Model-resolution-based basis pursuit deconvolution improves diffuse optical tomographic imaging

The image reconstruction problem encountered in diffuse optical tomographic imaging is ill-posed in nature, necessitating the usage of regularization to result in stable solutions. This regularization also results in loss of resolution in the reconstructed images. A frame work, that is attributed by model-resolution, to improve the reconstructed image characteristics using the basis pursuit deconvolution method is proposed here. The proposed method performs this deconvolution as an additional step in the image reconstruction scheme. It is shown, both in numerical and experimental gelatin phantom cases, that the proposed method yields better recovery of the target shapes compared to traditional method, without the loss of quantitativeness of the results.

Anthropometry of the breast region: how to measure?

BACKGROUND

Breast region measurements are important for research, but they may also become significant in the legal field as a quantitative tool for preoperative and postoperative evaluation. Direct anthropometric measurements can be taken in clinical practice. The aim of this study was to compare direct breast anthropometric measurements taken with a tape measure and a compass.

METHODS

Forty women, aged 18-60 years, were evaluated. They had 14 anatomical landmarks marked on the breast region and arms. The union of these points formed eight linear segments and one angle for each side of the body. The volunteers were evaluated by direct anthropometry in a standardized way, using a tape measure and a compass.

RESULTS

Differences were found between the tape measure and the compass measurements for all segments analyzed (p>0.05).

CONCLUSION

Measurements obtained by tape measure and compass are not identical. Therefore, once the measurement tool is chosen, it should be used for the pre- and postoperative measurements in a standardized way.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE IV

This journal requires that authors assign a level of evidence to each article. For a full description of these Evidence-Based Medicine ratings, please refer to the Table of Contents or the online Instructions to Authors www.springer.com/00266 .

Evidence-based recommendations for building better bras for women treated for breast cancer

Participating in exercise is beneficial for women who have been treated for breast cancer. However, not being able to find a comfortable exercise bra can be a barrier to exercise participation. This study aimed to systematically investigate what breast support women treated for breast cancer want when they exercise in order to provide evidence-based recommendations to improve exercise bra designs for these women. Based on 432 responses from a national online survey, frequency and relationship data were analysed (binary logistic regression) to understand exercise bra issues pertinent to this population. These issues included being able to control for asymmetrical cup sizes, managing heightened skin sensitivity, managing fluid (size) fluctuations, managing a prosthesis and restoring body image by restoring shape. This study provides evidence-based recommendations to inform an exercise bra design that will meet the unique needs of women treated for breast cancer. Rigorous, evidence-based evaluations of exercise bras for women treated for breast cancer may contribute to their well-being and quality of life through enhanced designs.

A nonlinear biomechanical model based registration method for aligning prone and supine MR breast images

Preoperative diagnostic magnetic resonance (MR) breast images can provide good contrast between different tissues and 3-D information about suspicious tissues. Aligning preoperative diagnostic MR images with a patient in the theatre during breast conserving surgery could assist surgeons in achieving the complete excision of cancer with sufficient margins. Typically, preoperative diagnostic MR breast images of a patient are obtained in the prone position, while surgery is performed in the supine position. The significant shape change of breasts between these two positions due to gravity loading, external forces and related constraints makes the alignment task extremely difficult. Our previous studies have shown that either nonrigid intensity-based image registration or biomechanical modelling alone are limited in their ability to capture such a large deformation. To tackle this problem, we proposed in this paper a nonlinear biomechanical model-based image registration method with a simultaneous optimization procedure for both the material parameters of breast tissues and the direction of the gravitational force. First, finite element (FE) based biomechanical modelling is used to estimate a physically plausible deformation of the pectoral muscle and the major deformation of breast tissues due to gravity loading. Then, nonrigid intensity-based image registration is employed to recover the remaining deformation that FE analyses do not capture due to the simplifications and approximations of biomechanical models and the uncertainties of external forces and constraints. We assess the registration performance of the proposed method using the target registration error of skin fiducial markers and the Dice similarity coefficient (DSC) of fibroglandular tissues. The registration results on prone and supine MR image pairs are compared with those from two alternative nonrigid registration methods for five breasts. Overall, the proposed algorithm achieved the best registration performance on fiducial markers (target registration error, 8.44 ±5.5 mm for 45 fiducial markers) and higher overlap rates on segmentation propagation of fibroglandular tissues (DSC value > 82%).

Associations of mammographic dense and nondense areas and body mass index with risk of breast cancer

Mammographic density measurements are associated with risk of breast cancer. Few studies have investigated the concurrent associations of mammographic dense and nondense areas, body mass index (weight (kg)/height (m)(2)), and ages at mammogram and diagnosis with breast cancer risk. We conducted a matched, case-control study nested within the Melbourne Collaborative Cohort Study (cohort recruitment in 1990-1994 and follow-up until 2007) to estimate the associations between these factors and breast cancer risk under alternative causal models. Mammographic dense area was positively associated with risk, and the strength of this association was only slightly influenced by the choice of the causal model (relative risk per 1 standard deviation = 1.50, 95% confidence interval: 1.32, 1.70). Mammographic nondense area was inversely associated with risk under the assumption that fat in the body and fat in the breast cause breast cancer through independent mechanisms (relative risk per 1 standard deviation = 0.75, 95% confidence interval: 0.65, 0.86), whereas it was not associated with risk under the assumption that they are both proxies of adiposity. Knowledge about the biological mechanisms regulating the role played by mammographic nondense area and body fat on breast cancer risk is essential to better estimate their impacts on individual risk.

Anthropomorphic breast phantoms with physiological water, lipid, and hemoglobin content for near-infrared spectral tomography

Breast mimicking tissue optical phantoms with sufficient structural integrity to be deployed as stand-alone imaging targets are developed and successfully constructed with biologically relevant concentrations of water, lipid, and blood. The results show excellent material homogeneity and reproducibility with inter- and intraphantom variability of 3.5 and 3.8%, respectively, for water and lipid concentrations ranging from 15 to 85%. The phantoms were long-lasting and exhibited water and lipid fractions that were consistent to within 5% of their original content when measured 2 weeks after creation. A breast-shaped three-compartment model of adipose, fibroglandular, and malignant tissues was created with water content ranging from 30% for the adipose simulant to 80% for the tumor. Mean measured water content ranged from 30% in simulated adipose to 73% in simulated tumor with the higher water localized to the tumor-like material. This novel heterogeneous phantom design is composed of physiologically relevant concentrations of the major optical absorbers in the breast in the near-infrared wavelengths that should significantly improve imaging system characterization and optimization because the materials have stand-alone structural integrity and can be readily molded into the sizes and shapes of tissues commensurate with clinical breast imaging.

Harmonic motion microwave Doppler imaging: a simulation study using a simple breast model

A hybrid method for tissue imaging using dielectric and elastic properties is proposed and investigated with simple bi-layered breast model. In this method, local harmonic motion is generated in the tissue using a focused ultrasound probe. A narrow-band microwave signal is transmitted to the tissue. The Doppler component of the scattered signal, which depends on the dielectric and elastic properties of the vibrating region, is sensed. A plane-wave spectrum technique is used together with reciprocity theorem for calculating the response of a vibrating electrically small spherical tumor in breast tissue. The effects of operating frequency, antenna alignment and distance, and tumor depth on the received signal are presented. The effect of harmonic motion frequency on the vibration amplitude and displacement distribution is investigated with mechanical simulations using the finite element method. The safety of the method is analyzed in terms of microwave and ultrasound exposure of the breast tissue. The results show that the method has a potential in detecting tumors inside fibro-glandular breast tissue.

Non-uniformly under-sampled multi-dimensional spectroscopic imaging in vivo: maximum entropy versus compressed sensing reconstruction

The four-dimensional (4D) echo-planar correlated spectroscopic imaging (EP-COSI) sequence allows for the simultaneous acquisition of two spatial (ky, kx) and two spectral (t2, t1) dimensions in vivo in a single recording. However, its scan time is directly proportional to the number of increments in the ky and t1 dimensions, and a single scan can take 20–40 min using typical parameters, which is too long to be used for a routine clinical protocol. The present work describes efforts to accelerate EP-COSI data acquisition by application of non-uniform under-sampling (NUS) to the ky–t1 plane of simulated and in vivo EP-COSI datasets then reconstructing missing samples using maximum entropy (MaxEnt) and compressed sensing (CS). Both reconstruction problems were solved using the Cambridge algorithm, which offers many workflow improvements over other l1-norm solvers. Reconstructions of retrospectively under-sampled simulated data demonstrate that the MaxEnt and CS reconstructions successfully restore data fidelity at signal-to-noise ratios (SNRs) from 4 to 20 and 5× to 1.25× NUS. Retrospectively and prospectively 4× under-sampled 4D EP-COSI in vivo datasets show that both reconstruction methods successfully remove NUS artifacts; however, MaxEnt provides reconstructions equal to or better than CS. Our results show that NUS combined with iterative reconstruction can reduce 4D EP-COSI scan times by 75% to a clinically viable 5 min in vivo, with MaxEnt being the preferred method.

Volumetric breast density estimation from full-field digital mammograms: a validation study

OBJECTIVES

To objectively evaluate automatic volumetric breast density assessment in Full-Field Digital Mammograms (FFDM) using measurements obtained from breast Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A commercially available method for volumetric breast density estimation on FFDM is evaluated by comparing volume estimates obtained from 186 FFDM exams including mediolateral oblique (MLO) and cranial-caudal (CC) views to objective reference standard measurements obtained from MRI.

RESULTS

Volumetric measurements obtained from FFDM show high correlation with MRI data. Pearson's correlation coefficients of 0.93, 0.97 and 0.85 were obtained for volumetric breast density, breast volume and fibroglandular tissue volume, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Accurate volumetric breast density assessment is feasible in Full-Field Digital Mammograms and has potential to be used in objective breast cancer risk models and personalized screening.

Hybrid photomultiplier tube and photodiode parallel detection array for wideband optical spectroscopy of the breast guided by magnetic resonance imaging

A new optical parallel detection system of hybrid frequency and continuous-wave domains was developed to improve the data quality and accuracy in recovery of all breast optical properties. This new system was deployed in a previously existing system for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)-guided spectroscopy, and allows incorporation of additional near-infrared wavelengths beyond 850 nm, with interlaced channels of photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) and silicon photodiodes (PDs). The acquisition time for obtaining frequency-domain data at six wavelengths (660, 735, 785, 808, 826, and 849 nm) and continuous-wave data at three wavelengths (903, 912, and 948 nm) is 12 min. The dynamic ranges of the detected signal are 105 and 106 for PMT and PD detectors, respectively. Compared to the previous detection system, the SNR ratio of frequency-domain detection was improved by nearly 103 through the addition of an RF amplifier and the utilization of programmable gain. The current system is being utilized in a clinical trial imaging suspected breast cancer tumors as detected by contrast MRI scans.

Comparing average breast fat content results from two different protocols at 1.5T and 3T: can the data be pooled?

PURPOSE

To compare the total breast fat content computed from two separate studies, performed on different scanners and with different protocols, with the goal of defining a relationship to allow pooling the data.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Twelve healthy volunteer women were scanned with two different protocols on the same day. The protocols differed in four important aspects: vendors (GE vs. Philips), scanner main magnetic field strengths (1.5T vs. 3T), pulse sequences (2D fast spin-echo vs. 3D spoiled gradient-echo), and water/fat separation techniques. The resulting water and fat maps were processed with in-house software to extract breast tissue slice-wise. Percent fat content was calculated for each breast, per subject.

RESULTS

Total percent fat contents (averaged across both breasts) resulting from both protocols were plotted against each other, on a subject-by-subject basis, revealing a strong correlation (R(2)  > 0.99), with an overestimation of the fat content from Protocol 1 relative to Protocol 2. The proposed T2 TE-correction for Protocol 1 improves the correlation while decreasing the discrepancy between protocols.

CONCLUSION

Total breast fat content of healthy women resulting from the two protocols can be pooled using a linear relationship. The proposed T2 TE-corrected Protocol 1 is expected to yield accurate fat content.

Men's oppressive beliefs predict their breast size preferences in women

Previous studies of men's breast size preferences have yielded equivocal findings, with studies variously indicating a preference for small, medium, or large breasts. Here, we examined the impact of men's oppressive beliefs in shaping their female breast size ideals. British White men from the community in London, England (N = 361) viewed figures of women that rotated in 360° and varied in breast size along five levels. They then rated the figure that they found most physically attractive and also completed measures assessing their sexist attitudes and tendency to objectify women. Results showed that medium breasts were rated most frequent as attractive (32.7 %), followed by large (24.4 %) and very large (19.1 %) breasts. Further analyses showed that men's preferences for larger female breasts were significantly associated with a greater tendency to be benevolently sexist, to objectify women, and to be hostile towards women. These results were discussed in relation to feminist theories, which postulate that beauty ideals and practices in contemporary societies serve to maintain the domination of one sex over the other.

Adiabatic multi-echo ³¹P spectroscopic imaging (AMESING) at 7 T for the measurement of transverse relaxation times and regaining of sensitivity in tissues with short T₂ values

An adiabatic multi-echo spectroscopic imaging (AMESING) sequence, used for (31) P MRSI, with spherical k-space sampling and compensated phase-encoding gradients, was implemented on a whole-body 7-T MR system. One free induction decay (FID) and up to five symmetric echoes can be acquired with this sequence. In tissues with low T2 and high T2 , this can theoretically lead to a potential maximum signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) increase of almost a factor of three, compared with a conventional FID acquisition with Ernst-angle excitation. However, with T2 values being, in practice, ≤400 ms, a maximum enhancement of approximately two compared with low flip Ernst-angle excitation should be feasible. The multi-echo sequence enables the determination of localized T2 values, and was validated with (31) P three-dimensional MRSI on the calf muscle and breast of a healthy volunteer, and subsequently applied in a patient with breast cancer. The T2 values of phosphocreatine, phosphodiesters (PDE) and inorganic phosphate in calf muscle were 193 ± 5 ms, 375 ± 44 ms and 96 ± 10 ms, respectively, and the apparent T2 value of γ-ATP was 25 ± 6 ms. A T2 value of 136 ± 15 ms for inorganic phosphate was measured in glandular breast tissue of a healthy volunteer. The T2 values of phosphomonoesters (PME) and PDE in breast cancer tissue (ductulolobular carcinoma) ranged between 170 and 210 ms, and the PME to PDE ratios were calculated to be phosphoethanolamine/glycerophosphoethanolamine = 2.7, phosphocholine/glycerophosphocholine = 1.8 and PME/PDE = 2.3. Considering the relatively short T2 values of the metabolites in breast tissue at 7 T, the echo spacing can be short without compromising spectral resolution, whilst maximizing the sensitivity.

Amide proton transfer imaging of the human breast at 7T: development and reproducibility

Chemical exchange saturation transfer (CEST) can offer information about protons associated with mobile proteins through the amide proton transfer (APT) effect, which has been shown to discriminate tumor from healthy tissue and, more recently, has been suggested as a prognosticator of response to therapy. Despite this promise, APT effects are small (only a few percent of the total signal), and APT imaging is often prone to artifacts resulting from system instability. Here we present a procedure that enables the detection of APT effects in the human breast at 7T while mitigating these issues. Adequate signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) was achieved via an optimized quadrature RF breast coil and 3D acquisitions. To reduce the influence of fat, effective fat suppression schemes were developed that did not degrade SNR. To reduce the levels of ghosting artifacts, dummy scans have been integrated into the scanning protocol. Compared with results obtained at 3T, the standard deviation of the measured APT effect was reduced by a factor of four at 7T, allowing for the detection of APT effects with a standard deviation of 1% in the human breast at 7T. Together, these results demonstrate that the APT effect can be reliably detected in the healthy human breast with a high level of precision at 7T.

[Digital evaluation of breast symmetry with 3D scanning technique]

OBJECTIVE

To establish a standard method for digital evaluation of breast symmetry with 3D scanning technique.

METHODS

From January 2009 to July 2010, 167 patients received 3D scanning before breast augmentation. The coordinate system was established and the 3D reconstructed breast models were analyzed by software. The discrepancy of nipple level, the distance between nipple to midline, inferior mammary fold location, breast width, breast projection, breast volume and anterior chest wall projection were measured.

RESULTS

The mean discrepancy of nipple level, the distance between nipple to midline, IMF level, breast width, breast projection and anterior chest wall projection were (4. 8 +/- 3.9) mm, (4.5 +/- 3.4) mm, (4.6 +/- 3.7) mm, (4.8 +/- 2.9) mm, (5.4 +/- 3.9) mm and (4.8 +/- 3.3) mm, respectively. The mean difference of breast volume was (51 +/- 44) ml. The incidence of significant asymmetry was 73% (122/167)in nipple position, 95% (159/167)in breast shape, 38% (63/167)in anterior chest wall projection.

CONCLUSIONS

3D scanning technique can provide an accurate 3D measurement of breast. A thorough and objective evaluation of breast symmetry can be achieved.

Adolescent and young adult exposure to physical activity and breast density

PURPOSE

The objective of this study is to examine the role of early lifetime exposure to physical activity on magnetic resonance imaging-determined breast density measures.

METHODS

Associations of adolescent (high school (ages 14-17 yr) and early adulthood, post-high school (ages 18-21 yr) and past year) leisure-time physical activity, as well as a principal component score including all three estimates, were examined with percent dense breast volume (%DBV) and absolute dense breast volume (ADBV) in a cross-sectional analysis of 182 healthy women, ages 25-29 yr, enrolled in the Dietary Intervention Study in Children Follow-up Study (DISC06). Generalized linear mixed models were used to examine associations after adjustment for relevant covariates for the entire analytic sample. Analyses were repeated in nulliparous women and hormonal contraceptive nonusers.

RESULTS

Physical activity during high school and post-high school were not statistically significantly related to %DBV or ADBV in multivariable models. Past year physical activity was positively related to %DBV in the unadjusted and partially adjusted models (P < 0.001 and P = 0.01, respectively), which did not adjust for body mass index (BMI). After additional adjustment for childhood and early adulthood BMI, this association became nonstatistically significant. The relation between past year physical activity and ADBV was not statistically significant. These findings were similar in nonusers of hormonal contraceptives. No statistically significant relations were found in nulliparous women or between the principal component score and %DBV or ADBV.

CONCLUSION

Results from this study are consistent with previous research suggesting that physical activity during adolescence and early adulthood is unrelated to breast density.

Attenuation-corrected fluorescence extraction for image-guided surgery in spatial frequency domain

A new approach to retrieve the attenuation-corrected fluorescence using spatial frequency-domain imaging is demonstrated. Both in vitro and ex vivo experiments showed the technique can compensate for the fluorescence attenuation from tissue absorption and scattering. This approach has potential in molecular image-guided surgery.

Age and ethnic differences in volumetric breast density in new zealand women: a cross-sectional study

Breast cancer incidence differs by ethnicity in New Zealand (NZ) with Māori (the indigenous people) women having the highest rates followed by Pakeha (people primarily of British/European descent), Pacific and Asian women, who experience the lowest rates. The reasons for these differences are unclear. Breast density, an important risk factor for breast cancer, has not previously been studied here. We used an automated system, Volpara™, to measure breast density volume from the medio-lateral oblique view of digital mammograms, by age (≤50 years and >50 years) and ethnicity (Pakeha/Māori/Pacific/Asian) using routine data from the national screening programme: age; x-ray system and mammography details for 3,091 Pakeha, 716 Māori, 170 Pacific and 662 Asian (total n = 4,239) women. Linear regression of the natural logarithm of absolute and percent density values was used, back-transformed and expressed as the ratio of the geometric means. Covariates were age, x-ray system and, for absolute density, the natural log of the volume of non-dense tissue (a proxy for body mass index). Median age for Pakeha women was 55 years; Māori 53 years; and Pacific and Asian women, 52 years. Compared to Pakeha women (reference), Māori had higher absolute volumetric density (1.09; 95% confidence interval [95% CI] 1.03-1.15) which remained following adjustment (1.06; 95% CI 1.01-1.12) and was stronger for older compared to younger Māori women. Asian women had the greatest risk of high percentage breast density (1.35; 95% CI 1.27-1.43) while Pacific women in both the ≤50 and >50 year age groups (0.78; 95% CI 0.66-0.92 and 0.81; 95% CI 0.71-0.93 respectively) had the lowest percentage breast density compared to Pakeha. As well as expected age differences, we found differential patterns of breast density by ethnicity consistent with ethnic differences seen in breast cancer risk. Breast density may be a contributing factor to NZ's well-known, but poorly explained, inequalities in breast cancer incidence.

Diffusion weighted MRI by spatiotemporal encoding: analytical description and in vivo validations

Diffusion-weighted (DW) MRI is a powerful modality for studying microstructure in normal and pathological tissues. The accuracy derived from DW MRI depends on the acquisition of quality images, and on a precise assessment of the b-values involved. Conventional DW MRI tends to be of limited use in regions suffering from large magnetic field or chemical shift heterogeneities, which severely distort the MR images. In this study we propose novel sequences based on SPatio-temporal ENcoding (SPEN), which overcome such shortcomings owing to SPEN's inherent robustness to offsets. SPEN, however, relies on the simultaneous application of gradients and radiofrequency-swept pulses, which may impart different diffusion weightings along the spatial axes. These will be further complicated in DW measurements by the diffusion-sensitizing gradients, and will in general lead to complex, spatially-dependent b-values. This study presents a formalism for analyzing these diffusion-weighted SPEN (dSPEN) data, which takes into account the concomitant effects of adiabatic pulses, of the imaging as well as diffusion gradients, and of the cross-terms between them. These analytical b-values derivations are subject to experimental validations in phantom systems and ex vivo spinal cords. Excellent agreement is found between the theoretical predictions and these dSPEN experiments. The ensuing methodology is then demonstrated by in vivo mapping of diffusion in human breast - organs where conventional k-space DW acquisition methods are challenged by both field and chemical shift heterogeneities. These studies demonstrate the increased robustness of dSPEN vis-à-vis comparable DW echo planar imaging, and demonstrate the value of this new methodology for medium- or high-field diffusion measurements in heterogeneous systems.

[Physiopathology, diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer]

The organised screening of breast cancer, the identification of the type of lesion and the staging determine the treatment plan for this disease. The most common cancer to affect women in France and in Europe, it represents 1/3 of cancers in women and 1/4 of all cancers.

Ultra high spatial and temporal resolution breast imaging at 7T

There is a need to obtain higher specificity in the detection of breast lesions using MRI. To address this need, Dynamic Contrast-Enhanced (DCE) MRI has been combined with other structural and functional MRI techniques. Unfortunately, owing to time constraints structural images at ultra-high spatial resolution can generally not be obtained during contrast uptake, whereas the relatively low spatial resolution of functional imaging (e.g. diffusion and perfusion) limits the detection of small lesions. To be able to increase spatial as well as temporal resolution simultaneously, the sensitivity of MR detection needs to increase as well as the ability to effectively accelerate the acquisition. The required gain in signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) can be obtained at 7T, whereas acceleration can be obtained with high-density receiver coil arrays. In this case, morphological imaging can be merged with DCE-MRI, and other functional techniques can be obtained at higher spatial resolution, and with less distortion [e.g. Diffusion Weighted Imaging (DWI)]. To test the feasibility of this concept, we developed a unilateral breast coil for 7T. It comprises a volume optimized dual-channel transmit coil combined with a 30-channel receive array coil. The high density of small coil elements enabled efficient acceleration in any direction to acquire ultra high spatial resolution MRI of close to 0.6 mm isotropic detail within a temporal resolution of 69 s, high spatial resolution MRI of 1.5 mm isotropic within an ultra high temporal resolution of 6.7 s and low distortion DWI at 7T, all validated in phantoms, healthy volunteers and a patient with a lesion in the right breast classified as Breast Imaging Reporting and Data System (BI-RADS) IV.

Resource security impacts men's female breast size preferences

It has been suggested human female breast size may act as signal of fat reserves, which in turn indicates access to resources. Based on this perspective, two studies were conducted to test the hypothesis that men experiencing relative resource insecurity should perceive larger breast size as more physically attractive than men experiencing resource security. In Study 1, 266 men from three sites in Malaysia varying in relative socioeconomic status (high to low) rated a series of animated figures varying in breast size for physical attractiveness. Results showed that men from the low socioeconomic context rated larger breasts as more attractive than did men from the medium socioeconomic context, who in turn perceived larger breasts as attractive than men from a high socioeconomic context. Study 2 compared the breast size judgements of 66 hungry versus 58 satiated men within the same environmental context in Britain. Results showed that hungry men rated larger breasts as significantly more attractive than satiated men. Taken together, these studies provide evidence that resource security impacts upon men’s attractiveness ratings based on women’s breast size.

Breast calcification imaging

Breast calcifications are a common mammographic finding, present on 86% of images. Although usually benign, they also can be malignant. Characteristics such as their size, shape, number, distribution pattern, location, density, and other findings help determine their pathology. The American College of Radiology's BI-RADS assessment categories and Appropriateness Criteria guidelines help radiologists and other physicians determine appropriate action when calcifications are discovered. This article reviews breast anatomy, the classification of calcifications, malignant vs benign characteristics, imaging techniques for calcifications, and biopsy procedures.

Bra-breast forces generated in women with large breasts while standing and during treadmill running: Implications for sports bra design

This study aimed to determine the bra-breast forces generated in women with large breasts while these women wore different levels of breast support during both upright standing and treadmill running. The mean bilateral vertical component of the bra-breast force in standing was 11.7 ± 4.6 N, whereas during treadmill running the mean unilateral bra-breast force was 8.7 ± 6.4 N and 14.7 ± 10.3 N in the high and low support conditions, respectively. Furthermore, breast mass was significantly correlated with vertical breast displacement (R(2) = 0.62) in the high support condition. The wide range of breast masses of women with large breasts is an important consideration for designers of sports bras to ensure these bras can reduce force generation and breast discomfort by providing a high level of breast support while these women participate in physical activity.