Development of Heterodera glycines as Affected by Fusarium solani, the Causal Agent of Sudden Death Syndrome of Soybean

The effects of the blue form of Fusarium solani, the causal agent of sudden death syndrome (SDS), on Heterodera glycines were examined in the greenhouse. Roots of soybean cv. Coker 156 were inoculated with either H. glycines alone or F. solani + H. glycines in combination. Population levels of H. glycines were reduced 47% in the presence of F. solani. Life-stage development of H. glycines increased 3% in 30 days in the presence of F. solani. Fusarium solani colonized epidermal and cortical cells adjacent to developing juveniles of H. glycines and the nematode-induced syncytia within the soybean root tissue. At 40 days after inoculation, F. solani was isolated from 37% of the cysts in soil recovered from the F. solani + H. glycines combination treatment. Fusarium solani significantly affected H. glycines population density, life-stage development, and succeeding populations.

Impact of Planting 'Bell', a Soybean Cultivar Resistant to Heterodera glycines, in Wisconsin

Although the soybean cyst nematode (SCN), Heterodera glycines, has been known to exist in Wisconsin for at least 14 years, relatively few growers sample for SCN or use host resistance as a means to manage this nematode. The benefit of planting the SCN-resistant cultivar Bell on a sandy soil in Wisconsin was evaluated in 1992 and 1993. A range of SCN population densities was achieved by planting 11 crops with varying degrees of susceptibility for 1 or 2 years before the evaluation. Averaged over nematode population densities, yield of 'Bell' was 30 to 43% greater than that of the susceptible cultivars, 'Corsoy 79' and 'BSR 101'. Counts of cysts collected the fall preceding soybean were more predictive of yield than counts taken at planting. Yields of all three cultivars were negatively related (P < 0.001) to cyst populations. Fewer (P < 0.01) eggs were produced on 'Bell' than on the susceptible cultivars. The annual (fall to fall) change in cyst population densities was dependent on initial nematode density for all cultivars in 1992 and for the susceptible cultivars in 1993. Yield reductions induced by the SCN under the conditions of this study indicate that planting a SCN-resistant cultivar in Wisconsin can be beneficial if any cysts are detected.

Changes in Reproduction of a Heterodera glycines Race 5 Isolate Cultured on 'Cordell' and 'Bedford' Soybean

Isolates from a race 5 field population of Heterodera glycines were cultured separately on soybean cultivars 'Bedford' (resistance derived from Peking and plant introduction [PI] 88788) and 'Cordell' (resistance derived from 'Peking', PI 88788, and PI 90763) for 10, 12, and 14 generations. Reproduction was measured of the 10th, 12th, and 14th generations on Bedford and Cordell and on Peking, 'Pickett', PI 88788, PI 90763, and 'Lee' (the soybean lines that are used to determine H. glycines race). The isolate cultured on Bedford remained race 5, whereas the isolate cultured on Cordell changed to race 14, to which Bedford is moderately resistant. Cordell probably derived its race 5 resistance from either Peking or PI 90763 because the isolate resulting from culture on Cordell reproduced on the H. glycines race differentials in a pattern similar to those of other isolates selected on PI 90763 in previous studies. Rotation of cultivars with pedigrees similar to Bedford and Cordell may be effective in managing H. glycines to prevent yield suppression in soybean and the development of new races.

Responses of Heterodera glycines Populations to a Postemergence Herbicide Mixture and Simulated Insect Defoliation

Effects of a mixture of the postemergence herbicides acifluorfen and bentazon, and simulated defoliation expected from green cloverworm on population densities of Heterodera glycines were determined in field plots in Iowa. The herbicide mixture and defoliation each suppressed soybean growth. Population densities of H. glycines were generally lower in herbicide-treated than untreated plots. Population densities of the nematode were unaffected by defoliation in 1988 and 1990-91, but were increased by the treatment in 1989.

First Report of Pasteuria sp. Attacking Heterodera glycines in North America

Endospores of a Pasteuria sp. were observed on Heterodera glycines second-stage juveniles and males recovered from soil in microplots in which nematode populations had been declining for several years. Conventional scanning electron microscopy was used to observe and measure endospores on second-stage juveniles (J2) of both a race 3 and a race 4 population. Endospores were elipsoidal; those attached to J2 of race 3 measured (X) 4.2 x 3.7 mum with a height of 2.0 mum, and those on race 4 were 4.3 x 3.7 mum with a height of 2.3 mum. Measurements taken under light microscopy indicated that endospores attached to J2 of race 3 were 5.0 x 4.8 mum with a height of 2.2 mum. The velutinous exosporium of the H. glycines-infecting P. nishizawae from Japan was not visible in the Illinois isolate. Differences in endospore morphology and the apparent inability of the Illinois isolate to complete its life cycle in females indicate that the Japanese and Illinois isolates are distinct species of Pasteuria.

Techniques for Isolation and Evaluation of Fungal Parasites of Heterodera glycines

A facultative fungal parasite, Arkansas Fungus 18 (ARF18), was isolated from at least 10 different sources of Heterodera glycines in different areas in the United States. Techniques used for isolation and in vitro evaluation of fungal parasites of H. glycines were described. Successful isolation of probable egg parasites depends on isolation from individual eggs. Selective isolation and a simple, yet definitive, screening system can increase the possibility of identifying effective biocontrol agents.

Changes in the Heterodera glycines Female Index as Affected by Ten-year Cropping Sequences

The objective of this experiment was to measure the change in female index (FI) of Heterodera glycines from bioassays on Bedford, Peking, PI 89772, and PI 90763 soybean (Glycine max) for 12 cropping sequence treatments over a 10-year period. Cropping sequences included continuous plantings of Forrest, Peking, and D72-8927 soybean (all resistant to race 3); Bedford, Nathan, and D75-10710 soybean (all resistant to races 3 and 14); a Bedford-corn (Zea mays) rotation; a rotation of Bedford, Essex (susceptible), and Forrest; and a 70:30 blend of Bedford and Forrest. The FI from bioassays with PI 89772 and PI 90763 decreased over time from 24.3 to 1.6 with treatments involving continuous Bedford, Nathan, and D75-10710 and the Bedford-corn rotation. The FI increased in bioassays using Bedford with treatments involving Bedford, Nathan, D75-10710, the Bedford-Forrest blend, and the two rotations. Results of this field experiment confirm greenhouse experiments in which reciprocal changes occur in FI on PI 89772 and PI 90673 compared with FI on Bedford.

Distinguishing between Viable and Nonviable Heterodera glycines Eggs

Greenhouse tests were conducted to determine the persistence of nonviable Heterodera glycines eggs in soil. Laboratory and greenhouse tests were conducted to determine the usefulness of the vital stains acridine orange and tetrazolium red for differentiating viable and nonviable eggs of H. glycines. Nonviable (boiled) egg preparations were compared with preparations that were not boiled for their persistence in methyl bromide-fumigated soil. Boiled eggs persisted longer (>200 days) than untreated eggs, perhaps due to disinfestation of the egg suspensions by boiling. Neither stain was a good indicator of egg viability as inferred from infectivity of juveniles in a bioassay of the same egg preparations exposed to the stains.

Interactions of Heterodera glycines, Macrophomina phaseolina, and Mycorrhizal Fungi on Soybean in Kansas

The impact of naturally occurring arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on soybean growth and their interaction with Heterodera glycines were evaluated in nematode-infested and uninfested fields in Kansas. Ten soybean cultivars from Maturity Groups III-V with differential susceptibility to H. glycines were treated with the fungicide benomyl to suppress colonization by naturally occurring mycorrhizal fungi and compared with untreated control plots. In H. glycines-infested soil, susceptible cultivars exhibited 39% lower yields, 28% lower colonization by mycorrhizal fungi, and an eightfold increase in colonization by the charcoal rot fungus, Macrophomina phaseolina, compared with resistant cultivars. In the absence of the nematode, susceptible cultivars exhibited 10% lower yields than resistant cultivars, root colonization of resistant vs. susceptible soybean by mycorrhizal fungi varied with sampling date, and there were no differences in colonization by M. phaseolina between resistant and susceptible cultivars. Benomyl application resulted in 19% greater root growth and 9% higher seed yields in H. glycines-infested soil, but did not affect soybean growth and yield in the absence of the nematode. Colonization of soybean roots by mycorrhizal fungi was negatively correlated with H. glycines population densities due to nematode antagonism to the mycorrhizal fungi rather than suppression of nematode populations. Soybean yields were a function of the pathogenic effects of H. glycines and M. phaseolina, and, to a lesser degree, the stimulatory effects of mycorrhizal fungi.

Nematodes in Michigan. I. Distribution of Heterodera glycines and Other Plant-parasitic Nematodes in Soybean

In 1992, a detection survey for Heterodera glycines (soybean cyst nematode) was conducted in 16 counties in Michigan. The nematode was detected in 12 counties, with absolute frequencies ranging from 6 to 100%. A total of 149 samples was collected, and 53% were infested with H. glycines. Eighty-four growers participated in the survey, and 38 had samples collected from more than one field. Of the 38 growers, 42% had all samples positive for H. glycines, 18% had some positive and negative fields, and 39% had all negative. A risk index was developed to quantify three types of risks: short-term, long-term, and border risk from neighboring counties. Soybean yield was regressed on H. glycines population density and number of years of soybean. Thirty-one percent of the variability in soybean yields was explained by H. glycines cyst population densities. Total number of years in soybean over the last 20 year period explained 19% of the variability in yields. In addition, H. glycines frequencies and population densities were inversely related to Pratylenchus spp. frequencies and population densities.

A method for recovery and counting of nematode cysts

A technique was developed in the early 1980's for recovery and quantification of Heterodera glycines (soybean cyst nematode) cysts from soil and soybean roots. Cysts were collected on sieves and counted on lincd filter paper. This technique could be applied to other particles of similar dimension and density.

Response of soybean in cyst nematode-infested soils at three soil water regimes

Large pot (2 years) and field experiments (1 year) were conducted to determine the response of susceptible soybean Glycine max (L.) Merr. cultivars (Essex and Hutcheson) grown in soybean-cyst-nematode (SCN), Heterodera glycines-infested soils at three soil water regimes. The soil water regimes were irrigation whenever soil water potential ([psi]s) 0.30-m deep was i) -30 kPa (I-30) or ii) - 50 kPa (I-50), and iii) no irrigation. Cyst nematode levels in the pot experiment were either 0 or 20,000 second-stage juveniles (J2) per pot. The field experiment was conducted on soil naturally infested with a population of 145 to 475 cysts L(1) of soil. All growth parameters studied were drastically affected in the presence of SCN under nonirrigated conditions for the large pot tests; however, SCN did not influence growth parameters in the field experiment. Seed yield was lowest in the no irrigation treatment when all treatments were compared in both the pot and field experiments. The infested no irrigation treatment in the pot experiment had the lowest yield among soil water treatments.

Genetic Diversity for Resistance to Heterodera glycines Race 5 in Soybean

Heterodera glycines is a serious pest of soybean in the United States. Plant introductions 90763 and 424595 are reported to be resistant to H. glycines race 5; however their genetic relationship for resistance is unknown. Crosses between these two lines and the susceptible cultivar Essex were studied in the F, F, and F generations to determine the number of genes involved in inheritance of resistance. The plants were screened using conventional techniques based on the index of parasitism. The data were subjected to analyses using chi-square test to determine goodness of fit between observed and expected genetic ratios. The cross PI 424595 x Essex segregated 1 resistant:63 susceptible in the F generation, which indicated the presence of three recessive genes controlling resistance to race 5. In the cross PI 90763 x Essex, resistance was conditioned by one dominant and two recessive genes. The cross between PI 424595 and PI 90763 segregated into 13 resistant:3 susceptible. The data fit a four-gene model with two recessive and two dominant genes with epistasis. PI 90763 has a dominant gene, whereas PI 424595 has a recessive gene; both share two additional recessive genes for resistance to race 5. This information is important to geneticists and soybean breeders for the development of cultivars resistant to H. glycines.

Velvetbean in Rotation with Soybean for Management of Heterodera glycines and Meloidogyne arenaria

The effect of previous crops - soybean (Glycine max) or velvetbean (Mucuna deeringiana) - and aldicarb on yield and nematode numbers for selected soybean cultivars was studied in a field infested with a mixture of Meloidogyne arenaria and Heterodera glycines. Soybean following velvetbean yielded 959 kg/ha more than soybean following soybean. Nematicide treatment resulted in increased yield, and there was no interaction between nematicide treatment and previous crop. Cultivars interacted significantly with nematicide treatment but not with previous crop for yield. Velvetbean reduced numbers of H. glycines but not M. arenaria. Cultivars interacted with previous crop, and the previous crop x nematicide x cultivar interaction was significant for both M. arenaria and H. glycines. We concluded that velvetbean is effective in reducing yield losses caused by mixed populations of M. arenaria and H. glycines, regardless of genetic resistance of soybean cultivar.

Soybean Planting Date and Maturity Effects on Heterodera glycines and Macrophomina phaseolina in Southeastern Kansas

Heterodera glycines reproduction and damage potential were evaluated for H. glycines-resistant and -susceptible soybean cultivars from maturity groups (MG) III, IV, and V on two planting dates in each of two years (1990-1991). Infection by H. glycines reduced yields of late-planted susceptible cultivars to a lesser degree than early planted cultivars in 1990 but not in 1991. The MG V susceptible cultivar yielded better than earlier-maturing susceptible cultivars even when yields of resistant cultivars were similar across maturity groups. Soybean yields were a function of nematode densities on roots in 1990, and nematode soil densities and root colonization by the charcoal rot fungus, Macrophomina phaseolina, in 1991. Harvest densities of H. glycines were lower for late-planted than for early-planted susceptible soybeans in 1990; however, nematode population increase was more rapid on roots of late-planted soybeans in 1991. Soybean maturity group did not have a significant effect on nematode populations in either year of the study, but colonization rates of M. phaseolina were lower for MG V cultivars than for earlier-maturing cultivars. Delayed soybean planting and cultivar maturity selection do not appear to be viable management options for H. glycines in southeastern Kansas.

Differential Sensitivity of Meloidogyne spp. and Heterodera glycines to Selected Nematicides

Differential sensitivity of Meloidogyne arenaria, M. hapla, M. incognita, M. javanica, and Heterodera glycines races 1 and 5 to the nonfumigant nematicides aldicarb, ethoprop, and fenamiphos was evaluated using a 48-hour root-penetration bioassay. Generally, H. glycines was more tolerant of the nematicides, especially ethoprop, than were the Meloidogyne species. Among Meloidogyne species, M. incognita was most sensitive to aldicarb and fenamiphos, but its reaction to ethoprop was similar to the other three Meloidogyne species.

Flow Cytometric Analysis and Sorting of Heterodera glycines Eggs

A nondestructive technique was developed to characterize and separate eggs of soybean cyst nematode, Heterodera glycines, by developmental stage using flow cytometry. Eggs from cysts cultured on susceptible soybean roots were suspended in 0.1% xanthan gum or 59% sucrose and loaded into either a Coulter EPICS 752 or EPICS 753 flow cytometer. Eggs were analyzed and sorted according to forward angle and 90 degrees light scatter, flow cytometric parameters that are relative measures of object size and granularity, respectively. Mature eggs containing vermiform juveniles were less granular and slightly larger than eggs in earlier stages of embryogeny, allowing for separation of mature eggs from immature eggs. The effectiveness of flow cytometric sorting was evaluated by comparing the developmental stages of subpopulations of unsorted and sorted eggs. Of a subpopulation of unsorted eggs, 62% contained vermiform juveniles, whereas 85 to 95% of sorted subpopulations of larger, less granular eggs contained vermiform juveniles. Suspending H. glycines eggs in 0.1% xanthan gum or 59% sucrose for flow cytometric analysis had no effect on subsequent egg hatch in vitro. This technique is an efficient and effective means to collect large, relatively homogeneous quantities of H. glycines eggs in early or late embryogeny, and would likely be useful for analyzing and sorting eggs of other nematode species for use in developmental, genetic, or physiological research, or for identification and collection of parasitized eggs.

Effects of Eight Herbicides on In Vitro Hatching of Heterodera glycines

Laboratory studies were conducted to evaluate effects of selected herbicides on hatching of free eggs of the soybean cyst nematode, Heterodera glycines. The herbicides used were Atrazine (atrazine), Basagran (bentazon), Bladex (cyanazine), Blazer (acifluorfen), Command (clomazone), Lasso (alachlor), Sonalan (ethalfluralin), and Treflan (trifluralin). Treatments comprised two concentrations of commercial herbicide formulations and deionized water and 3.14 mM zinc sulfate as negative and positive controls, respectively. Eggs were extracted from females and cysts, surface disinfested, and incubated in herbicide or control solutions at 25 +/- 2 C in darkness. Hatched second-stage juveniles were counted every other day for 24 days. Hatching of H. glycines eggs in 50 and 500 mug/ml Blazer was 42 to 67% less than that in deionized water and 6l to 78% less than that in zinc sulfate solution. Zinc sulfate significantly increased hatching activity in 50 mug/ml but not 500 mug/ml Blazer. The other herbicides tested at various concentrations had no significant effect on egg hatching. The specific component of Blazer inhibiting egg hatching is unknown. Suppression of hatching by Blazer indicates that this postemergence soybean herbicide may have a potential role in managing H. glycines.

Interrelationship of Heterodera glycines and Fusarium solani in Sudden Death Syndrome of Soybean

Experiments were established in field microplots to examine the association between Heterodera glycines and the blue form of Fusarium solani in sudden death syndrome of soybean (SDS). Foliar disease symptoms occurred on more plants per plot, appeared 3 to 7 days earlier, and were more severe on plants grown in plots infested with F. solani + H. glycines than on those inoculated with F. solani only. Yields were suppressed only in treatments that included the nematode. Numbers of H. glycines cysts and second-stage juveniles were significantly lower in plots infested with F. solani + H. glycines than with the nematode alone. Fusarium solani was able to infect cysts and eggs.

Location of Heterodera glycines-induced Syncytia in Soybean as Affected by Soil Water Regimes

Locations of syncytia induced by the soybean cyst nematode (SCN), Heterodera glycines race 3, were compared in roots of 'Essex', a susceptible soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) cultivar, at three soil water regimes. The plants were grown in wet (-5 to -20 kPa), moderately wet (-30 to -50 kPa), and moderately dry (-60 to -80kPa) autoclaved Captina silt loam soil (Typic Fragiudult). In the moderately dry soil, syncytia were found only in the stele, but in moderately wet and wet soils, syncytia occurred primarily in the cortex and occasionally in the stele. The location of syncytia in the cortical tissue of roots growing in wet and moderately wet soils may account for the tolerance of susceptible soybean cultivars grown under well-irrigated conditions where there is less interference with water transport through roots. Cell-wall perforations and dense cytoplasm were characteristic of syncytial cells observed in root tissues of all treatments.

Multivariate Analysis of Selected Edaphic Factors and Their Relationship to Heterodera glycines Population Density

The influence of selected soil physical and chemical factors on population density of Heterodera glycines was investigated in 1988 and 1989 in two different locations of a soybean (Glycine max) field. Soil variables of a Norfolk loamy sand were measured after planting soybeans susceptible to H. glycines. Cyst and egg populations were determined after harvest. Nematode population density was found to be clustered. Up to 91% of the eggs were parasitized by a sterile fungus. Principal component analysis with orthogonal VARIMAX rotation grouped 12 variables into five uncorrelated factors in 1988 and three in 1989. In 1988, the factor "pH and Mg" was positively correlated (P < 0.001) with cyst and egg population density. Also, the factor "fine texture and Cu" was negatively correlated (P < 0.05) with egg population density. In 1989, the factor "pH, Mg and Cu" was positively correlated (P < 0.05) with levels of cysts and percentage of parasitized eggs, but not with total egg number. Across 2 years, factors containing soil pH and Mg were positively associated with cyst nematode population density. Copper appeared to be negatively associated with populations of H. glycines.

Susceptibility of Soybean Introductions to Races 1, 2, 3, and 4 of Heterodera glycines

Thirteen soybean plant introduction (PI) lines, selected for their apparent susceptibility to Heterodera glycines, were compared with cultivar Lee 74 as hosts of H. glycines races 1, 2, 3, and 4. Race 3 produced the highest average number of females of the four races. Compared to Lee 74, more (P = 0.05) females of H. glycines race 1 were extracted from eI 274420, PI 274423, and PI 317333; PI 86457 had more females of H. glycines race 2; and PI 86443, PI 86457, PI 261467, PI 274420, PI 274421, and PI 274423 had more females of H. glycines race 3. Similar numbers of females of H. glycines race 4 developed on all of the soybean lines and Lee 74. PI 274421, PI 274420, or PI 196159 could provide a more or equally susceptible host for H. glycines races 1, 2, 3, and 4 than Lee 74. One of these three lines could be substituted for Lee as the standard susceptible cultivar in the race determination test.

Crop Rotation Studies with Velvetbean (Mucuna deeringiana) for the Management of Meloidogyne spp

Results from a greenhouse experiment at Cabrils, Spain, with two velvetbean (Mucuna deeringiana) accessions (Florida and Mozambique) growing in sterilized sandy loam and inoculated with Meloidogyne arenaria race 2, M. incognita race 1, and M. javanica revealed that the legume was not a host for these nematodes. In contrast, roots of 'Clemson Spineless' okra (Hibiscus esculentum), 'Summer Crookneck' squash (Cucurbita pepo), and 'Davis' soybean (Glycine max) were galled by all three root-knot nematodes. Greenhouse experiments at Auburn, Alabama, using soils infested with Heterodera glycines (race 14) + M. incognita or with H. glycines + M. arenaria (race 2) showed that, in contrast to Davis soybean, a Mexican and the Florida velvetbean accessions were not hosts for the nematodes. An experiment with 'Florunner' peanut (Arachis hypogaea) and the Florida velvetbean in a field infested with M. arenaria (race 1), near Headland, Alabama, showed that significant juvenile populations of the nematode at peanut harvest time were present only in plots with peanut. A microplot rotation experiment demonstrated that 'Black Beauty' eggplant (Solanum melongena) following the Florida velvetbean had heavier shoots and lower numbers of M. arenaria juveniles in the roots and in the soil than eggplant after Summer Crookneck squash or Davis soybean.

Fitness Components and Selection of Biotypes of Heterodera glycines

Survival of biotypes of Heterodera glycines was studied in microplots and in the field. The field population was subjected to various cropping sequences. Viability of eggs overwintered in microplots was determined each spring by percentage hatch, percentage of hatched eggs penetrating roots, and numbers of females developing on Peking and PI 88788 soybeans. Eggs from the field were collected in the spring and fall and assayed for ability to develop on Peking and PI 88788. Hatch of isolates overwintered in the microplots averaged 13% in May 1989 and 19% in 1990. No differences in hatch were detected among the isolates in 1989. Numbers of juveniles penetrating susceptible roots averaged less than 20% of the hatched eggs each year. An isolate of a biotype parasitic on susceptible soybeans and the resistant soybean PI 88788 penetrated roots more successfully than other biotypes. A second isolate from North Carolina, parasitic on susceptible soybeans, PI 88788, and the resistant soybean Peking experienced selection against development on Peking during two winters. Only 17 % of the expected numbers of females developed on Peking from this isolate. In the microplot experiment, parasitism of PI 88788 and Peking had a selective disadvantage (selection coefficient) of s = 0.29 and 0.62 over all isolates, respectively. In the field experiment, the relative numbers of cysts on Peking and PI 88788 increased between the spring and fall on soybean, then decreased over the winter and under corn. Selection coefficients against parasitism of PI 88788 and Peking averaged 0,19 and 0.3 in the field population. In neither experiment did juveniles lose their ability to parasitize susceptible soybeans.

An Alternative Method for Evaluating Soybean Tolerance to Heterodera glycines in Field Plots

Alternate planting dates and periodic destruction of the previous year's soybean crop as well as 1-year bare fallow were used to establish a range of population densities ofHeterodera glycines for the subsequent year. Soybean cultivar Coker 156 (susceptible, moderately tolerant) was compared to cultivars Essex (susceptible, intolerant) and Bedford (resistant) to evaluate tolerance at different H. glycines population densities established through the previous year's treatments. Yield of Coker 156 was consistently intermediate between yields of Bedford and Essex in 1986 and 1987. Yield of Essex was negatively correlated (P = 0.05) with preplant egg numbers of H. glycines in 1987, whereas yield of Bedford and Coker 156 were not related to nematode density. Reproduction of H. glycines was greater (P = 0.05) on the moderately tolerant Coker 156 than on either of the other cultivars.