac1 baculovirus vector under the control of polyhedrin promoter. Prolactin was produced upon infection of either Sf9 or High-Five cells with the recombinant baculovirus containing the human prolactin cDNA. The production of recombinant prolactin varied from 20 to 40 mg/L of monolayer culture, depending on the cell types. The prolactin polypeptide with its own secretory signal was secreted into the medium. N-terminal amino acid sequence analysis of the recombinant polypeptide purified from the culture medium indicated that the protein was processed similar to human pituitary prolactin. Carbohydrate analysis of the purified protein indicated that a fraction of the recombinant prolactin made in insect cells appeared to be glycosylated. Also, both secreted and nonsecreted forms of the recombinant prolactin in insect cells were biologically equivalent to the native human prolactin (pituitary derived) in the Nb2 lymphoma cell proliferation assay.

188Re-ethylene dicysteine: a novel agent for possible use in endovascular radiation therapy

Several agents, such as 188ReO4-, 188Re-MAG3 and 188Re-DTPA are currently under investigation as radiation sources in liquid-filled balloons for prevention of restenosis following coronary angioplasty. Bearing in mind the risk factor associated with leakage of radioactivity in the event of balloon rupture, the criteria sought in selecting suitable agents for endovascular radiation therapy (EVRT) are rapid clearance and low dose to vital organs. Since 99Tcm labelled ethylene dicysteine (EC) is a well established agent for renal tubular function imaging, the use of 186Re-ethylene dicysteine as a potential agent for prevention of restenosis after angioplasty has been evaluated previously. Therefore, it was of interest to evaluate the applicability of the more potential isotope of rhenium, 188Re, a high energy beta-emitter (Ebetamax = 2.12 MeV) with a suitable T 1/2 = 16.9 h, obtainable carrier-free from the 188W-188Re generator, as an attractive and alternative radionuclide for labelling with L,L-EC. In this paper, the preparation and pharmacological behaviour of the 188Re complex of ethylene dicysteine are reported. The complex can be prepared in high yields (99.5%) under optimized conditions of pH 2-3, at a ligand concentration of 15 mM, 50 microg (0.18 mM) carrier rhenium and using 2 mg x mL(-1) stannous chloride. On storage at 4 degrees C, the RC purity was more than 97% after 48 h when prepared under optimum conditions. Biodistribution studies in Wistar rats showed the desired characteristics of fast blood clearance and low retention of activity in the vital organs (< 2% in intestine, < 1% in stomach, < 0.5% in liver) with a high renal excretion (90.65+/-0.6%) at 3 h post-injection. These results confirm the advantages of using the 188Re-EC complex compared with perrhenate and other rhenium radiopharmaceuticals currently being used in balloons for EVRT.

Cloning of a human cDNA encoding a novel enzyme involved in the elongation of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids

The Saccharomyces cerevisiae protein ELO2p is involved in the elongation of saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids. Among several sequences with limited identity with the S. cerevisiae ELO2 gene, a consensus cDNA sequence was identified from the LifeSeq(R) database of Incyte Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Human liver cDNA was amplified by PCR using oligonucleotides complementary to the 5' and 3' ends of the putative human cDNA sequence. The resulting full-length sequence, termed HELO1, consisted of 897 bp, which encoded 299 amino acids. However, in contrast with the ELO2 gene, expression of this open reading frame in S. cerevisiae demonstrated that the encoded protein was involved in the elongation of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, as determined by the conversion of gamma-linolenic acid (C(18:3, n-6)) into dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (C(20:3, n-6)), arachidonic acid (C(20:4, n-6)) into adrenic acid (C(22:4, n-6)), stearidonic acid (C(18:4, n-3)) into eicosatetraenoic acid (C(20:4, n-3)), eicosapentaenoic acid (C(20:5, n-3)) into omega3-docosapentaenoic acid (C(22:5, n-3)) and alpha-linolenic acid (C(18:3, n-3)) into omega3-eicosatrienoic acid (C(20:3, n-3)). The predicted amino acid sequence of the open reading frame had only 29% identity with the yeast ELO2 sequence, contained a single histidine-rich domain and had six transmembrane-spanning regions, as suggested by hydropathy analysis. The tissue expression profile revealed that the HELO1 gene is highly expressed in the adrenal gland and testis. Furthermore, the HELO1 gene is located on chromosome 6, best known for encoding the major histocompatibility complex, which is essential to the human immune response.

Identification and characterization of an enzyme involved in the elongation of n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids

The enzymes that are involved in the elongation of fatty acids differ in terms of the substrates on which they act. To date, the enzymes specifically involved in the biosynthesis of polyunsaturated fatty acids have not yet been identified. In an attempt to identify a gene(s) encoding an enzyme(s) specific for the elongation of gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) (18:3n-6), a cDNA expression library was made from the fungus Mortierella alpina. The cDNA library constructed in a yeast expression vector was screened by measuring the expressed elongase activity [conversion of GLA to dihomo-GLA (20:3n-6)] from an individual yeast clone. In this report, we demonstrate the isolation of a cDNA (GLELO) whose encoded protein (GLELOp) was involved in the conversion of GLA to dihomo-GLA in an efficient manner (60% conversion). This cDNA contains a 957-nucleotide ORF that encodes a protein of 318 amino acids. Substrate specificity analysis revealed that this fungal enzyme acted also on stearidonic acid (18:4n-3). This report identifies and characterizes an elongase subunit that acts specifically on the two Delta6-desaturation products, 18:3n-6 and 18:4n-3. When this GLELO cDNA was coexpressed with M. alpina Delta5-desaturase cDNA in yeast, it resulted in the conversion of GLA to arachidonic acid (20:4n-6) as well as the conversion of stearidonic acid to eicosopentaenoic acid (20:5n-3). Thus, this GLELO gene may play an critical role in the bio-production of both n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids.

An unusual case of double outlet right ventricle

A 17-year-old unmarried girl was admitted with the complaints of breathlessness on exertion, swelling of upper and lower limbs and intermittent fever for last 21 days. Past history revealed bluish discolouration of nails and tongue since birth along with recurrent dyspnoea. After thorough general and cardiovascular examination, a provisional diagnosis of tetralogy of Fallot was made. Chest x-ray revealed cardiomegaly and absent main pulmonary artery segment. ECG revealed gross right axis deviation and right ventricular hypertrophy. Echocardiogram showed features of double outlet right ventricle.

Case-control and qualitative study of attrition in a community epilepsy programme in rural India

Dropout from epilepsy programmes is a serious problem in developing countries and has not been systematically studied before. We set up a community-based programme for children with epilepsy in rural India. The aim of this study was to assess reasons for dropout. We assessed medical and sociodemographic variables for their effect on dropout at 12 months using an unmatched case-control design on 32 cases and 62 controls. We also interviewed the parents of 32 children who dropped out of treatment, using a topic schedule. Two-thirds of the dropouts occurred within the first 6 months of treatment. Severely impaired children were more likely to drop out (odds ratio 4.60, 95% CI: 1.0-21.0) and families who had tried AEDs before were less likely to do so (odds ratio 0.12, 95% CI: 0.015-0.88). Denial of diagnosis, access problems and symptom resolution were the other main reasons underlying attrition. Active ascertainment methods should be reconsidered in community programmes. Very poor families without a male head or with long journey times are at high risk of dropout. People with severe impairments need appropriate integrated rehabilitation.

Kinetics of SO4(-2) reduction under different growth media by sulfate reducing bacteria

Sulfate Reducing Bacteria (SRB) were used to reduce the SO4(-2) concentration in waste water. The growth pattern of SRB was found by varying the concentration of nutrients and the biomass. The specific reaction constant was evaluated in each case.

Protein A-activated rat splenic lymphocyte proliferation involves tyrosine kinase-phospholipase C-protein kinase C pathway

Protein A (PA) of Staphylococcus aureus was long been known for its affinity towards the Fc domain of immunoglobulin G. It is now well established that PA is a potent biological response modifier showing simultaneously antitumor, antitoxic, and anticarcinogenic properties. This bacterial protein was also observed to stimulate production of cytokines. But the molecular mechanism(s) of immunocyte activation by PA still remained essentially unknown. In this report, we demonstrate a hitherto undescribed role of PA as a signal inducer in rat splenic lymphocytes. Our studies describe that PA induces transition of G0/G1 to S and G2/M phases of cell cycle, thus ultimately stimulating splenic lymphocyte proliferation. It has also been revealed that PA binds to rat splenic lymphocytes in a dose dependent manner and stimulates proliferation via tyrosine kinase-phospholipase C (PLC)-Ca2+-dependent protein kinase C (PKC) pathway. These observations will be of valid help in correlating the immunostimulatory activities of PA with the molecular mechanism(s) of its action.

[(186/188)Re] rhenium-ethylene dicysteine (Re-Ec): preparation and evaluation for possible use in endovascular brachytherapy

188ReO(4)(-), (188)Re-MAG(3), and (188)Re-DTPA are currently under investigation as radiation sources in liquid-filled balloons for prevention of restenosis following coronary angioplasty. Because (99m)Tc-labeled ethylene dicysteine (EC) is a well-established agent for renal tubular function imaging, the use of [(188)Re] rhenium-labeled EC as a potential agent for prevention of restenosis after angioplasty is worth evaluation. In this article, the preparation and pharmacological behavior of [(188/186)Re]Re complex of EC are reported. The yield of the Re complex was optimized by varying the parameters of complexation. The complex prepared under the optimized conditions was found to be stable over a period of 7 days when stored at pH 2 and at 4 degrees C. The pharmacological behavior of [(188/186)Re]Re-EC confirms its similarity to (188)Re-MAG(3) and its superiority over (188)ReO(4)(-) for use in endovascular brachytherapy.

Validation of a Bengali adaptation of the Conners' Parent Rating Scale (CPRS-48)

BACKGROUND

The Conners' Parent Rating Scales (CPRS) have been used to measure behavioural problems in drug trials in children for many years. This study in rural India aimed to validate a translated version of the CPRS-48 for use in a study of anti-epileptic drug side-effects.

METHOD

The Scale was translated into local dialect, back-translated, and piloted among healthy families. The revised version was then administered to mothers of 60 healthy children and 63 children with epilepsy. Tests of internal reliability, test-retest reliability and factor analysis were performed.

RESULTS

Cronbach's alpha ranged from 0.60 to 0.75 for the subscales, and correlation coefficients after retesting from 0.84 to 0.99. The overall factor structure was very similar to that reported in the original USA sample.

CONCLUSION

The Bengali version of the CPRS-48 and its Hyperactivity Index have validity for rural Bengali children, and the process demonstrates that such instruments can be usefully adapted for local purposes.

Protection by protein A of apoptotic cell death caused by anti-AIDS drug zidovudine

Zidovudine, the anti-AIDS drug, caused inhibition of mitogen-induced proliferation and perturbation of cell-cycle progression of cultured bone marrow cells of mice. There was significant hypoploidy observed in flow cytometric analysis of AZT-treated bone marrow cells. In apo-direct analysis, cells showed apoptosis in G0/G1 phase. In DNA gel analysis, characteristic laddering of apoptosis was observed in AZT-treated bone marrow cells. We demonstrated that, when the animals were pretreated with protein A (PA) of Staphylococcus aureus, the apoptotic changes could be prevented in bone marrow cells of AZT-treated animals. There is a significant (p < 0.05) increase in proliferation of bone marrow cells subjected to mitogen treatment in PA+AZT-treated animals, compared to only AZT-treated animals. However, cell-cycle phase distribution was not hampered and no laddering in DNA gel analysis was also observed in this group. In apo-direct analysis, PA treatment showed significant (p < 0.001) inhibition of AZT-induced apoptosis. These observations indicate that by using a suitable agent such as protein A the toxic side effects of AZT could be minimized.

Genetic disorders of vision revealed by a behavioral screen of 400 essential loci in zebrafish

We examined optokinetic and optomotor responses of 450 zebrafish mutants, which were isolated previously based on defects in organ formation, tissue patterning, pigmentation, axon guidance, or other visible phenotypes. These strains carry single point mutations in >400 essential loci. We asked which fraction of the mutants develop blindness or other types of impairments specific to the visual system. Twelve mutants failed to respond in either one or both of our assays. Subsequent histological and electroretinographic analysis revealed unique deficits at various stages of the visual pathway, including lens degeneration (bumper), melanin deficiency (sandy), lack of ganglion cells (lakritz), ipsilateral misrouting of axons (belladonna), optic-nerve disorganization (grumpy and sleepy), inner nuclear layer or outer plexiform layer malfunction (noir, dropje, and possibly steifftier), and disruption of retinotectal impulse activity (macho and blumenkohl). Surprisingly, mutants with abnormally large or small eyes or severe wiring defects frequently exhibit no discernible behavioral deficits. In addition, we identified 13 blind mutants that display outer-retina dystrophy, making this syndrome the single-most common cause of inherited blindness in zebrafish. Our screen showed that a significant fraction (approximately 5%) of the essential loci also participate in visual functions but did not reveal any systematic genetic linkage to particular morphological traits. The mutations uncovered by our behavioral assays provide distinct entry points for the study of visual pathways and set the stage for a genetic dissection of vertebrate vision.

Mechanisms of protein A superantigen-induced signal transduction for proliferation of mouse B cell

Apart from many of the biological properties of protein A (PA) of Staphylococcus aureus, it has been recognized recently as a B-cell superantigen. Therefore, we investigated the molecular mechanisms of PA superantigen-induced mice splenic B-cell proliferation. Treatment of resting B cells with PA-evoked cell proliferation. Binding of PA to B cells led to a cascade of signal transduction mechanisms involving tyrosine kinase that activated phospholipase C, which in turn activated protein kinase C (PKC), and translocated it from cytosol to membrane. Mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase has been found to be activated down-stream of PKC in this signal pathway, which ultimately caused an activation of serum-responsive factor (SRF). Inhibition at any step of this signaling cascade could block B-cell proliferation. PA could also stimulate the Bcl-2 gene expression at protein level thereby supporting the pro-proliferative effect of PA. Thus, the molecular mechanisms related to PA-induced B cell proliferation has been delineated in this report as tyrosine kinase > PLC > PKC > MAP kinase > SRF > Bcl-2. Knowledge gathered from these observations might be of immense help to study the immune cell proliferation as a part of immunoactivation process. Also, the development of suitable inhibitors of the signaling pathway outlined here might provide clues as to how to abrogate pathologic antibody production in many disease processes.