Inhibition of cathepsin B activity reduces apoptosis by preventing cytochrome c release from mitochondria in porcine parthenotes

Cathepsin B, a lysosomal cysteine protease of the papain family, has recently been implicated in the quality and developmental competence of bovine preimplantation embryos. In this study, to determine whether inhibition of cathepsin B activity can improve porcine oocyte maturation and early embryo developmental competence, we supplemented in vitro maturation or embryo culture media with E-64, a cathepsin B inhibitor. Cathepsin B activity was high in poor quality germinal vesicle stage oocytes, but no differences in mRNA expression or protein localization were observed between good and poor quality oocytes, which were categorized based on morphology. Following treatment with 1 μM E-64, cathepsin B activity sharply decreased in 4-cell and blastocyst stage embryos. E-64 had no effect on cell number but significantly (P < 0.05) increased blastocyst formation and decreased the number of apoptotic cells in blastocysts. It also significantly (P < 0.05) enhanced mitochondrial membrane potential in blastocysts, reducing the release of cytochrome c and resulting in decreased expression of Caspase-3 and Caspase-9. In conclusion, inhibition of cathepsin B activity in porcine parthenotes using 1 μM E-64 resulted in attenuation of apoptosis via a reduction in the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria.

Small molecule inhibitor of formin homology 2 domains (SMIFH2) reveals the roles of the formin family of proteins in spindle assembly and asymmetric division in mouse oocytes

Dynamic actin reorganization is the main driving force for spindle migration and asymmetric cell division in mammalian oocytes. It has been reported that various actin nucleators including Formin-2 are involved in the polarization of the spindle and in asymmetric cell division. In mammals, the formin family is comprised of 15 proteins. However, their individual roles in spindle migration and/or asymmetric division have not been elucidated yet. In this study, we employed a newly developed inhibitor for formin family proteins, small molecule inhibitor of formin homology 2 domains (SMIFH2), to assess the functions of the formin family in mouse oocyte maturation. Treatment with SMIFH2 during in vitro maturation of mouse oocytes inhibited maturation by decreasing cytoplasmic and cortical actin levels. In addition, treatment with SMIFH2, especially at higher concentrations (500 μM), impaired the proper formation of meiotic spindles, indicating that formins play a role in meiotic spindle formation. Knockdown of the mDia2 formins caused a similar decrease in oocyte maturation and abnormal spindle morphology, mimicking the phenotype of SMIFH2-treated cells. Collectively, these results suggested that besides Formin-2, the other proteins of the formin, including mDia family play a role in asymmetric division and meiotic spindle formation in mammalian oocytes.

Mammalian Polo-like kinase 1 (Plk1) promotes proper chromosome segregation by phosphorylating and delocalizing the PBIP1·CENP-Q complex from kinetochores

Mammalian Plk1 is critically required for proper M phase progression. Plk1 is self-recruited to prekinetochores/kinetochores by phosphorylating and binding to the Thr-78 motif of a kinetochore scaffold protein, PBIP1 (also called CENP-U/50), which forms a stable complex with another kinetochore component, CENP-Q. However, the mechanism regulating Plk1 localization to this site remains largely unknown. Here, we demonstrate that the PBIP1·CENP-Q complex became hyperphosphorylated and rapidly delocalized from kinetochores as cells entered mitosis. Plk1 phosphorylated the CENP-Q subunit of the PBIP1·CENP-Q complex at multiple sites, and mutation of nine Plk1-dependent phosphorylation sites to Ala (9A) enhanced CENP-Q association with chromatin and prolonged CENP-Q localization to kinetochores. Conversely, mutation of the nine sites to phospho-mimicking Asp/Glu (9D/E) residues dissociated CENP-Q from chromatin and kept the CENP-Q(9D/E) mutant from localizing to interphase prekinetochores. Strikingly, both the 9A and 9D/E mutants induced a defect in proper chromosome segregation, suggesting that both timely localization of the PBIP1·CENP-Q complex to prekinetochores and delocalization from kinetochores are critical for normal M phase progression. Notably, although Plk1 did not alter the level of PBIP1 and CENP-Q ubiquitination, Plk1-dependent phosphorylation and delocalization of these proteins from kinetochores appeared to indirectly lead to their degradation in the cytosol. Thus, we propose that Plk1 regulates the timing of the delocalization and ultimate destruction of the PBIP1·CENP-Q complex and that these processes are important not only for promoting Plk1-dependent mitotic progression, but also for resetting the timing of Plk1 recruitment to prekinetochores in the next cell cycle.

CRISPR/Cas9 as tool for functional study of genes involved in preimplantation embryo development

The CRISPR/Cas9 system has proven to be an efficient gene-editing tool for genome modification of cells and organisms. However, the applicability and efficiency of this system in pig embryos have not been studied in depth. Here, we aimed to remove porcine OCT4 function as a model case using the CRISPR/Cas9 system. Injection of Cas9 and single-guide RNA (sgRNA) against OCT4 decreased the percentages of OCT4-positive embryos to 37–50% of total embryos, while ~100% of control embryos exhibited clear OCT4 immunostaining. We assessed the mutation status near the guide sequence using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA sequencing, and a portion of blastocysts (20% in exon 2 and 50% in exon 5) had insertions/deletions near protospacer-adjacent motifs (PAMs). Different target sites had frequent deletions, but different concentrations of sgRNA made no impact. OCT4 mRNA levels dramatically decreased at the 8-cell stage, and they were barely detectable in blastocysts, while mRNA levels of other genes, including NANOG, and CDX2 were not affected. In addition, the combination of two sgRNAs led to large-scale deletion (about 1.8 kb) in the same chromosome. Next, we injected an enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) vector targeting the OCT4 exon with Cas9 and sgRNA to create a knockin. We confirmed eGFP fluorescence in blastocysts in the inner cell mass, and also checked the mutation status using PCR and DNA sequencing. A significant portion of blastocysts had eGFP sequence insertions near PAM sites. The CRISPR/CAS9 system provides a good tool for gene functional studies by deleting target genes in the pig.

Generation of transgenic fibroblasts producing doxycycline-inducible human interferon-α or erythropoietin for a bovine mammary bioreactor

Interferon α (IFN-α) is a cytokine, produced predominantly in immune cells in response to pathogens, which interferes with viral replication in host cells. Another cytokine hormone, erythropoietin (EPO), is synthesized in interstitial fibroblasts of the kidney and acts as a stimulator for the production of red blood cells. Importantly, the two cytokines have been used in the treatment of certain hematological malignancies, including renal anemia. In the production of recombinant proteins, a transgenic expression system in bovine species is an efficient strategy for pharmaceutical production. In the present study, recombinant constructs capable of producing recombinant human IFN-α and EPO proteins were established and were generated containing the mammary gland-specific αS1-casein promoter region (between -175 and + 796 nt), as this promoter was revealed to have the highest level of activity in a previous promoter study. In order to minimize developmental toxicity by constitutive exogenous expression, a doxycycline (dox)-inducible system was introduced to the IFN-α/EPO-expressing constructs. Therefore, a unitary tetracycline (tet)-on the IFN-α/EPO vector was established, which combined a tet-on activator cassette controlled by the αS1-casein promoter, with a responder cassette encoding the IFN-α/EPO gene, controlled by the tetracycline response element (TRE) promoter. In these systems, the tet-controlled transactivator is affected by mammary gland-specific αS1-casein promoter, and binding of the transcriptional activator to the TRE results in transcription of the downstream IFN-α/EPO genes in the presence of dox. To assess this, the unitary tet-on IFN-α/EPO vector was introduced into a bovine mammary gland cell line (MAC-T), and the cells were then treated with 0.1-1 µg/ml dox. A marked increase was observed in the expression levels of IFN-α/EPO. In addition, bovine transgenic fibroblasts containing a mammary gland-specific and dox-inducible IFN-α/EPO construct were generated. These transgenic fibroblasts may provide a source for somatic cell nuclear transfer for the generation of transgenic cattle producing recombinant human IFN-α/EPO protein during lactation.

PLK4 is essential for meiotic resumption in mouse oocytes

Polo-like kinase (PLK) 4 is a unique member of the PLK family that plays vital roles in centriole biogenesis during mitosis. The localization of PLK4 on centrioles must be precisely regulated during mitosis to ensure correct centriole duplication. However, little is known about the function of PLK4 in mammalian oocyte meiosis. We addressed this question by examining the expression and localization of PLK4 in mouse oocytes and using RNA interference and protein overexpression to investigate its function in meiosis. PLK4 expression peaked at the germinal vesicle breakdown (GVBD) stage, and the protein was localized in the cytoplasm throughout meiotic maturation. Depletion of PLK4 caused meiotic arrest at the GV stage and suppressed CYCLINB1 and CDC2 activities. Moreover, PLK4 depletion prevented the de-phosphorylation of CDC2-Tyr15 in nucleus and induced a decrease in the level of the CDC25C protein. PLK1 overexpression failed to rescue GV-stage arrest in PLK4-depleted oocytes, whereas overexpressing PLK4 resulted in normal GVBD in oocytes in which PLK1 activity was inhibited. In addition, PLK4 overexpression did not cause abnormal spindle formation or affect extrusion of the first polar body. These results illustrate the fact that PLK4 is essential for meiotic resumption but may not influence spindle formation in mouse oocytes during meiotic maturation.

Role of ataxia-telangiectasia mutated (ATM) in porcine oocyte in vitro maturation

Ataxia-telangiectasia mutated (ATM) is critical for the DNA damage response, cell cycle checkpoints, and apoptosis. Significant effort has focused on elucidating the relationship between ATM and other nuclear signal transducers; however, little is known about the connection between ATM and oocyte meiotic maturation. We investigated the function of ATM in porcine oocytes. ATM was expressed at all stages of oocyte maturation and localized predominantly in the nucleus. Furthermore, the ATM-specific inhibitor KU-55933 blocked porcine oocyte maturation, reducing the percentages of oocytes that underwent germinal vesicle breakdown (GVBD) and first polar body extrusion. KU-55933 also decreased the expression of DNA damage-related genes (breast cancer 1, budding uninhibited by benzimidazoles 1, and P53) and reduced the mRNA and protein levels of AKT and other cell cycle-regulated genes that are predominantly expressed during G2/M phase, including bone morphogenetic protein 15, growth differentiation factor 9, cell division cycle protein 2, cyclinB1, and AKT. KU-55933 treatment decreased the developmental potential of blastocysts following parthenogenetic activation and increased the level of apoptosis. Together, these data suggested that ATM influenced the meiotic and cytoplasmic maturation of porcine oocytes, potentially by decreasing their sensitivity to DNA strand breaks, stimulating the AKT pathway, and/or altering the expression of other maternal genes.

A new class of peptidomimetics targeting the polo-box domain of Polo-like kinase 1

Recent progress in the development of peptide-derived Polo-like kinase (Plk1) polo-box domain (PBD) inhibitors has led to the synthesis of multiple peptide ligands with high binding affinity and selectivity. However, few systematic analyses have been conducted to identify key Plk1 residues and characterize their interactions with potent Plk1 peptide inhibitors. We performed systematic deletion analysis using the most potent 4j peptide and studied N-terminal capping of the minimal peptide with diverse organic moieties, leading to the identification of the peptidomimetic 8 (AB-103) series with high binding affinity and selectivity. To evaluate the bioavailability of short peptidomimetic ligands, PEGylated 8 series were synthesized and incubated with HeLa cells to test for cellular uptake, antiproliferative activity, and Plk1 kinase inhibition. Finally, crystallographic studies of the Plk1 PBD in complex with peptidomimetics 8 and 22 (AB-103-5) revealed the presence of two hydrogen bond interactions responsible for their high binding affinity and selectivity.

Expression and function of transcription factor AP-2? in early embryonic development of porcine parthenotes

Transcription factor AP-2? (TFAP2C) is a member of the transcription factor activating enhancer binding protein (AP) family. In the present study we determined the temporal and spatial expression patterns of TFAP2C in porcine parthenotes during preimplantation development. Porcine TFAP2C transcripts were expressed at all stages of preimplantation development, with highest expression at the 8-cell stage. In contrast with the mouse, TFAP2C protein was not restricted to the trophectoderm and was also detected in the ICM in blastocyst stage porcine parthenotes. In knockdown (KD) experiments, most TFAP2C-depleted embryos were arrested before the compacted 8-cell stage. This developmental failure is attributed to abnormal expression of genes involved in cell adhesion, tight junction biogenesis and cell proliferation. Interestingly, although the conserved region 4 (CR4) of the porcine OCT4 5? upstream regionlacked the AP2C-binding motif, OCT4 transcript levels were elevated in porcine TFAP2C-KD 8-cell embryos, suggesting TFAP2C may be involved in the regulation of OCT4 in porcine embryos through other mechanisms. In summary, the results suggest that TFAP2C is necessary for the transition from de novo transcript synthesis by activation to compaction and further development, and the different expression patterns of TFAP2C in porcine embryos may reflect species-specific functions during preimplantation embryo development.

Altered oxidative stress, apoptosis/autophagy, and epigenetic modifications in Zearalenone-treated porcine oocytes

ZEN affected porcine oocyte maturation and early embryonic development. Oxidative stress, autophagy and apoptosis occurred. Aberrant epigenetic modifications were also observed.

Assessment of difference in gene expression profile between embryos of different derivations

Researchers have exerted sustained efforts to improve the viability of somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) embryos, testing their experimental designs and probing the resultant embryos. However, the lack of a reliable method to estimate the efficacy of these experimental attempts is a chief hindrance to tackling the low-viability problem in SCNT. Here, we introduce a procedure that assesses the degree of difference in gene expression profiles (GEPs) of blastocysts from each other as a representative control of good quality. We first adapted a multiplex reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction strategy to obtain GEPs for 15 reprogramming-related genes from single mouse blastocysts. GEPs of individual blastocysts displayed a broad range of variations, the extent of which was calculated using a weighted root mean square deviation (wRMSD). wRMSD-based quantitation of GEP difference (qGEP) found that GEP difference between in vivo-derived blastocysts (in vivo) and SCNT blastocysts was greater than the difference between in vivo blastocysts and in vitro-produced (IVP) blastocysts, demonstrating that the SCNT group was more distantly related to the in vivo group than the IVP group. Our qGEP approach for grading individual blastocysts would be useful for selecting a better protocol to derive embryos of better quality prior to field applications.

The Dynamin 2 inhibitor Dynasore affects the actin filament distribution during mouse early embryo development

Dynamin 2 is a large GTPase notably involved in clathrin-mediated endocytosis, cell migration and cytokinesis in mitosis. Our previous study identified that Dynamin 2 regulated polar body extrusion in mammalian oocytes, but its roles in early embryo development, remain elusive. Here, we report the critical roles of Dynamin 2 in mouse early embryo development. Dynamin 2 accumulated at the periphery of the blastomere during embryonic development. When Dynamin 2 activity was inhibited by Dynasore, embryos failed to cleave to the 2-cell or 4-cell stage. Moreover, the actin filament distribution and relative amount were aberrant in the treatment group. Similar results were observed when embryos were cultured with Dynasore at the 8-cell stage; the embryos failed to undergo compaction and develop to the morula stage, indicating a role of Dynamin 2 in embryo cytokinesis. Therefore, our data indicate that Dynamin 2 might participate in the early embryonic development through an actin-based cytokinesis.

Formin mDia1, a downstream molecule of FMNL1, regulates Profilin1 for actin assembly and spindle organization during mouse oocyte meiosis

Mammalian diaphanous1 (mDia1) is a homologue of Drosophila diaphanous and belongs to the Formin-homology family of proteins that catalyze actin nucleation and polymerization. Although Formin family proteins, such as Drosophila diaphanous, have been shown to be essential for cytokinesis, whether and how mDia1 functions during meiosis remain uncertain. In this study, we explored possible roles and the signaling pathway involved for mDia1 using a mouse oocyte model. mDia1 depletion reduced polar body extrusion, which may have been due to reduced cortical actin assembly. mDia1 and Profilin1 had similar localization patterns in mouse oocytes and mDia1 knockdown resulted in reduced Profilin1 expression. Depleting FMNL1, another Formin family member, resulted in reduced mDia1 expression, while RhoA inhibition did not alter mDia1 expression, which indicated that there was a FMNL1-mDia1-Profilin1 signaling pathway in mouse oocytes. Additionally, mDia1 knockdown resulted in disrupting oocyte spindle morphology, which was confirmed by aberrant p-MAPK localization. Thus, these results demonstrated indispensable roles for mDia1 in regulating mouse oocyte meiotic maturation through its effects on actin assembly and spindle organization.

Actin-capping proteins play essential roles in the asymmetric division of maturing mouse oocytes

Actin polymerization is essential for various stages of mammalian oocyte maturation, including spindle migration, actin cap formation, polar body extrusion and cytokinesis. The heterodimeric actin-capping protein is an essential element of the actin cytoskeleton. It binds to the fast-growing (barbed) ends of actin filaments and plays essential roles in various actin-mediated cellular processes. However, the roles of capping protein in mammalian oocyte maturation are poorly understood. We investigated the roles of capping protein in mouse oocytes and found that it is essential for correct asymmetric spindle migration and polar body extrusion. Capping protein mainly localized in the cytoplasm during maturation. By knocking down or ectopically overexpressing this protein, we revealed that it is crucial for efficient spindle migration and maintenance of the cytoplasmic actin mesh density. Expression of the capping-protein-binding region of CARMIL (also known as LRRC16A) impaired spindle migration and polar body extrusion during oocyte maturation and decreased the density of the cytoplasmic actin mesh. Taken together, these findings show that capping protein is an essential component of the actin cytoskeleton machinery that plays crucial roles in oocyte maturation, presumably by controlling the cytoplasmic actin mesh density.

CRISPR/Cas9 nuclease-mediated gene knock-in in bovine-induced pluripotent cells

Efficient and precise genetic engineering in livestock such as cattle holds great promise in agriculture and biomedicine. However, techniques that generate pluripotent stem cells, as well as reliable tools for gene targeting in livestock, are still inefficient, and thus not routinely used. Here, we report highly efficient gene targeting in the bovine genome using bovine pluripotent cells and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR)/Cas9 nuclease. First, we generate induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) from bovine somatic fibroblasts by the ectopic expression of yamanaka factors and GSK3β and MEK inhibitor (2i) treatment. We observed that these bovine iPSCs are highly similar to naïve pluripotent stem cells with regard to gene expression and developmental potential in teratomas. Moreover, CRISPR/Cas9 nuclease, which was specific for the bovine NANOG locus, showed highly efficient editing of the bovine genome in bovine iPSCs and embryos. To conclude, CRISPR/Cas9 nuclease-mediated homologous recombination targeting in bovine pluripotent cells is an efficient gene editing method that can be used to generate transgenic livestock in the future.

JMY functions as actin nucleation-promoting factor and mediator for p53-mediated DNA damage in porcine oocytes

Junction-mediating and regulatory protein(JMY) is a multifunctional protein with roles in the transcriptional co-activation of p53 and the regulation of actin nucleation promoting factors and, hence, cell migration; however, its role in the maturation of porcine oocytes is unclear. In the current study, we investigated functional roles of JMY in porcine oocytes. Porcine oocytes expressed JMY mRNA and protein, and the mRNA expression level decreased during oocyte maturation. Knockdown of JMY by RNA interference decreased the rate of polar body extrusion, validating its role in the asymmetric division of porcine oocytes. JMY knockdown also down-regulated the mRNA and protein levels of actin and Arp2/3. Furthermore, JMY accumulated in the nucleus in response to DNA damage, and JMY knockdown suppressed DNA damage-mediated p53 activation. In conclusion, our results show that JMY has important roles in oocyte maturation as a regulator of actin nucleation-promoting factors and an activator of p53 during DNA damage during DNA damages in porcine oocytes.

Design and synthesis of a cell-permeable, drug-like small molecule inhibitor targeting the polo-box domain of polo-like kinase 1

BACKGROUND

Polo-like kinase-1 (Plk1) plays a crucial role in cell proliferation and the inhibition of Plk1 has been considered as a potential target for specific inhibitory drugs in anti-cancer therapy. Several research groups have identified peptide-based inhibitors that target the polo-box domain (PBD) of Plk1 and bind to the protein with high affinity in in vitro assays. However, inadequate proteolytic resistance and cell permeability of the peptides hinder the development of these peptide-based inhibitors into novel therapeutic compounds.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

In order to overcome the shortcomings of peptide-based inhibitors, we designed and synthesized small molecule inhibitors. Among these molecules, bg-34 exhibited a high binding affinity for Plk1-PBD and it could cross the cell membrane in its unmodified form. Furthermore, bg-34-dependent inhibition of Plk1-PBD was sufficient for inducing apoptosis in HeLa cells. Moreover, modeling studies performed on Plk1-PBD in complex with bg-34 revealed that bg-34 can interact effectively with Plk1-PBD.

CONCLUSION/SIGNIFICANCE

We demonstrated that the molecule bg-34 is a potential drug candidate that exhibits anti-Plk1-PBD activity and possesses the favorable characteristics of high cell permeability and stability. We also determined that bg-34 induced apoptotic cell death by inhibiting Plk1-PBD in HeLa cells at the same concentration as PEGylated 4j peptide, which can inhibit Plk1-PBD activity 1000 times more effectively than bg-34 can in in vitro assays. This study may help to design and develop drug-like small molecule as Plk1-PBD inhibitor for better therapeutic activity.

Polymerase subunit gamma 2 affects porcine oocyte maturation and subsequent embryonic development

Deoxyribonucleic acid polymerase subunit gamma (POLG) is an enzyme encoded by the mitochondrial Polg gene. Polymerase (DNA directed), gamma 2, accessory subunit, also known as POLG2, is involved in mitochondrial replication. In the present study, we examined the role of Polg2 in the maturation of porcine oocytes. After Polg2 knockdown, the mitochondrial DNA copy number was significantly (P < 0.05) lower than that in the control group. However, there was no decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential. The decrease in mitochondrial DNA copy number led to reductions in adenosine-5'-triphosphate content (P < 0.05) and the maturation rate (P < 0.05) of oocytes. Furthermore, in the Polg2-knockdown group, maturation-promoting factor activity was decreased (P < 0.05) and the percentage of oocytes displaying abnormal actin filaments and microtubules was significantly increased (P < 0.05). This likely led to the reduced development rate and number of cells per blastocyst in this group (P < 0.05). In conclusion, Polg2 seems to be critical for mitochondrial replication and regulation of adenosine-5'-triphosphate content and affects porcine oocyte maturation and subsequent embryonic development.

Amino acid supplementation affects imprinted gene transcription patterns in parthenogenetic porcine blastocysts

To determine whether exogenous amino acids affect gene transcription patterns in parthenogenetic porcine embryos, we investigated the effects of amino acid mixtures in culture medium. Parthenogenetic embryos were cultured in PZM3 medium under four experimental conditions: 1) control (no amino acids except L-glutamine and taurine); 2) nonessential amino acids (NEAA); 3) essential amino acids (EAA); and 4) NEAA and EAA. The rate of development of embryos to the four-cell stage was not affected by treatment. However, fewer (P<0.05) embryos cultured with EAA (12.8%) reached the blastocyst stage as compared with the control group (25.6%) and NEAA group (30.3%). Based on these findings, we identified genes with altered expression in parthenogenetic embryos exposed to medium with or without EAAs. The results indicated that EAA influenced gene expression patterns, particularly those of imprinted genes (e.g., H19, IGF2R, PEG1, XIST). However, NEAAs did not affect impaired imprinted gene expressions induced by EAA. The results also showed that mechanistic target of rapamycin (MTOR) mRNA expression was significantly increased by EAA alone as compared with control cultures, and that the combined treatment with NEAA and EAA did not differ significantly from those of control cultures. Our results revealed that gene transcription levels in porcine embryos changed differentially depending on the presence of EAA or NEAA. However, the changes in the H19 mRNA observed in the parthenogenetic blastocysts expression level was not related to the DNA methylation status in the IGF2/H19 domain. The addition of exogenous amino acid mixtures affected not only early embryonic development, but also gene transcription levels, particularly those of imprinted genes. However, this study did not reveal how amino acids affect expression of imprinted genes under the culture conditions used. Further studies are thus required to fully evaluate how amino acids affect transcriptional regulation in porcine embryos.

Zearalenone exposure affects epigenetic modifications of mouse eggs

Zearalenone (ZEA) is a mycotoxin produced by various Fusarium fungi, which has been shown to cause several cases of mycotoxicosis in farm animals and humans. However, there is no evidence regarding the effect of ZEA on mouse egg developmental competence. In this study, we found that the activation rate of maturated oocytes was affected in mice by ZEA treatment, indicating that ZEA affects egg developmental competence. And we explored possible mechanisms of low mouse maturated oocyte developmental competence after ZEA treatment from an epigenetic modification perspective. The fluorescence intensity analysis showed that 5-methyl cytosine level increased after ZEA treatment, indicating that the general DNA methylation level increased in the treated eggs. Moreover, histone methylations were also altered: H3K4me2 as well as H3K9me3 and H4K20me1, me2, me3 levels decreased in eggs that were cultured in high-dose ZEA medium. Thus, our results indicated that ZEA decreased egg developmental competence by affecting the epigenetic modifications.