2,4-dichlorophenol exposure induces lipid accumulation and reactive oxygen species formation in zebrafish embryos

2,4-dichlorophenol (2,4-DCP) is commonly found in the aquatic environment that can be formed by the conversion of triclosan, which is a high production volume endocrine disturbing chemical. The study aims to understand the potential developmental toxicity of 2,4-DCP by using the in vivo zebrafish. We exposed the 2,4-DCP to the zebrafish embryos and collected the samples at several selected developmental stages (70-85% epiboly/10-12 somite/prim-5) for the whole mount in situ hybridization. The staining is used to investigate the ventral patterning, presumptive neural formation, and brain development. Results suggested that the 2,4-DCP exposure (up to 2.5 mg/L) did not affect the tested developmental processes in the survived embryos. Further experiments on lipid accumulation and oxidative stress were carried out at 5 days post fertilization larvae. Results showed the accumulation of oil droplets and induction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the larvae after the highest dosage exposure (2.5 mg/L). The real-time qPCR results suggested that the alternation of lipid metabolism was due to the reduced mRNA expressions of proliferator-activated receptor alpha (ppar-α) and acetyl-CoA carboxylase (acc); while the suppressed glutathione peroxidase (gpx) mRNA expression was responsible for the induction of the ROS. To conclude, the study provided scientific merits of understanding 2,4-DCP toxicity, and suggested the possible underlying mechanism of the defects.

Updated role of ABA in seed maturation, dormancy, and germination

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Functional ABA biosynthesis genes show specific roles for ABA accumulation at different stages of seed development and seedling establishment.

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De novo ABA biosynthesis during embryogenesis is required for late seed development, maturation, and induction of primary dormancy.

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ABA plays multiple roles with the key LAFL hub to regulate various downstream signaling genes in seed and seedling development.

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Key ABA signaling genes ABI3, ABI4, and ABI5 play important multiple functions with various cofactors during seed development such as de-greening, desiccation tolerance, maturation, dormancy, and seed vigor.

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The crosstalk between ABA and other phytohormones are complicated and important for seed development and seedling establishment.

Background

Seed is vital for plant survival and dispersion, however, its development and germination are influenced by various internal and external factors. Abscisic acid (ABA) is one of the most important phytohormones that influence seed development and germination. Until now, impressive progresses in ABA metabolism and signaling pathways during seed development and germination have been achieved. At the molecular level, ABA biosynthesis, degradation, and signaling genes were identified to play important roles in seed development and germination. Additionally, the crosstalk between ABA and other hormones such as gibberellins (GA), ethylene (ET), Brassinolide (BR), and auxin also play critical roles. Although these studies explored some actions and mechanisms by which ABA-related factors regulate seed morphogenesis, dormancy, and germination, the complete network of ABA in seed traits is still unclear.

Aim of review

Presently, seed faces challenges in survival and viability. Due to the vital positive roles in dormancy induction and maintenance, as well as a vibrant negative role in the seed germination of ABA, there is a need to understand the mechanisms of various ABA regulators that are involved in seed dormancy and germination with the updated knowledge and draw a better network for the underlying mechanisms of the ABA, which would advance the understanding and artificial modification of the seed vigor and longevity regulation.

Key scientific concept of review

Here, we review functions and mechanisms of ABA in different seed development stages and seed germination, discuss the current progresses especially on the crosstalk between ABA and other hormones and signaling molecules, address novel points and key challenges (e.g., exploring more regulators, more cofactors involved in the crosstalk between ABA and other phytohormones, and visualization of active ABA in the plant), and outline future perspectives for ABA regulating seed associated traits.

Whole-Mount RNA FISH Combined with Immunofluorescence for the Analysis of the Telomeric Ribonucleoproteins in the Drosophila Germline

The RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) technique combined with immunostaining is a powerful method to visualize a specific transcript and a protein of interest simultaneously. Although whole-mount RNA FISH is routinely used to determine RNA intracellular localization, a detailed picture of RNA distribution in complex tissues remains a challenge. The main problem is the various permeability of morphologically different cells within a tissue. We overcome this challenge by developing an approach based on differential permeabilization treatment of tissue specimens. We have tested and optimized conditions for RNA FISH combined with immunofluorescent staining (RNA FISH/IF) to detect the maternal telomeric retrotransposon HeT-A RNPs in the Drosophila ovaries and syncytial embryos. Methods described here are applicable to a broad variety of biological tissue specimens.

Estrogens regulate early embryonic development of the olfactory sensory system via estrogen-responsive glia

Estrogens are well-known to regulate development of sexual dimorphism of the brain; however, their role in embryonic brain development prior to sex-differentiation is unclear. Using estrogen biosensor zebrafish models, we found that estrogen activity in the embryonic brain occurs from early neurogenesis specifically in a type of glia in the olfactory bulb (OB), which we name estrogen-responsive olfactory bulb (EROB) cells. In response to estrogen, EROB cells overlay the outermost layer of the OB and interact tightly with olfactory sensory neurons at the olfactory glomeruli. Inhibiting estrogen activity using an estrogen receptor antagonist, ICI182,780 (ICI), and/or EROB cell ablation impedes olfactory glomerular development, including the topological organisation of olfactory glomeruli and inhibitory synaptogenesis in the OB. Furthermore, activation of estrogen signalling inhibits both intrinsic and olfaction-dependent neuronal activity in the OB, whereas ICI or EROB cell ablation results in the opposite effect on neuronal excitability. Altering the estrogen signalling disrupts olfaction-mediated behaviour in later larval stage. We propose that estrogens act on glia to regulate development of OB circuits, thereby modulating the local excitability in the OB and olfaction-mediated behaviour.

In Vitro Fertilization System Using Wheat Gametes by Electric Fusion

In vitro fertilization (IVF) systems using isolated gametes have been used to dissect post-fertilization events in angiosperms, as female plant gametophytes are deeply embedded within the ovaries. In addition, hybrid and polyploid zygotes can be produced by using IVF systems. Complete IVF systems of maize and rice, two out of three major energy-providing crops, have been established in order to acquire detailed knowledge of mechanisms of fertilization and early embryogenesis. Following in the footsteps of previous success, a wheat IVF system was developed to introduce the advantages of this technology to wheat research. Fusion of gametes was performed via a modified electrofusion method, and the zygote formed a cell wall and two nucleoli. The zygotes divided into symmetric two-celled embryos, globular-like embryos and multicellular club-shaped embryos which are mostly consistent with those in the embryos in planta. IVF-produced club-shaped embryos developed into compact embryonic calli and subsequently regenerated into fertile plants. In this chapter, we provide a detailed description of wheat IVF system that might become an important technique for generating new genotypes of wheat and/or new hybrids as well as for investigating fertilization-induced events in wheat.

Establishment of tissue-resident immune populations in the fetus

The immune system establishes during the prenatal period from distinct waves of stem and progenitor cells and continuously adapts to the needs and challenges of early postnatal and adult life. Fetal immune development not only lays the foundation for postnatal immunity but establishes functional populations of tissue-resident immune cells that are instrumental for fetal immune responses amidst organ growth and maturation. This review aims to discuss current knowledge about the development and function of tissue-resident immune populations during fetal life, focusing on the brain, lung, and gastrointestinal tract as sites with distinct developmental trajectories. While recent progress using system-level approaches has shed light on the fetal immune landscape, further work is required to describe precise roles of prenatal immune populations and their migration and adaptation to respective organ environments. Defining points of prenatal susceptibility to environmental challenges will support the search for potential therapeutic targets to positively impact postnatal health.

Impact of Oxidative Stress on Embryogenesis and Fetal Development

Multiple cellular processes are regulated by oxygen radicals or reactive oxygen species (ROS) where they play crucial roles as primary or secondary messengers, particularly during cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. Embryogenesis and organogenesis encompass all these processes; therefore, their role during these crucial life events cannot be ignored, more so when there is an imbalance in redox homeostasis. Perturbed redox homeostasis is responsible for damaging the biomolecules such as lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids resulting in leaky membrane, altered protein, enzyme function, and DNA damage which have adverse impact on the embryo and fetal development. In this article, we attempt to summarize the available data in literature for an in-depth understanding of redox regulation during development that may help in optimizing the pregnancy outcome both under natural and assisted conditions.

Alterations to Genome Organisation in Stem Cells, Their Differentiation and Associated Diseases

The organisation of the genome in its home, the cell nucleus, is reliant on a number of different aspects to establish, maintain and alter its functional non-random positioning. The genome is dispersed throughout a cell nucleus in specific chromosome territories which are further divided into topologically associated domains (TADs), where regions of the genome from different and the same chromosomes come together. This organisation is both controlled by DNA and chromatin epigenetic modification and the association of the genome with nuclear structures such as the nuclear lamina, the nucleolus and nuclear bodies and speckles. Indeed, sequences that are associated with the first two structures mentioned are termed lamina-associated domains (LADs) and nucleolar-associated domains (NADs), respectively. The modifications and nuclear structures that regulate genome function are altered through a cell's life from stem cell to differentiated cell through to reversible quiescence and irreversible senescence, and hence impacting on genome organisation, altering it to silence specific genes and permit others to be expressed in a controlled way in different cell types and cell cycle statuses. The structures and enzymes and thus the organisation of the genome can also be deleteriously affected, leading to disease and/or premature ageing.

EXOSC10/Rrp6 is essential for the eight-cell embryo/morula transition

The conserved 3'-5' exoribonuclease EXOSC10/Rrp6 is required for gametogenesis, brain development, erythropoiesis and blood cell enhancer function. The human ortholog is essential for mitosis in cultured cancer cells. Little is known, however, about the role of Exosc10 during embryo development and organogenesis. We generated an Exosc10 knockout model and find that Exosc10^-/- mice show an embryonic lethal phenotype. We demonstrate that Exosc10 maternal wild type mRNA is present in mutant oocytes and that the gene is expressed during all stages of early embryogenesis. Furthermore, we observe that EXOSC10 early on localizes to the periphery of nucleolus precursor bodies in blastomeres, which is in keeping with the protein's role in rRNA processing and may indicate a function in the establishment of chromatin domains during initial stages of embryogenesis. Finally, we infer from genotyping data for embryonic days e7.5, e6.5 and e4.5 and embryos cultured in vitro that Exosc10^-/- mutants arrest at the eight-cell embryo/morula transition. Our results demonstrate a novel essential role for Exosc10 during early embryogenesis, and they are consistent with earlier work showing that impaired ribosome biogenesis causes a developmental arrest at the morula stage.

Identification of different critical embryonic periods to modify egg incubation temperature in mule ducks

Egg incubation of mule ducks, mainly used for fatty liver production, is one of the critical phases in this sector. Based on hatching rate, the best incubation parameters have already been well described for poultry, but the literature on ducks is lacking. In this study, we tested different incubation conditions by varying two important factors, temperature and relative humidity, in mule ducks. These variations were applied at different periods during embryogenesis in order to measure the impact of environmental disturbances on different zootechnical performances. The temperature was increased by 1.5 °C (16 h/24) and the relative humidity was set up to 65%, during 10 days. Six 10-day developmental windows were tested, from embryonic day 9 to embryonic day 14. Our results are in line with previous reports showing that increasing incubation temperature, even when relative humidity is adjusted, can have a negative impact on duck embryonic mortality up to 24.5% for the condition E10-E20 (P < 10^-5). However, the hatchability can be maintained at the level of the control groups when these modifications are applied on the latest windows (from the 11th embryonic day). Sex ratio, hatching BW, and internal temperature are also sensitive to these incubation changes, and their modification could have a major impact on later zootechnical performance. These results should contribute to the development or embryonic temperature programming approaches, especially for the fatty liver production industry.

Sculpting with stem cells: how models of embryo development take shape

During embryogenesis, organisms acquire their shape given boundary conditions that impose geometrical, mechanical and biochemical constraints. A detailed integrative understanding how these morphogenetic information modules pattern and shape the mammalian embryo is still lacking, mostly owing to the inaccessibility of the embryo in vivo for direct observation and manipulation. These impediments are circumvented by the developmental engineering of embryo-like structures (stembryos) from pluripotent stem cells that are easy to access, track, manipulate and scale. Here, we explain how unlocking distinct levels of embryo-like architecture through controlled modulations of the cellular environment enables the identification of minimal sets of mechanical and biochemical inputs necessary to pattern and shape the mammalian embryo. We detail how this can be complemented with precise measurements and manipulations of tissue biochemistry, mechanics and geometry across spatial and temporal scales to provide insights into the mechanochemical feedback loops governing embryo morphogenesis. Finally, we discuss how, even in the absence of active manipulations, stembryos display intrinsic phenotypic variability that can be leveraged to define the constraints that ensure reproducible morphogenesis in vivo.

Yolk platelets impede nuclear expansion in Xenopus embryos

During metazoan early embryogenesis, the intracellular properties of proteins and organelles change dynamically through rapid cleavage. In particular, a change in the nucleus size is known to contribute to embryonic development-dependent cell cycle and gene expression regulation. Here, we compared the nuclear sizes of various blastomeres from developing Xenopus embryos and analyzed the mechanisms that control the nuclear expansion dynamics by manipulating the amount of intracellular components in a cell-free system. Nuclear expansion was slower in blastomeres from vegetal hemispheres during a longer interphase than in those from animal hemispheres. Furthermore, upon recapitulating interphase events by manipulating the concentration of yolk platelets, which are originally rich in the vegetal blastomeres, in cell-free cytoplasmic extracts, nuclear expansion and DNA replication became slower than that in normal yolk-free conditions. Under these conditions, the supplemented yolk platelets accumulated around the nucleus in a microtubule-dependent manner and impeded the organization of the endoplasmic reticulum network. Overall, we propose that yolk platelets around the nucleus reduce membrane supply from the endoplasmic reticulum to the nucleus, resulting in slower nuclear expansion and cell cycle progression in the yolk-rich vegetal blastomeres.

Type 1.5 Split Cord Malformation : A New Theory of Pathogenesis

To report two cases of type 1.5 split cord malformation (SCM), a subtype of SCM with combined characteristics of types I and II and to review the relevant literature and propose a new possible pathogenetic theory for type 1.5 SCM. A 52-year-old woman had hemicords within a single dural sac with a dorsal bony septum at the L5 level. A 9-year-old boy had hemicords within a single dural sac with a ventral bony septum and fibrous extension at the L3 level. Both patients underwent microsurgical treatments for removing the bony septum, detethering the spinal cord, and sectioning the filum terminale. The surgical procedure revealed an extradural partial bony septum and hemicords within an intact single dural sac in each patient. Both patients were discharged from the hospital without de novo nerve dysfunction. Published cases have validated that types I and II SCM can overlap. We recommend recent type 1.5 SCM as a normative terminology for this overlapping SCM and report two rare cases of this SCM. We propose an associated pathogenesis consisting of uneven distribution and regression to explain type 1.5 SCM. Furthermore, we postulate that the amount of condensing meninx primitiva might determine whether the left bony septum has fibrous extensions to the opposite dura in type 1.5 SCM.

Expanding role of vitamin E in protection against metabolic dysregulation: Insights gained from model systems, especially the developing nervous system of zebrafish embryos

This review discusses why the embryo requires vitamin E (VitE) and shows that its lack causes metabolic dysregulation and impacts morphological changes at very early stages in development, which occur prior to when a woman knows she is pregnant. VitE halts the chain reactions of lipid peroxidation (LPO). Metabolomic analyses indicate that thiols become depleted in E- embryos because LPO generates products that require compensation using limited amino acids and methyl donors that are also developmentally relevant. Thus, VitE protects metabolic networks and the integrated gene expression networks that control development. VitE is critical especially for neurodevelopment, which is dependent on trafficking by the α-tocopherol transfer protein (TTPa). VitE-deficient (E-) zebrafish embryos initially appear normal, but by 12 and 24 h post-fertilization (hpf) E- embryos are developmentally abnormal with expression of pax2a and sox10 mis-localized in the midbrain-hindbrain boundary, neural crest cells and throughout the spinal neurons. These patterning defects indicate cells that are especially in need of VitE-protection. They precede obvious morphological abnormalities (cranial-facial malformation, pericardial edema, yolksac edema, skewed body-axis) and impaired behavioral responses to locomotor activity tests. The TTPA gene (ttpa) is expressed at the leading edges of the brain ventricle border. Ttpa knockdown using morpholinos is 100% lethal by 24 hpf, while E- embryo brains are often over- or under-inflated at 24 hpf. Further, E- embryos prior to 24 hpf have increased expression of genes involved in glycolysis and the pentose phosphate pathway, and decreased expression of genes involved in anabolic pathways and transcription. Combined data from both gene expression and the metabolome in E- embryos at 24 hpf suggest that the activity of the mechanistic Target of Rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway is decreased, which may impact both metabolism and neurodevelopment. Further evaluation of VitE deficiency in neurogenesis and its subsequent impact on learning and behavior is needed.

Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire as a predecessor of the epigenetic concept of evolution

The contribution of Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1772-1844) to evolutionary biology is reviewed in commemoration of his 250th birthday. Geoffroy's views on saltational changes during embryogenesis of animals characterize him as a predecessor of the epigenetic concept of evolution, which is now developing in the frames of the extended evolutionary synthesis or evo-devo. While Lamarck distinguished between the two modes of evolution, one within the same level of organization and the other characterized by the transition to a more complex organization, Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire attempted to explain the second mode by the changes in embryogenesis triggered by environmental influences. In this regard, he placed the phenomenon of complexification in the centre of the evolutionary context. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire can be considered also as an early predecessor of the cell theory. His ideas about the unique plan of structure for animal species and of the fundamental connections that establish the homology of anatomical parts represent an important contribution to the evolutionary concept.

Exposure of silver nanocolloids causes glycosylation disorders and embryonic deformities in medaka

Silver nanomaterials such as silver nanocolloids (SNC) contribute to environmental pollution and have adverse ecological effects on aquatic organisms. In particular, chemical exposure of fish during embryogenesis leads to deformities and puts the population at risk. Although glycans and glycosylation are known to be important for proper morphology in embryogenesis, little glycobiology-based research has examined morphological disorders caused by environmental pollutants. This study addressed the glycobiological effects of SNC exposure on medaka embryogenesis. After exposure of medaka embryos to SNC, deformities such as small heads and deformed eyes were observed. The expression of five glycan-related genes (alg2, gnsb, b4galt2, b3gat1a, and b3gat2) was significantly altered, with changes depending on the embryonic stage at exposure, with more severe deformities with exposure at earlier stages. In situ hybridization analyses indicated that the five genes were expressed mainly in the head region; exposure of SNC suppressed alg2 and gnsb and enhanced b4galt2 and b3gat1a expression relative to controls on day 7. Loss (siRNA)- and gain (RNA overexpression)-of-function experiments confirmed that alg2, gnsb, and b4galt2 are essential for embryogenesis. The effects of SNC exposure on glycan synthesis were estimated by glycan structure analysis. In the medaka embryo, high mannose-type glycans were dominant, and SNC exposure altered glycan synthesis. The alteration was more significant when exposure occurred at an early stage of medaka embryogenesis. Thus, SNC exposure causes embryonic deformities in medaka embryos through disordered glycosylation.

NRF2 activation inhibits valproic acid-induced neural tube defects in mice

Valproic acid (VPA) is a widely prescribed medication that has traditionally been used to treat epilepsy, yet embryonic exposure to VPA increases the risk of the fetus developing neural tube defects (NTDs). While the mechanism by which VPA causes NTDs is unknown, we hypothesize that VPA causes dysmorphogenesis through the disruption of redox-sensitive signaling pathways that are critical for proper embryonic development, and that protection from the redox disruption may decrease the prevalence of NTDs. Time-bred CD-1 mice were treated with 3H-1,2-dithiole-3-thione (D3T), an inducer of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF2)-a transcription factor that activates the intracellular antioxidant response to prevent redox disruptions. Embryos were then collected for whole embryo culture and subsequently treated with VPA in vitro. The glutathione (GSH)/glutathione disulfide (GSSG) redox potential (E_h), a measure of the intracellular redox environment, was measured in the developing mouse embryos. Embryos treated with VPA exhibited a transiently oxidizing GSH/GSSG E_h, while those that received D3T pretreatment prior to VPA exposure showed no differences compared to controls. Moving to an in utero mouse model, time-bred C57BL/6 J dams were pretreated with or without D3T and then exposed to VPA, after which all embryos were collected for morphological analyses. The prevalence of open neural tubes in embryos treated with VPA significantly decreased with D3T pretreatment, as did the severity of the observed defects evaluated by a morphological assessment. These data show that NRF2 induction via D3T pretreatment protects against VPA-induced redox dysregulation and decreases the prevalence of NTDs in developing mouse embryos.

Identification of Cell Autonomous and Non-Cell Autonomous Functions of Heparan Sulfate Glycosaminoglycan Chains by Creating Chimeric Mouse Embryos

Cell surface-tethered heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycan chains primarily function in a cell autonomous manner, while extracellular matrix-associated heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycan chains function in a non-cell autonomous manner. In addition, the cleaved forms of cell surface-tethered heparan sulfate chains enzymatically released by proteases and heparanases, called shedding, can contribute to non-cell autonomous mechanisms. The movement of heparan sulfate chains to surrounding cells mediated by transcytosis or filopodia also involves another non-cell autonomous mechanism. To determine cell autonomous or non-cell autonomous roles of heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycan chains during early embryogenesis, direct conclusions can be drawn by analyzing chimeric embryos which are composed of wild-type and heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycan chain-deficient cells. Here, we describe methods of production of these chimeric embryos and analysis of their cellular phenotypes with immunohistochemistry at a single-cell level.

Identification of essential genes in Caenorhabditis elegans through whole genome sequencing of legacy mutant collections

It has been estimated that 15%–30% of the ∼20,000 genes in C. elegans are essential, yet many of these genes remain to be identified or characterized. With the goal of identifying unknown essential genes, we performed whole-genome sequencing on complementation pairs from legacy collections of maternal-effect lethal and sterile mutants. This approach uncovered maternal genes required for embryonic development and genes with apparent sperm-specific functions. In total, 58 putative essential genes were identified on chromosomes III–V, of which 52 genes are represented by novel alleles in this collection. Of these 52 genes, 19 (40 alleles) were selected for further functional characterization. The terminal phenotypes of embryos were examined, revealing defects in cell division, morphogenesis, and osmotic integrity of the eggshell. Mating assays with wild-type males revealed previously unknown male-expressed genes required for fertilization and embryonic development. The result of this study is a catalog of mutant alleles in essential genes that will serve as a resource to guide further study toward a more complete understanding of this important model organism. As many genes and developmental pathways in C. elegans are conserved and essential genes are often linked to human disease, uncovering the function of these genes may also provide insight to further our understanding of human biology.

Conserved, divergent and heterochronic gene expression during Brachypodium and Arabidopsis embryo development

KEY MESSAGE

Developmental and transcriptomic analysis of Brachypodium embryogenesis and comparison with Arabidopsis identifies conserved and divergent phases of embryogenesis and reveals widespread heterochrony of developmental gene expression. Embryogenesis, transforming the zygote into the mature embryo, represents a fundamental process for all flowering plants. Current knowledge of cell specification and differentiation during plant embryogenesis is largely based on studies of the dicot model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. However, the major crops are monocots and the transcriptional programs associated with the differentiation processes during embryogenesis in this clade were largely unknown. Here, we combined analysis of cell division patterns with development of a temporal transcriptomic resource during embryogenesis of the monocot model plant Brachypodium distachyon. We found that early divisions of the Brachypodium embryo were highly regular, while later stages were marked by less stereotypic patterns. Comparative transcriptomic analysis between Brachypodium and Arabidopsis revealed that early and late embryogenesis shared a common transcriptional program, whereas mid-embryogenesis was divergent between species. Analysis of orthology groups revealed widespread heterochronic expression of potential developmental regulators between the species. Interestingly, Brachypodium genes tend to be expressed at earlier stages than Arabidopsis counterparts, which suggests that embryo patterning may occur early during Brachypodium embryogenesis. Detailed investigation of auxin-related genes shows that the capacity to synthesize, transport and respond to auxin is established early in the embryo. However, while early PIN1 polarity could be confirmed, it is unclear if an active response is mounted. This study presents a resource for studying Brachypodium and grass embryogenesis and shows that divergent angiosperms share a conserved genetic program that is marked by heterochronic gene expression.

Glucose metabolomic profile during embryogenesis in the tick Rhipicephalus microplus

INTRODUCTION

Metabolomic approaches can assess the actual state of an organism's energy metabolism during a specific morphological event, providing a more accurate insight into the correlations between physiology and metabolic regulation.

METHODS

The study of the metabolomic profile aim to identify the largest possible number of biomolecules in a certain organism or specific structures. For this purpose, mass spectrometry (MS) and chromatography have been used in the present study.

OBJECTIVES

In this context, the aim of the present work is to evaluate the glucose metabolomic profile during embryogenesis in Rhipicephalus microplus tick, investigating the dynamics of nutrient utilization during tick embryo formation, as well as the control of glucose metabolism.

RESULTS

We show that glycogen reserves are preferentially mobilized to sustain the energy-intensive process of embryogenesis. Subsequently, the increase in concentration of specific amino acids indicates that protein degradation would provide carbons to fuel gluconeogenesis, supplying the embryo with sufficient glucose and glycogen during development.

CONCLUSION

Altogether, these results demonstrated the presence of a very refined catabolic and anabolic control during embryogenesis in R. microplus tick, suggesting the pronounced gluconeogenesis as a strategy to secure embryo development. Moreover, this research contributes to the understanding of the mechanisms that control glucose metabolism during tick embryogenesis and may aid the identification of putative targets for novel chemical or immunological control methods, which are essential to improve the prevention of tick infestations.

Anther Culture in Sweet Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.)

Peppers have a prominent role in traditional cuisine of many different countries all around the world. This is why pepper is one of the most important crops worldwide. Production of doubled haploid (DH) pepper plants has been assessed by different approaches, but at present, the most efficient and universal method is by far anther culture, based on the use of the Dumas de Vaulx et al. protocol published in 1981, and adapted to the particularities of each specific pepper background. In this chapter, we present a method to produce pepper DHs by anther culture, based on the Dumas de Vaulx et al. protocol, but including a number of modifications which, in our experience, allow for a more efficient production DH plants in different pepper genotypes.

Doubled Haploidy for Cow Cockle (Saponaria vaccaria L.)

The production of doubled haploid (DH) plants from microspores is an important technique used in plant breeding and basic research. DH technology is a rapid method for developing homozygous lines, which can be used to accelerate crop improvement programs. Haploidy technology can also be used in mutagenesis, transformation, and basic research such as genomic, biochemical, and physiological studies. There is no general protocol that will result in the production of DH in all species, as differences occur among species and among genotypes within a species in terms of embryogenic response. Here we describe methodology for developing doubled haploids in cow cockle (Saponaria vaccaria L.).

Production of Doubled Haploid Plants in Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) Through Anther Culture

As in any other economically important crop, the possibility of producing fully homozygous, doubled haploid lines in cucumber allows for faster and cheaper breeding. At present, the fastest way to doubled haploidy is the production of cucumber haploid plants and duplication of their chromosomes to make them doubled haploid. In this chapter, we describe a complete protocol to successfully produce cucumber doubled haploid plants, including the evaluation of their ploidy level by flow cytometry. Briefly, this protocol involves a first step of anther culture to induce microspores to divide and proliferate forming calli. The calli produced are isolated from anthers and transferred first to a liquid medium and then to a solid medium to induce organogenesis. Organogenic shoots will eventually give rise to entire DH plants.

Anther Culture in Cucurbita Species

Production of homozygous pure parental lines is the first stage of hybrid vegetable breeding. Unfortunately, producing pure lines takes a long time by classical breeding methods, especially in open-pollinated vegetable species, and this period can be up to 8-10 years. Recently, doubled haploid (DH) technology, as a set of biotechnological methods, has emerged as an alternative to classical breeding methods and allows for the generation of 100% homozygous pure double haploid lines in 1 or 2 years. Although haploid plants were successfully produced via irradiated pollen technique and gynogenesis in some Cucurbita species, haploid plants have not been obtained from some lines due to genotype dependency, and haploidy frequency is still not sufficient for use in a breeding program. Thus, anther culture technique has emerged as an alternative technique in the DH process. The main objective of this chapter is to provide explanatory information on anther culture technique applied in the Cucurbita genus. For this purpose , key points and details of methods and protocols of the anther culture technique are described in summer squash (Cucurbita pepo L.), pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata Duch.), and winter squash (Cucurbita maxima Duch.).