A histologic analysis of the effects of stainless steel and titanium implants adjacent to tendons: an experimental rabbit study

PURPOSE

The current trend is to treat distal radius fractures with open reduction and internal fixation with either titanium or stainless steel plates. Both provide stable fixation; however, there is minimal evidence concerning the soft-tissue response to these materials. Our objective was to evaluate the response of adjacent extensor tendons to titanium and stainless steel in a rabbit in vivo model and to evaluate the influence of time.

METHODS

Forty rabbits were divided into 5 groups of 8 rabbits each. Groups I and II had unilateral osteotomy of the distal radius followed by dorsal fixation with titanium and stainless steel plates, respectively. Groups III and IV had fixation with titanium and stainless steel, respectively, but without osteotomy. Group V had surgical dissection without osteotomy or plates. Two animals per group were killed at 1, 4, 12, and 24 weeks. The specimens (distal radius, plate, overlying soft tissue, and extensor tendon) were harvested en bloc for histologic analysis. For interface preservation between implant and tissues the specimens were embedded in methylmethacrylate, sectioned, and stained with hematoxylin-eosin.

RESULTS

Histologic analysis showed a fibrous tissue layer formed over both implants between the plate and the overlying extensor tendons in the groups treated with plating independently of the material and the presence or absence of osteotomy. This fibrous layer contained the majority of debris. Metallic particles were not observed in the tendon or muscle substance of any animals; however, they were visualized in the tenosynovium. Hematoxylin-eosin-stained sections of groups I through IV showed proliferative fibroblasts and metallic particles; however, this layer was not observed in group V. Statistical analysis did not show differences between the groups regarding the number of cells or metallic particles.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate that both implants generated adjacent reactive inflammatory tissue and particulate debris. There was no difference in cell or particle number produced by both materials. There is a statistically significant increase in inflammatory cells with increasing time of implantation.

Corrective osteotomy for intra-articular malunion of the distal part of the radius. Surgical technique

BACKGROUND

Corrective osteotomy is an appealing treatment for malunited articular fractures of the distal part of the radius since articular incongruity may be the factor most strongly associated with arthrosis and diminished function after such fractures. Enthusiasm for osteotomy has been limited by concerns regarding the difficulty of the technique and the potential for additional injury, osteonecrosis, and nonunion.

METHODS

Twenty-three skeletally mature patients were evaluated at an average of thirty-eight months after corrective osteotomy for an intra-articular malunion of the distal part of the radius. The indication for the osteotomy included dorsal or volar subluxation of the radiocarpal joint in fourteen patients and articular incongruity of >/=2 mm as measured on a posteroanterior radiograph in seventeen patients. Six patients had combined intra-articular and extra-articular malunion. The average interval from the injury to the osteotomy was six months. The average maximum step-off or gap of the articular surface prior to the operation was 4 mm.

RESULTS

One patient had a subsequent partial wrist arthrodesis because of radiocarpal arthrosis, and three patients had additional surgery because of dysfunction of the distal radioulnar joint. One patient had a rupture of the extensor pollicis longus, which was treated with a tendon transfer. The final articular incongruity averaged 0.4 mm, and the final grip strength averaged 85% of that on the contralateral side. The rate of excellent or good results was 83% according to the rating systems of Fernandez and of Gartland and Werley, and 43% according to a modification of the rating system of Green and O'Brien.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of corrective osteotomy for the treatment of intraarticular malunion are comparable with those of osteotomy for the treatment of extra-articular malunion. Intra-articular osteotomy can be performed with acceptable safety and efficacy, it improves wrist function, and it may help to limit the need for salvage procedures such as partial or total wrist arthrodesis.

Self-reported upper extremity health status correlates with depression

BACKGROUND

The Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand (DASH) questionnaire is the most widely used upper extremity-specific health-status measure. The DASH score often demonstrates greater variability than would be expected on the basis of objective pathology. This variability may be related to psychosocial factors. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the correlation between the DASH score and psychological factors for specific diagnoses with relatively limited variation in objective pathology.

METHODS

Two hundred and thirty-five patients with a single, common, discrete hand problem known to have limited variations in objective pathology completed the DASH questionnaire, the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire-Revised (EPQ-R) to assess neuroticism, the Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression (CES-D) scale to quantify depressive symptoms, and the Pain Anxiety Symptoms Scale (PASS). Forty-five patients had carpal tunnel syndrome, forty-four had de Quervain tenosynovitis, forty-eight had lateral elbow pain, and seventy-one had a single trigger finger. In addition, twenty-seven patients were evaluated six weeks after a nonoperatively treated fracture of the distal part of the radius. Relationships between psychosocial factors and the DASH score were determined.

RESULTS

A significant positive correlation between the DASH score and depression was noted for all diagnoses (r = 0.38 to 0.52; p < 0.01 for all). The DASH score also correlated with pain anxiety for four of the five diagnoses (carpal tunnel syndrome, r = 0.40; de Quervain tendinitis, r = 0.46; lateral elbow pain, r = 0.42; and trigger finger, r = 0.24) (p < 0.05 for all). The DASH score was not correlated with neuroticism for any diagnosis. There was a highly significant effect of depression (as measured with the CES-D score) on the DASH score for all diagnoses. Both the CES-D score (F = 62.68, p < 0.0001) and gender (F = 11.36, p < 0.001) were independent predictors of the DASH score.

CONCLUSIONS

Self-reported upper extremity-specific health status as measured with the DASH score correlates with depression and pain anxiety but not neuroticism. These data support the contention that psychosocial factors have a strong influence on health-status measures.

Mini external fixation in the hand

External fixation is an effective means of addressing several pathologies of the hand. The advantages of its use include the ability to achieve stable fixation, minimize soft tissue trauma at the site of injury, and allow wound care and mobilization of adjacent joints. External fixators can be constructed from material readily available in the operating room or obtained from a commercial source. Sufficient rigidity can be achieved by any of these means. Improper placement, although achieving rigid fixation, may compromise motion and overall function if basic principles of external fixation are not followed or if the anatomy of the hand is not taken into consideration. The objective of this article is to describe the technique of application of mini external fixation, emphasizing the basic principles of external fixation as they relate to the specific anatomy of the hand. In addition to fracture fixation, various other uses are described including distraction lengthening, arthrodesis, treatment of nonunion, and infection.

Static progressive splinting for posttraumatic elbow stiffness

OBJECTIVES

To determine the value of static progressive splinting in helping patients with posttraumatic elbow stiffness regain functional motion and avoid operative treatment for stiffness.

DESIGN

Retrospective case series.

SETTING

Level I Trauma Center.

PATIENTS AND INTERVENTION

Over a 3-year period, 29 consecutive patients with elbow stiffness after trauma (flexion contracture greater than 30 degrees or flexion less than 130 degrees) were treated with static progressive elbow splinting when a standard exercise program was no longer achieving gains in motion. Three patients were treated after the injury alone; 14 were treated after operative treatment of the initial injury, and 12 after a secondary operative contracture release for posttraumatic stiffness. Splinting was initiated on an average of 55 days (range, 15 to 200 d) after injury or operative treatment.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS

Ulnohumeral range of motion before and after splint treatment.

RESULTS

The flexion arc improved from 71 degrees (range, 0 to 100 degrees) before splinting to 112 degrees (range, 20 to 150 degrees) after splinting. After splinting, 3 patients had a flexion contracture greater than 30 degrees and 10 patients (34%) had fewer than 130 degrees of flexion. Only 3 patients-2 with heterotopic bone and 1 with an associated ulnar neuropathy-requested an operation to address elbow stiffness. Patients who were splinted after the initial injury (n=17, average improvement (fl-ext)=51+/-37 degrees) regained greater motion during splint wear than patients treated after elbow capsulectomy (n=12, average improvement (fl-ext)=22+/-24 degrees).

CONCLUSIONS

Static progressive splinting can help gain additional motion when standard exercises seem stagnant or inadequate, particularly after the original injury. Operative treatment of stiffness was avoided in most patients.

Anterior tension band plating for anterior tibial stress fractures in high-performance female athletes: a report of 4 cases

Stress fracture of the anterior tibial cortex is an extremely challenging fracture to treat, especially in the high-performance female athlete who requires rapid return to competition. Previous reports have not addressed treating these fractures in the world-class athlete with anterior plating. We hypothesize that anterior plating is a biomechanically sound approach to treatment of these fractures, and will lead to an earlier return to full activity than either nonoperative treatment or intramedullary nailing. We present a retrospective series of 4 case reports of 4 world-class female athletes with stress fractures of the anterior tibial cortex treated by anterior plating between 2001 and 2004. Average follow-up was 15 months (range 12 to 48 mo). Anterior tension band plating resulted in fracture healing in all 4 cases and return to full activity at a mean of 10 weeks. All patients returned to preinjury competitive levels. There were no complications of infection, nonunion, or malunion. Anterior tension-band plating of an anterior tibial stress fracture leads to rapid fracture healing and return to competition for high-performance female athletes. This approach should be considered in those athletes who wish to avoid the more prolonged convalescence associated with nonoperative treatment, or the problems, especially of the knee, associated with intramedullary nailing.

The influence of three-dimensional computed tomography reconstructions on the characterization and treatment of distal radial fractures

BACKGROUND

Computed tomography identifies important characteristics of distal radial fractures better than plain radiographs do. Our hypothesis was that three-dimensional computed tomography images would further increase the reliability and accuracy of radiographic characterization of distal radial fractures.

METHODS

Four independent observers evaluated radiographic images of thirty intra-articular fractures of the distal part of the radius for the presence of a fracture line in the coronal plane, impacted central articular fragments, the presence of comminution (defined as more than three articular fragments), and the number of fracture fragments. A treatment was selected on the basis of the interpretation of the radiographic studies. Three rounds of evaluation were compared: (1) radiographs and two-dimensional computed tomography, (2) radiographs and three-dimensional computed tomography two weeks later, and (3) all three types of images two weeks after that. This cycle was then repeated to assess intraobserver reliability.

RESULTS

Three-dimensional computed tomography improved the intraobserver agreement, but not the interobserver agreement, regarding the presence of coronal plane fracture lines and central articular fragment depression. Three-dimensional computed tomography improved both the intraobserver and the interobserver agreement regarding the presence of articular comminution. Interobserver agreement increased when three-dimensional computed tomography was used to determine the exact number of articular fracture fragments. The sensitivity and accuracy of identifying specific fracture characteristics (as compared with intraoperative findings) improved when three-dimensional imaging was used in conjunction with two-dimensional imaging as compared with two-dimensional imaging alone. The addition of three-dimensional computed tomography to two-dimensional computed tomography influenced treatment recommendations, resulting in a significantly greater number of decisions for an open approach (p < 0.05) and combined dorsal and volar exposure (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Three-dimensional computed tomography improves both the reliability and the accuracy of radiographic characterization of articular fractures of the distal part of the radius and influences treatment decisions. Future studies will be required to determine the impact of these decisions on patient outcome.

Volar fixed-angle plating of distal radius extension fractures: influence of plate position on secondary loss of reduction--a biomechanic study in a cadaveric model

PURPOSE

Treatment of extension fractures of the distal radius with volar fixed-angle plates has become increasingly popular in the past 2 years. It has been observed clinically that placement of the distal screws as close as possible to the subchondral zone is crucial to maintain radial length after surgery. The purposes of this study were (1) to evaluate radial shortening after plating with regard to plate position and (2) to evaluate whether plate position has an influence on the strength and rigidity of the plate-screw construct.

METHODS

An extra-articular fracture (AO classification, A3) was created in 7 pairs of fresh-frozen human cadaver radiuses. The radiuses then were plated with a volar distal radius locking compression plate. Seven plates were applied subchondrally; 7 plates were applied 4.5 mm to 7.5 mm proximal to the subchondral zone. The specimens were loaded with 800-N loads for 2,000 cycles to evaluate radial shortening in the 2 groups. Each specimen then was loaded to failure.

RESULTS

Radial shortening was significantly greater when the distal screws were placed proximal to the subchondral zone. The amount of shortening after cyclic loading correlated significantly with the distance the distal screws were placed from the subchondral zone. Rigidity of the plate systems was significantly higher in radiuses in which the distal screws were placed close to the subchondral zone.

CONCLUSIONS

To maintain radial length after volar fixed-angle plating, placement of the distal screws as subchondral as possible is essential. The subchondral plate-screw-bone constructs showed significantly greater rigidity, indicating higher resistance to postoperative loads and displacement forces.

Plate and screw design in fractures of the hand and wrist

As internal fixation of fractures of the hand and wrist has evolved, so too have the implants used for the same purpose. Implants used for the first (1/2) of the 20th century were modeled on implants used to fix long bone fractures. Consequently, they were often bulky. In addition, they often were made of materials which were ill suited to the unique functional and biomechanical requirements of the hand and wrist. As a result, outcomes of internal fixation frequently were suboptimal and complication rates were high. In the past 40 years there has been an evolution in metallurgy, biomechanics, and implant design for fracture fixation in the hand and wrist, quite unlike any other anatomic location in the body. The principal purpose of this review is to highlight these very advances. Implants now are made of highly bio-compatible materials, have a low profile, can be contoured to suit individual anatomy, and provide considerably reduced rates of soft tissue irritation. These features afford surgeons the ability to fix complex injuries in a stable manner so as to institute early rehabilitation in an effort to maximize individual outcomes.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level V (expert opinion).

Isolated radial shaft fractures are more common than Galeazzi fractures

PURPOSE

In contrast to isolated diaphyseal fractures of the ulna (so-called night-stick fractures), isolated fractures of the radial diaphysis generally are expected to have associated injury of the distal radioulnar joint (DRUJ), the so-called Galeazzi fracture. This study retrospectively reviewed isolated fractures of the radial diaphysis in a large cohort of patients to determine how often such fractures occur without DRUJ injury

METHODS

Thirty-six patients with fracture of the radius without fracture of the ulna were followed up for at least 6 months after injury. Injury of the DRUJ was defined as more than 5 mm of ulnar-positive variance on radiographs taken before any manipulative or surgical reduction. All of the fractures were treated with plate and screw fixation (8 with autogenous bone grafting) and all healed. Patients with DRUJ injury had either temporary pinning or immobilization of the DRUJ or surgical fixation of a large ulnar styloid fracture. Patients without DRUJ injury were mobilized within 2 weeks.

RESULTS

Nine patients had dislocation of the DRUJ, 4 with large ulnar styloid fractures. Among the remaining 27 patients 1 had displacement of the proximal radioulnar joint noted after surgery, leading to a secondary procedure for radial head resection. The functional results were satisfactory or excellent in all but 2 patients with functional limitations related to central nervous system injury. No patient had DRUJ dysfunction at the final follow-up evaluation.

CONCLUSIONS

Isolated fractures of the radial diaphysis are more common than true Galeazzi fractures. Surgeons should take great care not to overlook injury to the distal or proximal radioulnar joint in association with isolated diaphyseal fractures of the radius; however, fractures without identifiable radioulnar disruption can be treated without specific treatment of the DRUJ and with immediate mobilization.

TYPE OF STUDY/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Therapeutic, Level IV.

Operative treatment of osteochondral nonunion of the distal humerus

Three patients with ununited osteochondral fracture fragments of the distal humerus (2 anterior capitellum and trochlea; 1 posterior trochlea) who had debridement and realignment of the nonunion, autogenous cancellous bone graft, and internal fixation an average of 6 (range, 5-8) months after injury were studied. The preoperative arc of elbow flexion was 80 degrees, 35 degrees, and 25 degrees. All 3 fractures healed without implant related complications or osteonecrosis. At 28, 27, and 46 months after the index procedure for nonunion, the patients had 95 degrees, 90 degrees, and 115 degrees arcs of elbow flexion. The scores on the Mayo Elbow Performance Index were 80, 80, and 95 (2 good, 1 excellent). Based on this limited experience, it seems that operative treatment of ununited osteochondral fracture fragments can achieve union without osteonecrosis. Attempts to improve the function of the native elbow rather than salvage the situation with interpositional or prosthetic arthroplasty are worthwhile.

Comminuted diaphyseal fractures of the radius and ulna: does bone grafting affect nonunion rate?

BACKGROUND

The recommendation of Anderson and colleagues to bone graft even relatively minor amounts of comminution (a third of the bone diameter) in the treatment of diaphyseal forearm fractures with plate-and-screw fixation has been questioned. This study examines factors related to nonunion in adult patients with comminuted diaphyseal fractures of both the radius and the ulna to determine the relative influence of bone grafting.

METHODS

Over a 15-year period at two hospitals, 41 patients with diaphyseal fractures of both forearm bones satisfied the following criteria: comminution (Orthopaedic Trauma Association grade IV or higher) of at least one fracture; treatment with 3.5- or 4.5-mm dynamic compression plates at least six holes in length; and minimum 12-month follow-up. Multiple logistic regression was used to determine the contribution of the following factors to the risk of nonunion: multiple injuries; ipsilateral upper extremity injury; open wound; and the application of cancellous bone graft at the fracture site.

RESULTS

Five patients had nonunion of one or both bones (12%). According to the multiple logistic regression model, none of the factors studied had a statistically significant association with nonunion (p > 0.40 for all). The odds ratios were as follows: multiple injuries, 2.1 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.34-12.9); ipsilateral injury, 0.68 (95% CI, 0.058-7.84); open fracture, 1.46 (95% CI, 0.21-9.89); and bone graft, 0.98 (95% CI, 0.15-6.42).

CONCLUSION

Nonunion occurred in 12% of comminuted, diaphyseal fractures of both bones of the forearm treated with dynamic compression plates. No single factor was associated with nonunion. In particular, the use of bone graft was not associated with a higher rate of union.

Prevalence of osteoarthrosis of the trapeziometacarpal joint

BACKGROUND

The age and gender-related prevalence of arthrosis of the trapeziometacarpal joint has been incompletely defined.

METHODS

The radiographs of 615 consecutive patients who had presented with an isolated fracture of the distal part of the radius over a two-year period were evaluated for evidence of trapeziometacarpal arthrosis. We used a simple three-grade rating system suitable for standard wrist radiographs. Grade I indicated no or nearly no arthrosis; grade II, obvious arthrosis; and grade III, a totally destroyed joint. This rating system was demonstrated to have adequate intraobserver reliability (average kappa of 0.72, p < 0.001) and interobserver reliability (average kappa of 0.56, p < 0.001). The number of patients with each grade of arthrosis was analyzed according to age and gender.

RESULTS

The overall radiographic prevalence of trapeziometacarpal arthrosis in patients with a distal radial fracture increased steadily from the age of forty-one years onward and reached a prevalence of 91% in patients older than eighty years of age. The prevalence increased more rapidly in women than in men; it reached 94% in women who were older than eighty years of age compared with 85% in men who were older than eighty years of age. The prevalence of grade-III trapeziometacarpal arthrosis (a totally destroyed joint) was much greater in women than in men at all age levels; it reached a prevalence of 66% in women older than eighty years of age compared with 23% in men older than eighty years of age.

CONCLUSIONS

The radiographic prevalence of trapeziometacarpal arthrosis in patients presenting for treatment of a distal radial fracture is age-related, and trapeziometacarpal arthrosis is more likely to lead to complete joint destruction in women than it is in men.

Combined dorsal and volar plate fixation of complex fractures of the distal part of the radius

BACKGROUND

Fractures of the distal part of the radius that are associated with complex comminution of both the articular surface and the metaphysis (subgroup C3.2 according to the Comprehensive Classification of Fractures) are a challenge for surgeons using standard operative techniques.

METHODS

Twenty-five patients with subgroup-C3.2 fractures that had been treated with combined dorsal and volar plate fixation were evaluated at an average of twenty-six months after the injury. Subsequent procedures included implant removal in twenty-one patients and reconstruction of a ruptured tendon in two patients.

RESULTS

An average of 54 degrees of extension, 51 degrees of flexion, 79 degrees of pronation, and 74 degrees of supination were achieved. The grip strength in the involved limb was an average of 78% of that in the contralateral limb. The average radiographic measurements were 2 degrees of dorsal angulation, 21 degrees of ulnar inclination, 0.8 mm of positive ulnar variance, and 0.7 mm of articular incongruity. Seven patients had radiographic signs of arthrosis during the follow-up period. A good or excellent functional result was achieved for twenty-four patients (96%) according to the rating system of Gartland and Werley and for ten patients (40%) according to the more stringent modified system of Green and O'Brien.

CONCLUSIONS

Combined dorsal and volar plate fixation of the distal part of the radius can achieve a stable, mobile wrist in patients with very complex fractures. The results are limited by the severity of the injury and may deteriorate with longer follow-up. A second operation for implant removal is common, and there is a small risk of tendon-related complications.

Health status after total wrist arthrodesis for posttraumatic arthritis

PURPOSE

Total wrist arthrodesis is regarded as the most predictable way to relieve the pain of posttraumatic wrist arthritis. Wrist arthrodesis also is believed to be compatible with a high level of upper-extremity function. This study evaluated the effect of total wrist arthrodesis on both general and upper-extremity-specific health status in patients treated for posttraumatic wrist arthritis.

METHODS

By using an institutional review board-approved protocol 22 patients were evaluated an average of 6 years after total wrist arthrodesis for posttraumatic arthritis. Upper-extremity-specific and general health status were measured using the Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder, and Hand questionnaire and the Short-Form 36 (SF-36) instruments, respectively. Patient satisfaction and interest in pursuing a wrist-mobilizing procedure should one become available also were assessed. Objective assessment included grip strength, digit range of motion, and radiographic fusion.

RESULTS

Grip strength averaged 79% of the uninvolved wrist. The average Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder, and Hand questionnaire score was 25. The average physical component score of the Short-Form 36 was 39 and the average mental component score was 52. Fourteen patients complained of wrist pain, including severe pain in 4 patients. Fifteen patients were satisfied or very satisfied with the result of the fusion, 5 patients were neutral, and 2 patients were mildly dissatisfied. Twenty patients would elect to have a procedure that could make their wrist move again if one were available.

CONCLUSIONS

Substantial dysfunction was noted on both upper-extremity-specific and general health status measures after total wrist arthrodesis for posttraumatic conditions. Pain was improved but not eliminated.

Fractures of the distal radius treated with a nonbridging external fixation technique using multiplanar k-wires

PURPOSE

Joint-bridging external fixation is a minimally invasive treatment option for distal radius fractures. Although radial length can be restored easily the anatomic reduction of articular fragments and restoration of the normal volar tilt proves to be more difficult. A method of nonbridging hybrid fixation of distal radius fractures facilitates fracture reduction and allows for free wrist movement.

METHODS

Twenty-five consecutive patients with fractures of the distal radius were treated with nonbridging external fixation for 6 weeks. The stepwise surgical technique comprised a preliminary joint-bridging construction for reduction purposes, the subsequent insertion of 3 to 4 K-wires in the distal fragment, the assembling of wires to a bar nearly parallel to the fracture line, and lastly the removal of the joint-bridging part. Clinical and radiologic evaluation was performed on the first and seventh days and at 6 weeks and 2 years after surgery.

RESULTS

All fractures united. Palmar tilt (> or =0 degrees ) and articular surface (articular step-off < 2 mm) were restored in all patients whereas loss of radial length occurred in 4 patients having the distal fracture fragment secured with 3 K-wires. No radial shortening was seen in fractures with 4 K-wires inserted in the distal fragment. Functional results at 2 years after surgery showed an average extension of 55 degrees and flexion of 64 degrees without significant differences between extra-articular and intra-articular fractures. There was no extensor tendinitis or pin loosening in the distal fragment; however, 3 pin track infections of proximal pins occurred.

CONCLUSIONS

This surgical technique of nonbridging external fixation is a good treatment option for distal radius fractures: it permits wrist movement. We recommend the insertion of 4 K-wires in the distal fracture fragment.

Management of distal humerus fractures

Fractures of the distal humerus are complex injuries that can be effectively treated with open reduction and internal fixation (ORiF). Exposure of a complex intra-articular fracture may best be achieved through a posterior approach with osteotomy of the olecranon process. The ulnar nerve must be identified and protected, the articular surface must be reduced anatomically, and rigid fixation must be applied to both the medial and lateral columns of the distal humerus. Range of motion should be initiated as soon as possible postoperatively. Complications such as ulnar neuropathy, elbow stiffness, heterotopic ossification, and nonunion should be treated aggressively. Total elbow arthroplasty represents an effective option for fractures that cannot be treated with ORIF.

Dorsal plating for distal radius fractures

A dorsal approach to the distal radius for comminuted intra-articular fractures affords excellent exposure of the joint surface. Dorsal plating can reliably buttress the joint, leading to low rates of arthrosis, but at the expense of wrist stiffness and high rates of extensor tendon problems. New, smaller implants may prove capable of supporting the joint with lower rates of extensor irritation.

Pain dominates measurements of elbow function and health status

BACKGROUND

Elbow function can be quantified with use of physician-based elbow-rating systems and health status questionnaires. Our hypothesis was that pain has a strong influence on these scores, which overwhelms the influence of objective factors such as motion.

METHODS

One hundred and four patients were evaluated, at a minimum of six months (average, forty-six months) after the latest surgery for an intra-articular fracture of the elbow, with use of three physician-based evaluation instruments (Mayo Elbow Performance Index [MEPI], Broberg and Morrey rating system, and American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons Elbow Evaluation Instrument [ASES]), an upper-extremity-specific health status questionnaire (Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand [DASH]), and a general health status questionnaire (Short Form-36 [SF-36]). Multivariate analysis of variance and regression modeling were used to identify the factors that account for the variability in scores derived with these measures-in other words, which factors have the strongest influence on the final score.

RESULTS

Pain alone accounted for 66% of the variability in the MEPI scores, 59% of the variability in the Broberg and Morrey scores, and 57% of the variability in the ASES scores. Models that included other factors accounted for only slightly more variability (73%, 79%, and 79%, respectively), and those that did not include pain accounted for only 22%, 41%, and 41% of the variability. Thirty-six percent of the variability in the DASH scores could be accounted for by pain alone, and 45% could be accounted for by pain and range of motion. Models not including pain accounted for only 17% of the variability in the DASH scores.

CONCLUSIONS

Pain has a very strong influence on both physician-rated and patient-rated quantitative measures of elbow function. Consequently, these measures may be strongly influenced by the psychosocial aspects of illness that have a strong relationship with pain, and objective measures of elbow function such as mobility may be undervalued. It may be advisable to evaluate pain separately from objective measures of elbow function in physician-based elbow ratings.

Both scanning plane and observer affect measurements of scaphoid deformity

PURPOSE

The influence of angular deformity of the scaphoid on wrist function and arthrosis is debated and the reliability of the described quantitative measurements of deformity has been questioned. We hypothesized that the inherent imprecision with which computed tomography scanning planes are selected introduces another source of variability in measurements of scaphoid deformity, further diminishing their reliability.

METHODS

Sagittal plane images of 15 computed tomograms of normal scaphoids were evaluated in 3 different reconstruction planes. Four observers measured the lateral intrascaphoid angle, the dorsal cortical angle, and the height-to-length ratio of the 45 images in random order and then measured them again in a distinct random order 2 weeks later. The variability of each observer's measurements (intraobserver reliability) was evaluated with Pearson correlation coefficients. The agreement of the measurements made by the 4 observers (interobserver reliability) and the agreement of the measurements of the same bone in different reconstruction planes (interplane reliability) were evaluated using interclass correlation coefficients.

RESULTS

The intraobserver reliability was poor for 27 of 36 comparisons. The interobserver reliability of the dorsal cortical angle and the intrascaphoid angle was poor for all reconstruction planes. The interobserver reliability of the height-to-length ratio was good for 2 planes and poor for the third plane. The interplane reliability was poor for 7 of 12 comparisons, with no single measurement technique remaining consistent for all observers across reconstruction planes.

CONCLUSIONS

Quantitative measurements of scaphoid deformity have very limited reliability for individual observers, between different observers, and depending on the plane in which the image of the scaphoid is produced. Even the most reliable measure of deformity (height-to-length ratio) was not consistent between reconstruction planes. Unless more reliable scanning and measurement techniques are developed ideas about the effect of scaphoid deformity on wrist function will remain to a large degree speculative.

Corrective osteotomy for intra-articular malunion of the distal part of the radius

BACKGROUND

Corrective osteotomy is an appealing treatment for malunited articular fractures of the distal part of the radius since articular incongruity may be the factor most strongly associated with arthrosis and diminished function after such fractures. Enthusiasm for osteotomy has been limited by concerns regarding the difficulty of the technique and the potential for additional injury, osteonecrosis, and nonunion.

METHODS

Twenty-three skeletally mature patients were evaluated at an average of thirty-eight months after corrective osteotomy for an intra-articular malunion of the distal part of the radius. The indication for the osteotomy included dorsal or volar subluxation of the radiocarpal joint in fourteen patients and articular incongruity of > or =2 mm as measured on a posteroanterior radiograph in seventeen patients. Six patients had combined intra-articular and extra-articular malunion. The average interval from the injury to the osteotomy was six months. The average maximum step-off or gap of the articular surface prior to the operation was 4 mm.

RESULTS

One patient had a subsequent partial wrist arthrodesis because of radiocarpal arthrosis, and three patients had additional surgery because of dysfunction of the distal radioulnar joint. One patient had a rupture of the extensor pollicis longus, which was treated with a tendon transfer. The final articular incongruity averaged 0.4 mm, and the final grip strength averaged 85% of that on the contralateral side. The rate of excellent or good results was 83% according to the rating systems of Fernandez and of Gartland and Werley, and 43% according to a modification of the rating system of Green and O'Brien.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of corrective osteotomy for the treatment of intra-articular malunion are comparable with those of osteotomy for the treatment of extra-articular malunion. Intra-articular osteotomy can be performed with acceptable safety and efficacy, it improves wrist function, and it may help to limit the need for salvage procedures such as partial or total wrist arthrodesis.

Hinged elbow external fixation for severe elbow contracture

BACKGROUND

When it was first introduced, it was hoped that hinged external fixation with a built-in gear mechanism for applying passive motion and static progressive stretch by turning a dial would improve the arc of ulnohumeral motion, by gradually stretching contracted muscles, after open release of a severe elbow contracture.

METHODS

Forty-two patients were evaluated at an average of thirty-nine months after operative release of a severe posttraumatic elbow contracture (defined as < or =40 degrees of motion). Twenty-three patients had been treated, during the early part of the study, with a hinged external fixator that incorporated a worm gear to apply static progressive stretch postoperatively. These patients were compared with nineteen patients who had been treated without hinged external fixation during the later part of the study, when the hinge was used less frequently. The operative techniques did not otherwise change during the study period. Demographic and injury characteristics as well as associated problems were comparable between the two groups.

RESULTS

The average gain in the range of motion after the index procedure was 89 degrees in the patients treated with a hinge and 78 degrees in those treated without a hinge, an insignificant difference with the numbers available (p = 0.175). Complications associated with use of the hinge included five pin-track infections, one case of pin-track osteomyelitis, one ulnar fracture through a pin site, two broken Schanz screws, and two cases of irritation of the ulnar nerve.

CONCLUSIONS

Open release of a severe elbow contracture results in a substantial gain in motion, with or without hinged elbow fixation. The slightly greater improvement in motion provided by the hinge does not justify the associated increase in risk, expense, and complications.

Der Compass-Gelenkfixateur bei akuter und chronischer Instabilität des Ellenbogens

OBJECTIVE

To maintain concentric reduction of an unstable elbow and to allow active exercises after the treatment of complex elbow injuries or their sequelae.

INDICATIONS

Recurrent dislocation or subluxation of the elbow after repair or reconstruction of bony, capsuloligamentous, and/or musculotendinous stabilizers. Tenuous fixation of large coronoid fractures due to fragmentation or osteopenia. Stabilization of the joint after fascial arthroplasty or debridement for infection, if the debridement destabilizes the elbow. Relative indication: maintenance of range of motion after release of contractures.

CONTRAINDICATIONS

Absent patient compliance. Lack of familiarity of surgeon with elbow anatomy and function as well as with hinged external fixation techniques.

SURGICAL TECHNIQUE

Preferably posterior longitudinal midline incision. Placement of axis pin in the center of rotation of the distal humerus. Application of the fixator over this wire. Placement of Schanz screws into humerus und ulna taking care to protect the radial and ulnar nerves. Removal of axis pin. Rechecking of entire frame and tightening.

RESULTS

The authors' experience with the Compass Hinge Fixator documents restoration of stability and excellent motion after relocation of a chronic simple elbow dislocation, a useful role in reconstructing acute and chronic elbow instability after fracture-dislocation, and a limited role in restoring mobility after severe contracture release.