Remorins form a novel family of coiled coil-forming oligomeric and filamentous proteins associated with apical, vascular and embryonic tissues in plants

Remorins form a superfamily of plant-specific plasma membrane/lipid-raft-associated proteins of unknown structure and function. Using specific antibodies, we localized tomato remorin 1 to apical tissues, leaf primordia and vascular traces. The deduced remorin protein sequence contains a predicted coiled coil-domain, suggesting its participation in protein-protein interactions. Circular dichroism revealed that recombinant potato remorin contains an alpha-helical region that forms a functional coiled-coil domain. Electron microscopy of purified preparations of four different recombinant remorins, one from potato, two divergent isologs from tomato, and one from Arabidopsis thaliana , demonstrated that the proteins form highly similar filamentous structures. The diameters of the negatively-stained filaments ranged from 4.6-7.4 nm for potato remorin 1, 4.3-6.2 nm for tomato remorin 1, 5.7-7.5 nm for tomato remorin 2, and 5.7-8.0 nm for Arabidopsis Dbp. Highly polymerized remorin 1 was detected in glutaraldehyde-crosslinked tomato plasma membrane preparations and a population of the protein was immunolocalized in tomato root tips to structures associated with discrete regions of the plasma membrane.

Plant stem cells: divergent pathways and common themes in shoots and roots

Stem cells in plant shoot and root meristems are maintained throughout the life of the plant and produce somatic daughter cells that make up the body of the plant. Plant stem cells can also be derived from somatic cells in vivo and in vitro. Recent findings are refining our knowledge of signaling pathways that define stem cell fate and specify either shoot or root stem cell function. New evidence also highlights a role for epigenetic mechanisms in controlling stem cell fate.

Plant Development: YODA the Stomatal Switch

The appearance of stomatal pores during plant evolution is believed to have been a crucial step in land colonisation. A recent screen for genes involved in stomatal development has identified for the first time a mutant plant with no stomata; the results implicate a MAP kinase cascade in stomatal development.

Applying high throughput techniques in the study of adenosine kinase in plant metabolism and development

Adenosine kinase (ADK, EC 2.7.1.20) is a purine salvage enzyme, which phosphorylates adenosine (Ado) to AMP. It may also contribute to the interconversion of cytokinin ribosides and nucleotides. Recent microarray analyses have provided new insights into the impact of ADK activity towards plant metabolism and development. The majority of these findings reflect ADK's role in the metabolism of Ado produced from transmethylation reactions in addition to providing necessary nucleotides for the synthesis of nucleic acids and nucleotide cofactors. As such, ADK was found to increase during events associated with high transmethylation activity, such as cell wall synthesis and seed filling. Differences between plant organs were also detected, with ADK transcript levels found highest in siliques and roots and lowest in callus, leaves and buds. Transcript profiling of Arabidopsis expression using microarrays, reveals a predominance of ADK1 expression relative to that of ADK2. In the majority of the studies, the isoforms appeared to behave in a similar pattern of expression, with the exception being microgametogenesis where ADK1 was up-regulated when ADK2 was not. What specialized function the ADK1 could be providing to these cells during development and whether or not this is occurring in other biochemical processes has yet to be determined.

A common switch used by plants and animals

Comparisons of plant and animal development usually highlight their differences. The discovery that a kinase of the MAPKK class plays a key role in cell specification at the first division of the Arabidopsis embryo suggests that there may be similarities based on a common logic.

POPP the question: what do LEA proteins do?

Late embryogenesis abundant (LEA) proteins are produced in maturing seeds and anhydrobiotic plants, animals and microorganisms, in which their expression correlates with desiccation tolerance. However, their function has remained obscure for 20 years. We argue that novel computational tools devised for non-globular proteins might now overcome this problem. Predictions arising from bioinformatics fit well with recent data on Group 3 proteins, which potentially form cytoskeletal filaments, and suggest experimentally testable functions for these and other LEA protein groups.

Developmental diorama

Spring meeting of the British Society for Developmental Biology, held April 2003 at the University of Warwick, UK.

miSSING LINKS: miRNAs and plant development

The discovery of hundreds of plant micro RNAs (miRNAs) has triggered much speculation about their potential roles in plant development. The search for plant genes involved in miRNA processing has revealed common factors such as DICER, and new molecules, including HEN1. Progress is also being made toward identifying miRNA target genes and understanding the mechanisms of miRNA-mediated gene regulation in plants. This work has lead to a reexamination of many previously characterized mutations that are now known to affect components or targets of miRNA-mediated pathways.

The role of cell wall in plant embryogenesis

This review presents recent data about cell wall involvement in plant embryogenesis. During plant development, the cell wall is subjected to precise regulation. During this process a bidirectional information exchange between the cell wall and the protoplast is observed. The cell wall also mediates in the cell-cell (apoplastic) and cell to cell (symplastic) information flow. Especially some products derived from the hydrolysis of specific cell wall compounds can act as short distance signal transduction molecules during the development. Oligosaccharins are a group of such products. Their activity and sources focused the researchers' attention on the biochemical composition of the cell wall and the activity of some cell wall enzymes. The dramatic influence on the embryo body shape has also the cell wall synthesis machinery, including vesicular secretion pathways. Moreover, the interplay between the turgor pressure and counteracting cell walls and neighbouring cells (in higher organisms) creates the specific mechanical forces influencing the development of the whole plant. We conclude that discovering factors which can influence cell wall physiology and architecture is crucial for a better understanding of plant embryogenesis. In this review we summarize some recent experimental data reporting plant cell wall involvement in embryogenesis, putting special emphasis on somatic embryogenesis.

[Genetic control of totipotency of plant cells in vitro]

The main approaches have been considered to studying the genetic control of plant cell totipotency in an in vitro culture. The capacity of cultured plants for callusogenesis, organ formation, and somatic embryogenesis depends on the activity of genes that determine and maintain the meristematic state of cells, level of hormones in the cells, and sensitivity to hormones, as well as on the activity other genes that control different stages of plant morphogenesis.

Receptor kinase signaling in plant development

The Arabidopsis genome sequence has revealed that plants contain a much larger complement of receptor kinase genes than other organisms. Early analysis of these genes revealed involvement in a diverse array of developmental and defense functions that included gametophyte development, pollen-pistil interactions, shoot apical meristem equilibrium, hormone perception, and cell morphogenesis. Amino acid sequence motifs and binding studies indicate that the ectodomains are capable of binding, either directly or indirectly, various classes of molecules including proteins, carbohydrates, and steroids. Genetic and biochemical approaches have begun to identify other components of several signal transduction pathways. Some receptor-like kinases (RLKs) appear to function with coreceptors lacking kinase domains, and genome analysis suggests this might be true for many RLKs. The KAPP protein phosphatase functions as a negative regulator of at least two RLK systems, and in vitro studies suggest it could be a common component of more. Whether plant signaling systems display a modularity similar to animal systems remains to be determined. Future efforts will reveal unknown functions of other RLKs and elucidate the relationships among their signaling networks.

Remembrance of things past: chromatin remodeling in plant development

Chromatin remodeling in plants has usually been discussed in relation to aspects of genome defense such as transgene silencing and the resetting of transposon activity. The role of remodeling in controlling development has been less emphasized, although well established in animal systems. This is because cell fate in plants is often held to be entirely specified on the basis of position, apparently excluding any significant role for cell ancestry and chromatin remodeling. We argue that chromatin remodeling is used to confer mitotically heritable cell fates at late stages in pattern formation. Several examples in which chromatin remodeling factors are used to confer a memory of transient events in plant development are discussed. Because the precise biochemical functions of most remodeling factors are obscure, and little is known of plant chromatin structure, the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood.

Involvement of homeobox genes in early body plan of monocot

Homeobox genes are known as transcriptional regulators that are involved in various aspects of developmental processes in many organisms. In plants, many types of homeobox genes have been identified, and mutational or expression pattern analyses of these genes have indicated the involvement of several classes of homeobox genes in developmental processes. The fundamental body plan of plants is established during embryogenesis, whereas morphogenetic events in the shoot apical meristem (SAM) continue after embryogenesis. Knotted1-like homeobox genes (knox genes) are preferentially expressed in both the SAM and the immature embryo. Therefore, these genes are considered to be key regulators of plant morphogenesis. In this review, we discuss the regulatory role of knox genes and other types of homeobox genes in SAM establishment during embryogenesis and SAM maintenance after embryogenesis, mainly in rice.

Plant Reproductive Development during Spaceflight

Reproductive development in microgravity has now been studied in a variety of plants; Arabidopsis, Brassica, and Triticum have been especially well studied. Earlier indications that gravity might be required for some stage of reproductive development have now been refuted. Nevertheless, the spaceflight environment presents many unique challenges that have often compromised the ability of plants to reproduce. These include limitations in hardware design to compensate for the unique environmental characteristics of microgravity, especially absence of convective air movement. Pollen development has been shown to be sensitive to high concentrations of ethylene prevailing on various orbital platforms. Barring these gross environmental problems, androecium and gynoecium development occur normally in microgravity, in that functional propagules are produced. Nonetheless, qualitative changes in anther and pistil development have been shown, and significant qualitative changes occur in storage reserve deposition during seed development. Apart from the intrinsic biological importance of these results, consequences of diminished seed quality when plants are grown in the absence of gravity will detract from the utility of plant-based life support systems. By understanding gravity's role in determining the microenvironments that prevail during reproductive development, counter-measures to these obstacles can be found, while at the same time providing basic knowledge that will have broader agricultural significance.

The culture of single plant cells: a historical view

Plant tissue culture, introduced unsuccessfully at the beginning of the twentieth century by Haberlandt, received full confirmation in the late Thirties by the works of Gautheret and Nobécourt, thanks to the discovery of auxin. A further special improvement--the free cell culture--, already fore-told by Haberlandt, was successfully achieved towards the mid-1950s by several physiologists thanks to coconut milk (cytokinin). The English physiologist Frederick Steward (who grouped an excellent American team of research during his twenty years stay at the Cornell University in Ithaca) was able to obtain complete cell differentiation from single cells cultured in vitro and demonstrate the totipotence of plant cells at any stage of development. The historical meaning of the research of Steward's team, accomplished between 1958 and 1970, rests on the concept of plant hormones as regulators of gene activity. In other terms, organogenesis was conceived as an epigenetically controlled series of events in which plant genes were "switched on" or "switched off" by special biomolecules. Steward's research paved the way for molecular plant physiology and inspired future research on the relation between cell receptors and specific hormones.

Small heat shock proteins and stress tolerance in plants

Small heat shock proteins (sHsps) are produced ubiquitously in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells upon heat. The special importance of sHsps in plants is suggested by unusual abundance and diversity. Six classes of sHsps have been identified in plants based on their intracellular localization and sequence relatedness. In addition to heat stress, plant sHsps are also produced under other stress conditions and at certain developmental stages. Induction of sHsp gene expression and protein accumulation upon environmental stresses point to the hypothesis that these proteins play an important role in stress tolerance. The function of sHsps as molecular chaperones is supported by in vitro and in vivo assays. This review summarizes recent knowledge about plant sHsp gene expression, protein structure and functions.

[Specificity of remote influence of gamma-irradiation of plant seeds on non-irradiated ones]

In laboratory and field conditions the consequences of remote influence of gamma-irradiated plant seeds on the non-irradiated ones were studied. It was found the the consequences of the influence depended on the time of storage in conditions ensuring gaseous exchange as well as on radiation susceptibility.

Genome size and developmental complexity

Haploid genome size (C-value) is correlated positively with cell size, and negatively with cell division rate, in a variety of taxa. Because these associations are causative, genome size has the potential to impact (and in turn, be influenced by) organism-level characters affected by variation in either of these cell-level parameters. One such organismal feature is development. Developmental rate, in particular, has been associated with genome size in numerous plant, vertebrate, and invertebrate groups. However, rate is only one side of the developmental coin; the other important component is complexity. When developmental complexity is held essentially constant, as among many plants, developmental rate is the visibly relevant parameter. In this case, genome size can impose thresholds on developmental lifestyle (and vice versa), as among annual versus perennial plants. When developmental rate is constrained (as during time-limited amphibian metamorphosis), complexity becomes the notable variable. An appreciation for this rate-complexity interaction has so far been lacking, but is essential for an understanding of the relationships between genome size and development. Moreover, such an expanded view may help to explain patterns of variation in taxa as diverse as insects and fish. In each case, a hierarchical approach is necessary which recognizes the complex interaction of evolutionary processes operating at several levels of biological organization.

Large-scale plant micropropagation

Plant micropropagation is an efficient method of propagating disease-free, genetically uniform and massive amounts of plants in vitro. The micropropagation from cells can be achieved by direct organogenesis from hairy roots or regeneration via somatic tissue. Once the availability of embryogenic cell and hairy root systems based on liquid media has been demonstrated, the scale-up of the whole process should be established by an economically feasible technology for their large-scale production in appropriate bioreactors. It is necessary to design a suitable bioreactor configuration that can provide adequate mixing and mass transfer while minimizing the intensity of shear stress and hydrodynamic pressure. Automatic selection of embryogenic calli and regenerated plantlets using an image analysis procedure should be associated with the system. Using the above systems, it will be possible to establish an advanced plant micropropagation system in which the plantlets can be propagated without soil under optimal conditions controlled in plant factory. The aim of this review is to identify the problems related to large-scale plant micropropagation via somatic embryogenesis and hairy roots, and to summarize the most recent developments in bioreactor design. Emphasis is placed on micropropagation technology and computer-aided image analysis, including the successful results obtained in our laboratories.

Functional genomics in the study of seed germination

A recent proteomic analysis of germinating Arabidopsis thaliana seeds demonstrates the effectiveness of functional genomics for investigating the complexity of developmental regulatory networks, such as the development of the embryo into a young plant.