Cathepsins D, B and L in breast carcinoma and in transformed human breast epithelial cells (HBEC)

An increased expression of lysosomal enzymes, cathepsin (Cat) D, Cat B and Cat L, was observed in various human tumours and after in vitro cell transformation. To establish possible co-ordination in their expression, all three cathepsins were determined in human breast tumours and in transformed human breast epithelial cells (HBEC). In breast carcinoma (n = 120) all three cathepsins, determined immunochemically and by enzymatic activity, were increased compared to normal breast tissues. The activities, correlated with the corresponding protein masses for Cat D (r = 0.77, p < 0.01), but not for Cat B and Cat L. Significant increase in Cat B activity was observed in stage II compared to stage I tumours, and Cat L activity in stage III compared to stage II tumours, but no significant correlation of cathepsin protein with tumour stage (TNM) was established. No significant correlation between Cat D and the cysteine cathepsins B and L was observed. Similarly, Cat D, Cat B and Cat L levels did not correlate in the in vitro system, e.g. in the five transformed HBEC, such as evolved after dimethylbenz(a)anthracene treatment and c-Has-ras oncogene transfection of diploid MCF-10F cell line (Calaf et al., 1993). Transformed cells showed increased anchorage-independent growth and invasive capability (MCF-10 < MCF-10FTras < D3 < D3-1 < D3-1Tras). The intracellular level of Cat D was not related to cell invasiveness, while total cellular Cat B and Cat L increased 13 fold and 4 fold, respectively, in the most invasive cell line, D3-1Tras compared to MCF-10F.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Activation of C-myc, C-Neu and int-2 oncogenes in the transformation of the human breast epithelial-cell line mcf-10f treated with chemical carcinogens in-vitro

Genetic alterations of the c-myc, c-neu and int-2 oncogenes have been reported in human breast cancer. In order to determine if these oncogenes are activated at different stages of breast cancer progression, we are using an in vitro system in which human breast epithelial cells (MCF-10F) have been transformed with benzo(a)pyrene(BP) or dimethylbenz(a)anthracene (DMBA). DMBA-treated cells gave rise to clones D3 and D3-1, BP-treated cells gave rise to clones BP1 and BP1-E. BP1-E cell line, derived from BP1 cell line, was tumorigenic in SCID mice. Southern blot analysis detected gene amplification and rearrangement of the int-2 oncogene in BP1 and BP1-E cells, but no changes were detected in D3 and D3-1 cells. Amplification of c-neu gene was only observed in BP1 and BP1-E cell lines. Neither amplification nor rearrangement was detected for the c-myc gene. At the transcriptional level, Northern blot analysis showed that int-2 mRNA was increased 1.5, 1.8, 1.3 and 2.0-fold in the BP1, BP1-E, D3 and D3-1 cell lines respectively. c-neu mRNA was increased 8.0-fold in BP1 and BP-1E cells and c-myc mRNA was increased 1.5-fold in D3 cells, but no changes were detected in the other cell lines. The data indicate that BP treatment induces changes both at the genomic and transcriptional level. However, none of the differences explain the tumorigenic properties of the BP1-E cell line. DMBA treatment induces changes that are only reflected at transcriptional level for the two oncogenes studied. Whereas none of these oncogenes can be considered the driving force in the expression of the tumorigenic phenotype, the interaction among them or with other oncogenes in the expression of the transformation phenotype cannot be ruled out.

Coexpression of C-erbb2 and int-2 oncogenes in invasive breast-cancer

Invasive breast carcinomas of 19 premenopausal and 49 postmenopausal women were studied by Southern blot analysis for detection of c-erbB2 and int-2 oncogenes, and quantitation of c-erbB2 protein, p185 by ELISA. The data were correlated with the histological grade of the tumor and the patient's clinical status. Seventeen tumors (25.0%) showed genomic alteration in one or both oncogenes. c-erbB2 and int-2 amplification were expressed by 10 (14.7%) and 7 (10.2%) of the tumors respectively. c-erbB2 overexpression was found in 15 out of 68 tumors (22.1%). All tumors exhibiting amplification of c-erbB2 also showed overexpression of p185 protein, however 5 out of 15 tumors (33.3%) showing c-erbB2 overexpression did not show amplification. Rearrangement of c-erbB2 and int-2 oncogenes was observed in 4 out of 68 tumors (5.9%) and 2 of these tumors presented rearrangement of both oncogenes. A significant positive correlation was found between c-erbB2 amplification and p185 protein overexpression, and c-erbB2 and int-2 amplification. Oncogene alterations were more frequently detected in tumors with high histological grade, but no correlation was found with patient's age, menopausal or lymph node status.

The effects of hyaluronidase on local anesthesia: a prospective, randomized, controlled, double-blind study

Hyaluronidase, an enzyme that breaks down intercellular cement, has been advocated as an additive to local anesthetics because it allows injected solutions to spread and penetrate tissues. Because epinephrine is commonly used in conjunction with local anesthetics, the combined effects of both hyaluronidase and epinephrine were studied in a prospective, controlled, double-blind manner. The forearms of volunteers ranging in number from 15 to 23 were injected with 0.5 ml of lidocaine to which graded doses of hyaluronidase and epinephrine had been added. At various intervals after injection, the areas of anesthesia were measured. From these data, the time to reach peak area of anesthesia (onset), the size of the peak area of anesthesia, and the time until disappearance of anesthesia (duration) were computed and analyzed. We found that epinephrine has a more profound effect on the onset, area, and duration of anesthesia than hyaluronidase. Epinephrine delayed the time to reach peak area of anesthesia (onset) relative to lidocaine alone more than hyaluronidase (0.28 h versus 0.04 h). When both agents were used together, the effect was subtractive (0.28-0.04 = 0.24 h, compared with 0.22 h observed). This suggests a negative interaction (inhibition) because hyaluronidase decreased the epinephrine effect by 21 percent. Concerning the size of peak area of anesthesia, epinephrine increased the area relative to lidocaine alone more than hyaluronidase (626 versus 221 mm2). When both agents were used together, the effect was additive (626 + 221 = 847 mm2, compared with 848 mm2 observed). This suggests that the two agents acted independently of each other in relation to area of anesthesia.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Cardiovascular recovery from laboratory stress: biopsychosocial concomitants in older adults

Although cardiovascular recovery may be important to long term cardiovascular health, its biopsychosocial correlates have received much less attention than the correlates of cardiovascular reactivity. Of the few studies that have examined recovery, fewer still have examined men and women over 60 yr of age. This study examined relationships of psychosocial factors (e.g. state anxiety, anger, avoidance coping, Type A behavior, etc.) with recovery in 186 older married men (n = 63) and women (n = 123) (mean age = 69.7 +/- 6.1 yr). Regressions were performed to explain recovery variability in systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP), and heart rate (HR) in response to emotional and cognitive tasks. In each analysis, we controlled for the effects of gender, type of task, reactivity to the task, and other important covariates. Individuals with slower recovery had higher scores on anxiety (for SBP, p < 0.03 and DBP, p < 0.01), higher scores on avoidance coping (for DBP and HR, p < 0.01), and lower scores on anger held in (for DBP, p < 0.01). Psychosocial factors may be important in explaining recovery in older adults.

The etiopathogenesis of breast cancer prevention

Breast cancer, the most frequent malignancy diagnosed in women, continues to increase in incidence in all industrialized nations. The fact that this disease becomes incurable once it has spread to regional or distant sites indicates that its complexity is beyond our present level of knowledge. A better understanding of the etiopathogenesis and biology of breast cancer is required in order to develop a rational basis for its prevention and therapy. The observation that early parity reduces the risk of developing breast cancer indicates that reproductive and hormonal conditions might play an important role in its prevention. The elucidation of the mechanisms mediating this protection requires the availability of adequate experimental models. The induction of rat mammary carcinomas with chemical carcinogens has proven to be useful for these purposes, especially since, in this model, full-term pregnancy or treatment of virgin rats with a placental hormone, human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), prior to the administration of the carcinogen protects the mammary gland from tumor development. Since both pregnancy and hCG treatment induce differentiation of the mammary gland, this process is considered to be essential for the inhibition of the neoplastic process. The possibility of preventing breast cancer by treating young nulliparous females with hormones that mimic a full term pregnancy is of practical interest to the human female population, but it requires a thorough knowledge of the development of the human breast. Our studies indicate that the breast of postpubertal nulliparous women is composed of lobular structures reflecting different stages of development. Type I lobules are the most undifferentiated. Type 2 lobules evolve from the previous ones; they are composed of a higher number of ductular structures per lobule. They progress to lobules types 3 and 4, which are present in the breast during pregnancy and lactation. The type 1 lobule, considered to be the site of origin of ductal carcinomas, predominates in the breast of nulliparous women of all ages. In parous women, the type 3 lobule is the most frequent. Primary cultures derived from breast tissues composed of type 1 lobules express phenotypes of cell transformation not observed in cells derived from type 3 lobules. These data acquire relevance in the light that women with a history of early pregnancy are at a lower risk of developing breast cancer than nulliparous women, an effect attributed to differences in the degree of differentiation of the breast. Pregnancy furthers the differentiation of type 1 lobules to type 3, making them refractory to neoplastic transformation.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Chronic fatigue: risk factors for symptom persistence in a 2 1/2-year follow-up study

BACKGROUND

The prolonged disability of patients suffering from chronic fatigue may be due to sustaining factors that are independent of the cause and subject to intervention. This study reexamined a cohort of patients with chronic fatigue to define medical and psychiatric predictors of persistent symptoms.

METHODS

Seventy-eight patients with chronic fatigue present for 6 months or more (not required to meet the Centers for Disease Control case definition for chronic fatigue syndrome [CFS]) completed a self-report, follow-up questionnaire to measure the overall improvement or worsening of their condition at a mean of 2.5 years after their initial examination. At the time of initial evaluation, patients underwent a structured psychiatric examination, physical examination, laboratory studies, and self-report measures of psychological distress and functional disability. The psychiatric examination queried the patient about 28 somatic symptoms that are separate from those associated with CFS. Discriminant analysis was used to determine which variables present at the initial examination were significant predictors of persistent symptoms and disability at 2.5 years.

RESULTS

The factors most important at the time of initial presentation in predicting persistent illness were: (1) more than eight medically unexplained physical symptoms separate from those associated with CFS case definition; (2) lifetime history of dysthymia; (3) duration of chronic fatigue symptoms greater than 1.5 years; (4) less than 16 years of formal education; and (5) age older than 38 years. None of the results of the initial physical examination, or immunologic, general laboratory, or viral antibody measurements were significant in predicting persistence of symptoms. Recovery rates for those who met the criteria for CFS by either of two case definitions were lower than the rate of noncases, but the differences were not statistically significant. The five aforementioned variables formed a significant discriminative function, correctly classifying 78% of those who recovered and 74% of those with persistent symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

At initial examination, patients with chronic fatigue, more than eight medically unexplained physical symptoms (excluding symptoms in the case criteria for CFS), a lifetime history of dysthymic disorder, longer than 1.5 years of chronic fatigue, less than 16 years of formal education, and who were older than 38 years were the most likely to have persistence of symptoms of chronic fatigue at the 2.5-year follow-up.

Psychiatric disorders in spouse caregivers of care recipients with Alzheimer's disease and matched controls: a diathesis-stress model of psychopathology

To test a diathesis-stress model of psychopathology, the authors examined the rates of current and lifetime psychiatric disorders in 82 spouse caregivers of Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients and 86 demographically matched controls. Caregivers and controls did not differ in the prevalence of disorders before the onset of care recipients' AD (or during a similar time period for the controls); caregivers experienced more depressive-anxiety disorders after the onset of patient's AD than controls. This study strongly supported the 3 key components of a diathesis-stress interaction. First, caregivers with a psychiatric history prior to the onset of patient's AD were more likely than caregivers with no history to receive a diagnosis after the onset of AD. Second, a similar relationship existed for controls. Finally, caregivers with a psychiatric history were more likely to experience a recurrence after the onset of AD than controls with a psychiatric history. These findings indicate that the diathesis of psychiatric history and the stress of caregiving interact, resulting in the observed group differences in the prevalence of psychiatric disorders.

Hormonally induced differentiation: a novel approach to breast cancer prevention

Breast cancer, one of the most common neoplasms in women, develops more frequently in those who are nulliparous or late parous, who experience early menarche and late menopause and have a family history of breast cancer. Early parity, late menarche, early menopause, and hormone deprivation exert a protective effect. The mechanisms modulating these variations in malignancy susceptibility are not known. Epidemiologic and experimental studies indicate that malignancies develop in the mammary gland as a result of exposure to carcinogenic stimuli (i.e., chemical carcinogens, radiation). Neoplastic transformation requires that the gland be under specific developmental and age-related conditions at the time of exposure to such agents. In the rat, maximal susceptibility to neoplastic transformation is exhibited by the highly proliferating and undifferentiated gland of the young, virgin, intact females, whereas the fully differentiated gland of parous rats and virgin rats treated with the placental hormone human chorionic gonadotropin is protected from tumor development. Hormonally induced differentiation of the mammary gland is a novel approach to breast cancer prevention and therapy. The development of clinical protocols capitalizing on the protective effect of hormonal treatments mimicking pregnancy in humans is required to validate observations in experimental animal models, and to determine how they relate to epidemiologic and clinical findings. The feasibility of this approach is supported by the observed parallelism between humans and experimental models in both the site of cancer origin and the changes in breast development occurring with parity. Breast cancer initiates in terminal ductal lobular units or lobules type 1, the most undifferentiated structures frequently found in the breast of young nulliparous women.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Plasma lipids and their relationships with psychosocial factors in older adults

Correlations of psychosocial factors (e.g., anger, avoidance coping, Type A behavior) with plasma lipid levels have been observed primarily in men younger than 60 years of age. This study examined these relationships in two groups of older women and men--spouse caregivers of individuals with Alzheimer's disease (n = 98) and controls (n = 91) group-matched for age and gender. Regression analyses determined whether psychosocial variables could explain variability in plasma lipids beyond relevant covariates. Covariates examined were gender, age, alcohol intake, smoking, body mass index, cardiovascular medications, diet (saturated fat), exercise, and estrogen use. Even with statistical controls, combinations of anger held-in, Type A behavior, anger-out, controlled anger, avoidance coping, and caregiving status explained significant variability in triglycerides (TG), high-density lipoproteins (HDLC), and low-density lipoproteins (LDLC). Male caregivers had higher TG and lower HDLC values than male controls. Results are discussed in the context of current thinking in the health psychology of aging.

Scanning microphotometry image analysis of Ha-ras-transformed human breast epithelial cells

Nuclei of the human breast epithelial cells, MCF-10A, transfected with the c-Ha-ras oncogene, the ras proto-oncogene and the plasmid Homer 6 only, were studied by image analysis after Feulgen staining. This material had been previously used to demonstrate that the experimental insertion of the activated c-Ha-ras oncogene into the DNA of the MCF-10A cells induces their tumoural properties. The ras-transformed nuclei of the MCF-10A cells exhibited differences in chromatin supraorganization in comparison with the nuclei of human breast carcinoma MCF-7 cells, or c-Ha-ras-transformed NIH/3T3 cells and, to a much lesser extent, with those of other MCF-10A transfectants and the non-transfected MCF-10A cells. All MCF-10A transfectants exhibited unravelling of both condensed and non-condensed chromatin, which, however, was less drastic in the ras-transformed MCF-10A cells. It is hypothesized that simultaneous to a general chromatin loosening as a response to foreign transfected DNA, a reverse mechanism may be elicited by ras transformation in the chromatin of the MCF-10A cells. The result in terms of elicited chromatin condensation was not as strong as that promoted in ras-transformed NIH/3T3 cells. Considering that early steps of tumour progression in vitro have previously been assumed to be involved in the ras-transformed MCF-10A cells, the differences in chromatin supraorganization of the ras-transformed MCF-10A cells as compared with MCF-7 cells are probably due to their different tumoural stages plus the putative effect of the transfected DNA vector on the transfected MCF-10A cells.

Severity of somatization and its relationship to psychiatric disorders and personality

Medical patients' (75 with chronic fatigue complaints, 61 with dizziness, and 88 with disabling tinnitus; N = 224) current and past psychiatric diagnoses and personality characteristics were assessed to determine if they could independently explain the number of medically unexplained physical symptoms that the patients had experienced. Cloninger's Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire (TPQ) and the Diagnostic Interview Schedule based on DSM-III-R were used to assess the personality and psychiatric diagnoses, respectively. The results revealed that the number of lifetime medically unexplained symptoms were significantly, independently, and positively related to increasing numbers of current and past anxiety and depressive disorders and to the harm avoidance dimension of the TPQ. In a second analysis, the "worry/pessimism" and "impulsiveness" subscales were positively related to the number of medically unexplained symptoms. The results suggest that somatization is associated with current and past history of psychiatric illnesses and harm avoidance in this sample of medical patients.

Subsyndromal ("mixed") anxiety--depression in primary care

OBJECTIVE

To determine in primary care settings the prevalence, clinical characteristics, and functional status of patients who have anxious and depressive symptoms who did not meet diagnostic criteria for major mood and anxiety diagnoses.

DESIGN

Patients were screened with the General Health Questionnaire and interviewed if they exceeded the cutoff score of 5. Also, one patient whose score was below the cutoff was interviewed for every two patients whose scores were above the cutoff.

SETTING

Five primary care sites in the United States, France, and Australia.

PATIENT

Two hundred sixty-seven patients presenting to their primary care physicians for general medical care and follow-up.

METHODS

Structured diagnostic interviews were conducted and ratings of anxiety, depression, and functional impairment were obtained by trained interviewers.

RESULTS

After adjustments for sampling, 5% of the patients had symptoms of anxiety, depression, and functional impairment, without meeting formal criteria for a major DSM-III-R mood or anxiety disorder. This was comparable to the prevalence of diagnosable DSM-III-R mood disorders but only one-fourth the prevalence of diagnosable anxiety disorders. These patients who had subsyndromal symptoms had rates of lifetime psychiatric disorders and prior psychiatric treatment comparable to those of patients meeting criteria for major mood and anxiety disorders.

CONCLUSION

The comparable rates of symptomatic distress, functional impairment, and prior psychiatric illness and treatment suggest that patients with subsyndromal anxiety and depressive symptoms warrant clinical recognition and possibly specific treatment.

Coping and marital support as correlates of tinnitus disability

Although there is increasing awareness that depression can add significantly to the disability associated with chronic medical illness, it is not clear whether all of the impact of psychosocial factors upon medical disability are mediated by or moderated by depression. It has not been determined whether treating depression alone is an adequate strategy for addressing psychosocial magnification of medical disability. We analyzed data collected at initiation of a treatment trial from 92 subjects with chronic severe tinnitus to assess the role of coping, and 49 subject-spouse pairs to assess the role of marital interaction in tinnitus-related role dysfunction. Three multiple regression models were developed. After accounting for gender, tinnitus loudness, and depressive severity among the 92 subjects, greater role dysfunction was associated appraisal of tinnitus as salient, and less role dysfunction with coping through avoidance or seeking social support. Marital interaction was assessed from patient and spouse perspectives. In the patient-rated set, less marital cohesion was associated with greater tinnitus-related role dysfunction. In the spouse-rated set, more punishing responses to subject illness behavior were associated with greater tinnitus-related role dysfunction. In each case the disabling effect was greater in the face of high levels of subject depression. This study provides evidence for the oft-stated analogy between chronic tinnitus and chronic pain, and provides justification for a similar multimodal treatment strategy. Reducing depression is an important means to reduce medical disability but should be supplemented by clinical attention to appraisal of the illness, modes of coping with the illness, and spousal response to the illness.

Toward a physiological approach to breast cancer prevention

Breast cancer is one of the most frequent malignancies in women, and its incidence is increasing. No reduction in the mortality rate has resulted from advances in early diagnosis and new therapeutic modalities; therefore, new approaches to the understanding of this disease are required. The observation that, in an experimental animal model, full-term pregnancy prior to exposure to a carcinogenic agent protects the mammary gland from malignant transformation led us to study the mechanisms underlying this phenomenon. The protective effect observed after pregnancy did not depend upon gestational or lactational hyperplasia of the mammary gland, but upon structural changes induced in the mammary parenchyma by those processes. Those changes are permanent, since the protective effect is maintained after pregnancy and consists in the complete differentiation of terminal end buds to lobules. The protective effect exerted by pregnancy can be mimicked by treating young virgin rats with a single placental hormone, chorionic gonadotropin. Since the possibility of preventing breast cancer by treating young nulliparous females with hormones that mimic a fullterm pregnancy that results in complete differentiation of the gland is of practical interest to the human female population, we undertook the study of the human breast. The breast of postpubertal nulliparous women is composed of lobular structures reflecting different stages of development. Lobules type 1 (lob 1) are the most undifferentiated ones. Lobules type 2 evolve from the previous ones and have a more complex morphology, being composed of a higher number of ductular structures per lobule. They progress to lobules type 3 and 4, which are present in the pregnant and lactational periods of the mammary gland. In nulliparous women the structure most frequently found at all ages is the lob 1, whereas in parous women, lob 3 is the most frequent one. Lob 1 are considered to be the site of origin of ductal carcinoma in situ, which progresses to invasive carcinoma. Lob 2 originate lobular carcinoma and lob 3 originate adenomas, fibroadenomas, sclerosing adenosis, and apocrine cysts. These observations led us to test if the degree of lobular development influences the transformation of human breast epithelial cells exposed in vitro to chemical carcinogens. We found that primary cultures derived from breast tissues composed of lobules type 1 and 2 express phenotypes of cell transformation which were not observed in cells derived from lobules type 3.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Chronic neurological sequelae to organophosphate pesticide poisoning

OBJECTIVES

This work was undertaken to determine whether there are any chronic neurological sequelae to acute organophosphate pesticide poisoning.

METHODS

California surveillance data were used in a study of neurological function among 128 men poisoned by organophosphate pesticides in California from 1982 to 1990 and 90 referents. Tests included a neurological physical examination, 5 nerve conduction tests, 2 vibrotactile sensitivity tests, 10 neurobehavioral tests, and 1 postural sway test.

RESULTS

After correcting for confounding, the poisoned group performed significantly worse than the referent group on two neurobehavioral tests (sustained visual attention and mood scales). When the data were restricted to men with documented cholinesterase inhibition (n = 83) or to men who had been hospitalized (n = 36), the poisoned subjects also showed significantly worse vibrotactile sensitivity of finger and toe. Significant trends of increased impairment were found with increased days of disability on a wide spectrum of tests of both central and peripheral nerve function.

CONCLUSIONS

While these findings are limited by low response rates and by small sample sizes for specific pesticides, this study was based on a large surveillance database and is the largest study to date of the chronic effects of organophosphate pesticide poisoning. The evidence of some long-term effects of poisoning is consistent with two prior studies.

Polypeptide pattern of human breast epithelial cells following human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) treatment

Numerous attempts have made to describe the particular protein pattern of malignant cells by using high resolution two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (2-D PAGE). The placental hormone human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) inhibits tumor initiation and progression in experimental animals and has an inhibitory effect on the proliferation of human breast epithelial cells (HBEC) in vitro. The inhibitory effect on the immortalized HBEC MCF-10F is accompanied by the immunocytochemical expression of inhibin alpha and beta subunits by treated cells. With the purpose of clarifying the molecular mechanisms involved in this effect, the pattern of protein synthesis and mRNA were studied by 2-D PAGE in the immortalized HBEC MCF-10F cells treated in vitro 1001U for 24 h. The effect of hCG treatment on the synthesis of MCF-10F cells was monitored by labeling both control and treated cells with [S35]methionine and separation by 2-D PAGE. At least 11 proteins were preferentially synthesized and five specific polypeptides were decreased in hCG treated cells in comparison with controls. The hCG induced at least four new mRNAs which encoded protein in the molecular mass range of 24-72 kDa. It also increased the expression of at least six mRNAs and reduced the expression of least four mRNAs in comparison with control cells. The hCG-treated cells actively synthesized a 33-kDa polypeptide which was not present in control cells. The nature of this hCG-inducible 33 kDa protein elucidated by immunoprecipating [S35]methionine-labeled proteins with antisera directed against rat inhibin subunit alpha and beta b.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Architectural pattern of the normal and cancerous breast under the influence of parity

Epidemiological and clinical observations indicate that breast cancer incidence is greater in nulliparous women, whereas early parity confers protection. Since the initiation of breast cancer is related to the degree of development of the organ, this study was designed with the purpose of determining what basic differences exist between the parous and the nulliparous women's breast, and whether these differences correlated with the presence or absence of malignancies. For this purpose, the architecture of the mammary gland of parous and nulliparous women with breast cancer was compared with that of women free of mammary pathology. The women ranged in an age from 20 to 63 years. Normal whole breasts obtained at autopsy or cancer-bearing breasts surgically removed by modified radical mastectomy were studied in whole mount preparations in which the number and relative proportion of normal structures, i.e., lobules type 1, 2, and 3 (Lob 1, 2, and 3), were determined. In the breast of nulliparous women, the predominant structure present was the Lob 1; the presence of cancer did not modify the basic architectural pattern of the breast, which contained a higher proportion of Lob 1, as well. In parous women free of cancer, the breast contained a greater percentage of Lob 3 and a moderately increased number of Lob 2, with a concomitant reduction in Lob 1. Parous women with breast cancer, on the other hand, exhibited a different architecture in the mammary gland, which had a greater percentage of Lob 1 and a lower of Lob 3 than the noncancerous group, approaching the percentages found in nulliparous women.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Hormone receptors and cathepsin D levels in human breast epithelial cells transformed by chemical carcinogens and c-Ha-ras transfection

The objective of this work was to determine whether transformation of the human breast epithelial cell line MCF-10F by the chemical carcinogens 7, 12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene (DMBA) or benzo(a)pyrene (BP), or c-Ha-ras oncogene transfection, influence the expression of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), estrogen (ER) or progesterone (PR) receptors, and the content of cathepsin-D (Cath.D). MCF-10F control cells did not express any of the phenotypes of neoplastic transformation, whereas carcinogen-treated cells and clones derived from the latter formed colonies in agar-methocel, and exhibited increased chemotaxis and chemoinvasion. Clone BP-1E was also tumorigenic in SCID mice. The BP1 cell line transfected with mutated c-Ha-ras oncogene, named BP1-Tras, became more aggressive after transfection and decreased the latency time to tumorigenesis. Radioligand binding and immunocytochemical reactions were utilized for determining the receptors and Cath.D content of control and carcinogen-treated cells and their derived clones. MCF-10F cells contained 37 fmol/mg of protein of EGFR, ER and PR were undetectable, and Cath.D content was 70 fmol/mg protein. EGFR content was significantly higher in D3-1 and BP1-E cell lines vs the control MCF-10F and the other DMBA and BP clones, correlating positively with the emergence of the transformation phenotype. Whereas EGFR levels were not significantly different in BP1-Tras cells when compared with BP1-E, the former were more tumorigenic in SCID mice, an observation suggesting an alternative pathway in these cells in the formation of tumors.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

The hemocytes of the mealybugs Phenacoccus manihoti and Planococcus citri (Insecta: Homoptera) and their role in capsule formation

Hemocytes of Phenacoccus manihoti and Planococcus citri were studied to determine general ultrastructure, phenoloxidase activity, and the presence or absence of a glycocalyx. Prohemocytes, oenocytoids, and granular hemocytes of types 1 (GH1), 2 (GH2), and 3 (GH3) were observed in P. manihoti. In P. citri we observed only GH2 and GH3 (macrophage-like cells). In addition to these hemocyte types, other cells that we believe to be fat-body cells were also observed free in the hemolymph. There was evidence of phenoloxidase activity in GH2 and GH3. The intensity of this reaction increased after parasitization of P. manihoti by the wasp Epidinocarsis lopezi. In most hemocyte types the glycocalyx was very little developed. In P. manihoti, lysis of hemocytes was observed in the vicinity of the parasitoid larva, leading to the formation of a capsule.

Role of HCG and inhibin in breast-cancer (review)

Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is as efficient as pregnancy in protecting the rat mammary gland against carcinogenesis. The effect of both pregnancy and hCG is a lasting one, without secondary effect on body weight, and endocrine related organs. The protective effect of hCG as in pregnancy is due to gland differentiation associated with depression on cell proliferation and synthesis of inhibin by the mammary epithelial cells. The protective effect of hCG is further demonstrated after carcinogen administration indicating a decrease of tumor progression. Whereas hCG action is mediated mainly through the ovary, a direct effect has been demonstrated. This data has been further confirmed by showing that hCG treatment inhibits the proliferation of human breast epithelial cells. This inhibition is associated with synthesis of new gene products, some of which have been identified by immunoprecipitation and Northern blot analysis to be alpha and beta inhibin subunits. Collectively, all these data indicate that inhibin may play an important role in cell growth and differentiation of the mammary epithelia during the physiological process of pregnancy or by the action of hCG. Further studies delineating the pathway through which hCG and inhibin modulate the fate of neoplastic cells would allow us to utilize physiologic mechanisms controlling cell proliferation in breast cancer prevention and therapy.

Allele loss and point mutation in codons 12 and 61 of the c-Ha-ras oncogene in carcinogen-transformed human breast epithelial cells

There is significant evidence that the ras oncogene plays a role in experimental mammary carcinogenesis; the evidence in human breast cancer, however, is more limited. We induced the expression of transformation phenotypes in the human breast epithelial cell line MCF-10F with the chemical carcinogens 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene, N-methyl-N-nitrosourea, N-methyl-N-nitro-N'-nitrosoguanidine, and benzo[a]pyrene. This work was designed to clarify whether chemically induced neoplastic transformation correlates with alterations in the ras gene. MCF-10F cells have two c-Ha-ras alleles, identified by 1.0-kb and 1.2-kb restriction fragments. Treatment with carcinogens resulted in the loss of one of the alleles (1.0 kb). Polymerase chain reaction-amplified DNA from all carcinogen-treated cells was analyzed for point mutations in c-Ha-ras at codons 12 and 61. All of the carcinogens induced a mutation of the remaining allele at the first position of codon 12 (GGC-->AGC). Another frequent mutation occurred at the first position of codon 61 (CAG-->GAG). The changes in c-Ha-ras were associated with the emergence of colony formation in agar-methocel, but no specific changes in this gene correlated with the emergence of invasiveness or tumorigenesis, indicating that other genes may be involved in the process.