Voluntary exercise following traumatic brain injury: brain-derived neurotrophic factor upregulation and recovery of function

Voluntary exercise leads to an upregulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and associated proteins involved in synaptic function. Activity-induced enhancement of neuroplasticity may be considered for the treatment of traumatic brain injury (TBI). Given that during the first postinjury week the brain is undergoing dynamic restorative processes and energetic changes that may influence the outcome of exercise, we evaluated the effects of acute and delayed exercise following experimental TBI. Male Sprague-Dawley rats underwent either sham or lateral fluid-percussion injury (FPI) and were housed with or without access to a running wheel (RW) from postinjury days 0-6 (acute) or 14-20 (delayed). FPI alone resulted in significantly elevated levels of hippocampal phosphorylated synapsin I and phosphorylated cyclic AMP response element-binding-protein (CREB) at postinjury day 7, of which phosphorylated CREB remained elevated at postinjury day 21. Sham and delayed FPI-RW rats showed increased levels of BDNF, following exercise. Exercise also increased phosphorylated synapsin I and CREB in sham rats. In contrast to shams, the acutely exercised FPI rats failed to show activity-dependent BDNF upregulation and had significant decreases of phosphorylated synapsin I and total CREB. Additional rats were cognitively assessed (learning acquisition and memory) by utilizing the Morris water maze after acute or delayed RW exposure. Shams and delayed FPI-RW animals benefited from exercise, as indicated by a significant decrease in the number of trials to criterion (ability to locate the platform in 7 s or less for four consecutive trials), compared with the delayed FPI-sedentary rats. In contrast, cognitive performance in the acute FPI-RW rats was significantly impaired compared with all the other groups. These results suggest that voluntary exercise can endogenously upregulate BDNF and enhance recovery when it is delayed after TBI. However, when exercise is administered to soon after TBI, the molecular response to exercise is disrupted and recovery may be delayed.

Subcellular localization of IRS-1 in cell proliferation and differentiation

The type 1 insulin-like growth factor receptor (IGF-IR) and its docking protein, insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS-1), play important roles in cell transformation, cell differentiation and aging. IRS-1 and other IRS proteins can, under certain conditions, localize to the nuclei of cells, where they undergo interactions with nuclear and nucleolar proteins. In this study, we confirm and extend these observations, demonstrating that IRS-1 is preferentially nuclear in growing cells. Differentiation and inhibition of ribosomal RNA synthesis cause subcellular redistribution of IRS-1 and other nuclear proteins to the cytoplasm.

Conventional 3D conformal versus intensity-modulated radiotherapy for the adjuvant treatment of gynecologic malignancies: a comparative dosimetric study of dose–volume histograms☆

OBJECTIVE

The goals of this study were to evaluate the feasibility of pelvic intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) in the adjuvant treatment of gynecologic malignancies and to compare the dose-volume histograms (DVHs) and determine the potential impact on acute and long-term toxicity based on the dose to target and nontarget tissues for both planning techniques.

METHODS

Ten consecutive patients referred for adjuvant radiotherapy for gynecologic malignancies at the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and Magee-Womens Hospital were selected for CT-based treatment planning using the ADAC 3D version 4.2g and the NOMOS Corvus IMRT version 4.0. Normal tissues and critical structures were contoured on axial CT slices by both systems in conjunction with a gynecologic radiologist. These regions included internal, external, and common iliac nodal groups, rectum, upper 4 cm of vagina, bladder, and small bowel. Conventional treatment planning included 3D four-field box using 18-MV photons designed to treat a volume from the L(5)/S(1) border superiorly to the bottom of the ischial tuberosity on the AP/PA field and shaped blocks on the lateral fields to minimize the dose to the rectum and small bowel. A seven-field technique using 6-MV photons was used for IMRT. Restraints on small bowel for IMRT were set at 23.0 Gy +/- 5% and 35.0 Gy+/- 5% for the rectum and 37.5 Gy +/- 5% for the bladder while simultaneously delivering full dose (45.0 Gy) to the intrapelvic nodal groups in 1.8-Gy daily fractions. The dose-volume histograms where then compared for both treatment delivery systems.

RESULTS

The volume of each organ of interest (small bowel, bladder, and rectum) receiving doses in excess of 30 Gy was compared in the 3D and IMRT treatment plans. The mean volume of small bowel receiving doses in excess of 30 Gy was reduced by 52% with IMRT compared with 3D. A similar advantage was noted for the rectum (66% reduction) and the bladder (36% reduction). The nodal regions at risk and the upper vagina all received the prescribed dose of 45.0 Gy.

CONCLUSIONS

Intensity-modulated radiotherapy appears to offer several advantages over conventional 3D radiotherapy (3D CRT) planning for adjuvant radiotherapy for gynecologic malignancies. These include a significant reduction in treatment volume for bladder, rectum, and small bowel. It is anticipated that this reduction in volume of normal tissue irradiated would translate into overall reduction in acute and potentially late treatment-related toxicity. Prospective trials are necessary to better evaluate the advantages in a larger group of patients.

Neuroprotective effects of nitrone radical scavenger S-PBN on reperfusion nerve injury in rats

The nitrone-based free radical scavengers have potent neuroprotective activities in models of stroke in which oxidative stress plays a key role in its development. We examined the effects of S-PBN (sodium 4-[(tert-butylimino) methyl]benzene-3-sulfonate N-oxide), a spin trap nitrone, on reperfusion injury in rat peripheral nerves. Immediately after the onset of 4-h ischaemia in rat right hindlimb, S-PBN was administered via mini-osmotic pumps, containing 2 ml of S-PBN (1.2 M), inserted subcutaneously. S-PBN, in addition, was given by a single injection (50 mg/kg BW, i.p.). Mean plasma concentrations of S-PBN were significantly greater in S-PBN-treated rats than in controls after 24, 48 and 72 h of reperfusion. Pump and dosing solution analysis indicated that the rats received between 82 and 99% of the target S-PBN concentration. Morphology in sciatic, tibial and peroneal nerves was assessed after 4 h of ischaemia followed by 72 h and 7 days of reperfusion. After 72 h of reperfusion, saline-treated control rats showed endoneurial oedema at the thigh level and diffuse axonal degeneration of myelinated nerve fibres distally. S-PBN-treated nerves were normal or revealed less severe abnormalities in myelinated fibres after 72 h and 7 days of reperfusion, when compared with those in saline-treated control nerves. Morphometrically, the frequency of abnormal myelinated fibres at calf levels was significantly less in S-PBN-treated nerves than in controls. In conclusion, post-ischaemic administration of S-PBN exhibits substantial neuroprotective properties in ischemia/reperfusion nerve injury.

A saturated-fat diet aggravates the outcome of traumatic brain injury on hippocampal plasticity and cognitive function by reducing brain-derived neurotrophic factor

We have conducted studies to determine the potential of dietary factors to affect the capacity of the brain to compensate for insult. Rats were fed with a high-fat sucrose (HFS) diet, a popularly consumed diet in industrialized western societies, for 4 weeks before a mild fluid percussion injury (FPI) or sham surgery was performed. FPI impaired spatial learning capacity in the Morris water maze, and these effects were aggravated by previous exposure of the rats to the action of the HFS diet. Learning performance decreased according to levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in individual rats, such that rats with the worst learning efficacy showed the lowest levels of BDNF in the hippocampus. BDNF immunohistochemistry localized the decreases in BDNF to the CA3 and dentate gyrus of the hippocampal formation. BDNF has a strong effect on synaptic plasticity via the action of synapsin I and cAMP-response element-binding protein (CREB), therefore, we assessed changes in synapsin I and CREB in conjunction with BDNF. Levels of synapsin I and CREB decreased in relation to decreases in BDNF levels. The combination of FPI and the HFS diet had more dramatic effects on the active state (phosphorylated) of synapsin I and CREB. There were no signs of neurodegeneration in the hippocampus of any rat group assessed with Fluoro-Jade B staining. The results suggest that FPI and diet impose a risk factor to the molecular machinery in charge of maintaining neuronal function under homeostatic and challenging situations.

[Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)]

The severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is a highly infectious respiratory disease, to the best of our knowledge caused by a hitherto unknown corona virus. The virus has spread from South East Asia to many countries of the world. Three case reports of patients from the Prince of Wales Hospital of The Chinese University of Hong Kong demonstrate typical clinical courses. Fever, cough, in most cases non-productive, myalgia, chills, and rigor are the leading symptoms. Leucopenia and thrombocytopenia are the most prominent laboratory parameters, increased values for lactatedehydrogenase (LDH) reflect a more severe clinical course. Advanced age and coexisting conditions seem to influence the prognosis unfavourably. The chest roentgenogram may be normal initially but at a later stage progressive consolidations in the majority of peripheral parts of the lung are observed, which cannot be differentiated from pneumonias of other origin. Even young patients can enter a stage of respiratory compromise rather fast. A therapy against the cause of the disease is not known. Empirical therapy with ribavirin in combination with high dose corticosteroids have proved successful. The disease may progress into respiratory failure comparable with an acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Mortality is around five to ten per cent. Stringent hygiene and quarantine measures are mandatory to prevent the further spread of this threatening disease.

Sinonasal (angiocentric) T/NK cell lymphoma: report of a case with a -12-year history free of recurrent/residual disease and a sudden deterioration

This report describes a case involving a 78-year-old Caucasian male, whose medical history was significant for sinonasal (angiocentric) T/NK lymphoma, who was treated by surgery and radiation in 1988. After the treatment, the patient was apparently free of residual/recurrent disease for a period of 12 years. There was periodical clinical follow up including repeated biopsies. After this period, the patient suffered from sudden deterioration of the health status with multiorgan involvement by the disease and he died. The diagnosis was confirmed by an autopsy. To our knowledge, this is the fifth reported case with extended survival (more than 12 years) free of recurrent/residual disease after the initial treatment, in which the patients ultimately died because of the disease. These findings suggest the importance of prolonged clinical follow-up in patients with this diagnosis.

Appican, the proteoglycan form of the amyloid precursor protein, contains chondroitin sulfate E in the repeating disaccharide region and 4-O-sulfated galactose in the linkage region

Chondroitin sulfate (CS)-D and CS-E, which are characterized by oversulfated disaccharide units, have been shown to regulate neuronal adhesion, cell migration, and neurite outgrowth. CS proteoglycans (CSPGs) consist of a core protein to which one or more CS chains are attached via a serine residue. Although several brain CSPGs, including mouse DSD-1-PG/phosphacan, have been found to contain the oversulfated D disaccharide motif, no brain CSPG has been reported to contain the oversulfated E motif. Here we analyzed the CS chain of appican, the CSPG form of the Alzheimer's amyloid precursor protein. Appican is expressed almost exclusively by astrocytes and has been reported to have brain- and astrocyte-specific functions including stimulation of both neural cell adhesion and neurite outgrowth. The present findings show that the CS chain of appican has a molecular mass of 25-50 kDa. This chain contains a significant fraction (14.3%) of the oversulfated E motif GlcUA beta 1-3GalNAc(4,6-O-disulfate). The rest of the chain consists of GlcUA beta 1-3GalNAc(4-O-sulfate) (81.2%) and minor fractions of GlcUA beta 1-3GalNAc and GlcUA beta 1-3GalNAc(6-O-sulfate). We also show that the CS chain of appican contains in its linkage region the 4-O-sulfated Gal structure. Thus, appican is the first example of a specific brain CSPG that contains the E disaccharide unit in its sugar backbone and the 4-O-sulfated Gal residue in its linkage region. The presence of the E unit is consistent with and may explain the neurotrophic activities of appican.

Stepwise deletions of polyA sequences in mismatch repair-deficient colorectal cancers

PolyA simple repeat sequence deletions are common in tumors with microsatellite instability (MSI+). Such deletions occur one base at a time in DNA mismatch repair (MMR)-deficient yeast suggesting larger deletions in human MSI+ tumors represent multiple sequential stepwise losses. Sum total deletions in four polyA repeats were variable (between -17 to -45 bp) in 20 sporadic MSI+ colorectal cancers. Progressive but less extensive total deletions (maximum of -12 bp) occurred in similar polyA sequences in MMR-deficient mice (mlh1-/-) up to 478 days old. PolyA repeat lengths were relatively stable but already shortened in the MMR-deficient cell line HCT116. A transgene with 26 A's transfected into HCT116 shortened an average of 3.8 bases pairs after 469 days in culture, less than average deletions of BAT25 (-5.3) or BAT26 (-9.0) in MSI+ cancers. These findings further suggest that extensive polyA deletions common in MSI+ tumors likely reflect multiple stepwise smaller deletions that accumulate more than hundreds of divisions after loss of MMR.

Transgenic rice plants expressing the ferredoxin-like protein (AP1) from sweet pepper show enhanced resistance to Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae

We used particle bombardment to cotransform mature seed-derived rice callus (Oryza sativa L., ssp. japonica, cv. Eyi 105) with plasmids containing the linked marker genes gusA and hpt, and the ap1 gene encoding an amphipathic protein previously shown to delay the hypersensitive response induced in non-host plants by the pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae (Pss). Thirty-two independent lines of transgenic rice plants were regenerated, and 27 of these lines carried all three transgenes as shown by molecular analysis. A bacterial blight inoculation test was carried out on ten lines. In each case, plants carrying the ap1 gene showed enhanced resistance to Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo) race 6 at various levels. This suggests the ap1 gene could be a useful candidate for genetic engineering strategies in rice to provide bacterial blight resistance.

TOLERANCE TO MUSCULOSKELETAL ALLOGRAFTS WITH TRANSIENT LYMPHOCYTE CHIMERISM IN MINIATURE SWINE1

BACKGROUND

Although transplantation of musculoskeletal allografts in humans is technically feasible, the adverse effects of long-term immunosuppression subject the patient to high risks for correcting a non-life-threatening condition. Achieving immunologic tolerance to musculoskeletal allografts, without the need for chronic immunosuppression, could expand the clinical application of limb tissue allografting. Tolerance to musculoskeletal allografts has been accomplished previously in miniature swine in our laboratory. Although stable, mixed chimerism has been suggested as the mechanism underlying long-term tolerance in a rat limb model, the mechanism of this tolerance induction has not been established. This report explores the possible relationship between hematopoietic chimerism and tolerance to musculoskeletal allografts in swine.

METHODS

Twelve miniature swine underwent vascularized musculoskeletal allograft transplantation from histocompatibility complex (MHC) matched, minor antigen-mismatched donors. Eight animals received a 12-day coprse of cyclosporine, one of which was excluded due to subtherapeutic levels. Four recipients were not immunosuppressed. Serial biopsies to assess graft viability and flow cytometry to assess chimerism were performed. Donor and third-party skin grafts were placed on recipients with surviving allografts greater than 100 days to validate tolerance.

RESULTS

Both groups developed early peripheral chimerism, but this chimerism became undetectable by postoperative day 19 in the cyclosporine group and by day 13 in the control group. Animals receiving cyclosporine developed permanent tolerance to their allografts, whereas those not receiving cyclosporine rejected their allografts in 6-9 weeks. Animals demonstrating tolerance to their bone allografts also demonstrated prolonged donor skin graft survival.

CONCLUSIONS

Induction of tolerance to musculoskeletal allografts can be achieved in the MHC matched swine. Although hematopoietic chimerism is present in the immediate postoperative period, persistent, long-term chimerism does not seem to be necessary for maintenance of such tolerance.

Ex Vivo Cytokine Activation of Peripheral Blood Stem Cells: A Potential Role for Adoptive Cellular Immunotherapy

Ex vivo activation of peripheral blood stem cells (PBSC) using interleukin-2 (IL-2) results in cytotoxic effector cells that may possess beneficial in vivo effects. We proposed to evaluate ex vivo stimulation of PBSC using various cytokines alone or in combination to optimize their function. Cytokine-activated PBSC were analyzed for tumor-directed cytotoxicity and their ability to remove tumor cells from long-term clonogenic assays. Mononuclear cells were obtained from the apheresis products of normal donors and cultured with IL-2 (1000 U/ml), interferon-alpha (IFN-alpha) (1000 U/ml), or IL-12 (50 U/ml) either alone or in combinations at 37 degrees C and 5% CO(2) for 24 h. Colony-forming unit-tumor (CFUT) assays were initiated using cytokine-activated PBSC with varying concentrations of MCF-7 or SKBR-3 human breast cancer cells. Standard 4-h (51)Cr-release assays were performed with cytokine-activated PBSC using MCF-7 or SKBR-3 cells as targets. Activation of PBSC with IL-2, IFN-alpha, or IL-12 resulted in enhanced cytotoxicity against the two breast cancer cell lines when compared to controls. PBSC activated with IL-2 and IFN-alpha or IL-2 and IL-12 were more cytotoxic than PBSC activated with single cytokines (p = 0.0004 for MCF-7 cells and p < 0.001 for SKBR-3 cells). Using clonogenic assays, IL-2-activated PBSC reduced the number of CFU-T to a greater extent than did IL-12 or IFN-alpha-activated PBSC (p = 0.0006). However, PBSC activated with a combination of IL-2 and IFN-alpha or IL-2 and IL-12 demonstrated 95% and 90% reductions, respectively, compared to 79% reduction using IL-2-activated PBSC (p < 0.0001). The greatest reduction in cytotoxicity occurred in the cell populations depleted of CD56(+) cells (p = 0.016) and CD8(+) CD56(+) cells (p = 0.002), suggesting that the effector cell population includes a combination of cytotoxic CD8(+) T cells and CD56(+) natural killer cells. These results demonstrate that the ex vivo activation of PBSC with cytokines, either alone or in combination, enhances cytotoxicity against, and removal of two human breast cancer cells. The combinations of IL-2 with IFN-alpha or IL-12 are most beneficial in cytotoxicity and purging assays. These results could play an important role in designing adoptive cellular immunotherapy clinical trials in the autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplant setting.

Biological purging of breast cancer cells using an attenuated replication-competent herpes simplex virus in human hematopoietic stem cell transplantation

Autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation after myelosuppressive chemotherapy is used for the treatment of high-risk breast cancer and other solid tumors. However, contamination of the autologous graft with tumor cells may adversely affect outcomes. Human hematopoietic bone marrow cells are resistant to herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) replication, whereas human breast cancer cells are sensitive to HSV-1 cytotoxicity. Therefore, we examined the utility of G207, a safe replication-competent multimutated HSV-1 vector, as a biological purging agent for breast cancer in the setting of stem cell transplantation. G207 infection of human bone marrow cells had no effect on the proportion or clonogenic capacity of CD34+ cells but did enhance the proliferation of bone marrow cells in culture and the proportion of CD14+ and CD38+ cells. On the other hand, G207 at a multiplicity of infection of 0.1 was able to purge bone marrow of contaminating human breast cancer cells. Because G207 also stimulates the proliferation of human hematopoietic cells, it overcomes a limitation of other purging methods that result in delayed reconstitution of hematopoiesis. The efficient infection of human bone marrow cells in the absence of detected toxicity suggests that HSV vectors may also prove useful for gene therapy to hematopoietic progenitor cells.

[Correlation between liver fibrosis stage and serum liver fibrosis markers in patients with chronic hepatitis B]

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the diagnostic value of serum liver fibrosis markers by analyzing the correlation between liver fibrosis stage in patients with chronic hepatitis B and serum liver fibrosis markers, such as hyaluronate, type III procollagen, laminin, and type IV collagen.

METHODS

There were 278 patients with chronic hepatitis B in this series. Before liver biopsy, the serum was collected to test hyaluronate, type III procollagen, laminin, and type IV collagen. Data were analyzed statistically.

RESULTS

Liver fibrosis stage was correlated to inflammation degree. In patients with moderate or serious liver inflammation and fibrosis, serum hyaluronate was above normal level, and correlated to liver inflammation and fibrosis. For patients with chronic hepatitis B, serum type III procollagen, laminin, and type IV collagen increased apparently. While laminin was correlated to liver fibrosis, type III procollagen and type IV collagen correlated to liver inflammation.

CONCLUSIONS

Serum hyaluronate, type III procollagen, laminin, and type IV collagen could reflect the state of liver fibrosis. Hyaluronate may be a useful marker for liver cirrhosis.

Infections of the nervous system: an update on recent developments

The past decade has seen major changes in the field of infectious diseases. In particular, many new infections of the nervous system have been recognised, including the lethal infections of Enterovirus 71, and the Nipah and West Nile viruses. Increased interest in prion diseases has occurred, following the recognition of animal-to-human transmission in Europe. Familiar bacteria such as the pneumococcus continue to cause problems due to increasing resistance to multiple antibiotics. Furthermore, human immunodeficiency virus-infected and other immunocompromised patients are under the constant threat of opportunistic infections, many of which are targeted towards the brain and spinal cord. This paper reviews the changing world of nervous system infections, highlighting some of the most significant recent developments.

Point dose variations with time during traditional brachytherapy for cervical carcinoma

In traditional brachytherapy for carcinoma of the cervix, doses are often prescribed to specifically chosen points (A and B) and the normal tissue tolerance calculated at specific reference points in the bladder and rectum. These tolerance doses are often used to modify the brachytherapy treatment plan. It is inherently assumed that the position of the brachytherapy applicator does not change in relation to the relevant anatomical structures over the time-course of an implant. To assess the accuracy of this assumption, 2 sets of localization films were obtained for each implant in 28 patients, 1 prior to loading and another after the removal of the radioactive sources. Significant applicator movement and, consequently, significant dose variations were ob: served. Therefore, isolated one-time dose measurements to normal critical structures should not be used as the sole basis for making therapeutic decisions. The magnitude of dose variations and their clinical significant are discussed.

Bacterial Polysaccharides as Vaccines — Immunity and Chemical Characterization

Studies on protective immunity and biochemical characterization of bacterial capsular polysaccharides have led to significant contributions to understanding of the mechanisms of infectious diseases and development of effective vaccines. Immunity to encapsulated bacteria is related to antibody response to polysaccharide (PS) antigen, interactions with T- and B-lymphocytes, and host defense mechanisms. Meningococcal, pneumococcal and Salmonella vi PSs and Haemophilus type b PS-protein conjugate vaccines have been licensed and provided effective immunity for prevention of these bacterial infections. Capsular PSs are cell-surface polymers consisting of oligosaccharide repeating units. Many PSs are highly polar and hydrophilic and interfere with cell-to-cell interactions with phagocytes. Most pneumococcal PSs are negatively charged and possess acidic components such as D-glucuronic acid and phosphate in phosphodiester bonds. Extensive immunologic cross-reactivity has been observed among bacterial capsular PSs. In infants the antibody responses to most capsular PSs are generally poor. Enhanced immunogenicity of PS antigens can be achieved through PS-protein conjugate vaccines, immunization during a critical period of perinatal development and effective antigen delivery system.