The impact of musculoskeletal changes on the dynamics of the calf muscle pump

Many articles have been published on assessing and treating chronic venous insufficiency and venous leg ulcers; most recommend correcting the underlying cause. These same articles often fail to examine and address a common factor or cofactor of venous hypertension--musculoskeletal changes. Frequently, these changes accompany major injuries, neurological disease, vascular insufficiency, debilitating diseases, myositis, and bone and joint pain and can adversely affect the dynamics of the calf muscle pump. The calf muscles rapidly waste and weaken with disuse--even a change in gait related to a painful ulcer can exacerbate venous hypertension and cause calf muscle disuse atrophy. This article reviews the cause and effect of musculoskeletal changes on the hemodynamics of the calf muscle pump. Recommendations for changes in practice will be based on the identification of the underlying cause of chronic venous insufficiency related to these musculoskeletal changes.

Valvular density alone cannot account for sites of chronic venous insufficiency and ulceration in the lower extremity

OBJECTIVE

Class 6 chronic venous stasis is associated with abnormal venous hemodynamics and ulceration. Ulcers primarily occur over bones and tendon prominences but very rarely over muscular compartments. We hypothesized that the anatomical distribution of venous stasis ulcers in the lower extremity is related to a lower density of venous valves.

METHODS

The venous vasculature of six normal human legs was cast with resin, and their microvenous valvular anatomy was examined. Skin samples were obtained from the skin overlying the 1) Achilles' tendon, 2) anterior tibia, 3) medial malleolus, 4) lateral malleolus, 5) dorsal surface of the foot, 6) planta pedis, 7) dorsal aspect of the great toe; and from the skin regions overlying the 8) gastrocnemius, 9) tibialis anterior, and 10) peroneus muscles. The valvular and venous densities were determined in a scanning electron microscope, normalized to the size of specimens, and the valvular index was calculated. Analysis of variance with Bonferroni t-test was used to compare the valvular index between the regions.

RESULTS

Venous valves were observed in all tissue regions. The diameter of veins with valves ranged from 18 microm to 803 microm. The valvular index for regions overlying bones/tendons (i.e., regions 1-7) was significantly higher versus those overlying muscular regions (i.e., regions 8-10) (p < 0.05). The valvular index was not different (p = 0.51) when regions 1 and 2 (where ulcers almost never occur) were compared to regions 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 (where ulcers frequently occur); nor were there differences between the vascular indexes of regions overlying muscle. The largest venous valves were observed in the plantar region, and the smallest-sized ones were present in the peroneal region.

CONCLUSIONS

This study shows that the density of venous valves is actually higher in regions of the human lower extremity overlying bones and tendons, where venous stasis ulcers are common, than those overlying muscular areas, where ulcers are rarely seen. Thus, valvular quantity alone cannot account for the higher clinical incidence of ulceration. It is likely that muscular pumping and/or valvular quality are important factors in preventing the development of venous stasis and ulceration in the lower extremity.

Venous ulcer infection caused by Arcanobacterium haemolyticum

A. haemolyticum has been described as an unusual pathogen causing pharyngotonsillitis and extra pharyngeal infections like ulcerative lesions infection mainly in patients with underlying condition (peripheral vascular disease, diabetes, alcoholism). A case of A. haemolyticum venous leg ulcer infection is reported in a 66 year-old diabetic male patient. Bacteriological diagnosis is based on conventional culture technique. But, due to its coryneform appearance and time growing, it is probably underreported.

[Differential diagnosis of leg ulcers]

Over the last years the treatment of chronic leg ulcers has developed from a merely symptomatic to a differentiated therapy. Although more than 90% of the ulcers are of vascular origin, many other causes are possible. A survey of the various triggers of chronic ulcers of the lower limb is given. Vascular, hematological, neuropathic, infectious, malignant and chemico-physical causes are discussed. New findings regarding hemostatic defects as the basis of thrombophilia and ulcers are presented.

Current approaches to venous ulcers and compression

BACKGROUND

Venous ulcers affect as many as 2.5 million people in the United States and can cause substantial pain and loss of function.

OBJECTIVE

To review current approaches to venous ulcers and compression.

METHOD

Treatment options that have been proposed in the literature are discussed utilizing the Cochrane library database, Medline, and the author's clinical experience.

RESULTS

Diagnostic findings and management strategies for venous ulcers are reviewed.

CONCLUSION

Good wound care and compression therapy will heal the majority of small venous ulcers of short duration. For ulcers that are slow to heal, other approaches such as venous surgery and grafting with conventional or bioengineered skin substitutes should be considered.

Case study: a unique approach to compliance in a patient with venous ulcers

Lower extremity venous ulcers affect 500,000 to 700,000 Americans, with a 10-week outpatient treatment cost of $1327 to $5289. Recurrence rates are reported as 57% within 10.4 months. Many types of treatments are available, but the most successful treatment continues to be the most basic-elevation and compression. Innovative ideas to increase patient compliance can be the key to successful therapy.

Changes in cellular motility and cytoskeletal actin in fibroblasts from patients with chronic venous insufficiency and in neonatal fibroblasts in the presence of chronic wound fluid

PURPOSE

Fibroblasts (fb) play an important role in wound healing involving motility, contraction, fibrosis, and expression of the cytoskeletal protein alpha-smooth muscle actin (alpha-sma). Patients with chronic venous insufficiency (CVI) are known to have dermal changes and impaired venous ulcer healing. To investigate whether these dermal-fb have an altered ability to migrate and whether chronic wound fluid from venous ulcers alters neonatal fb motility, we examined cell migration and alpha-sma.

METHODS

Fibroblasts were cultured from the margin of venous ulcers (du-fb, n = 4, CEAP 6), from patients with venous reflux without ulcer (dr-fb, n = 5, CEAP 2), and from the ipsilateral thigh of the same patients with (pu-fb) and without (pr-fb) ulcer, respectively. The abbreviations used are p and d, which represent proximal and distal, respectively; u and r represent ulcer and reflux, respectively. Neonatal foreskin fibroblasts (nf-fb) were exposed to chronic venous ulcer wound fluid (CVUWF, 300 microg protein/mL, n = 3) or bovine serum albumin (BSA, control). Fibroblast motility was determined by means of time-lapse photo-images, and the rate (micrometer per hour) was calculated. Immunohistochemistry for alpha-sma was analyzed with confocal laser microscopy.

RESULTS

The rate of motility (micrometer per hour +/- SEM) was decreased for both du-fb (11.4 +/- 0.7) and dr-fb (13.8 +/- 0.6), when compared with pu-fb (21.9 +/- 0.9) and pr-fb (24.7 +/- 1.1), respectively. The motility rate for nf-fb was lower in CVUWF (24.7 +/- 2.0) than in BSA (37.1 +/- 6.7). An elevated level of microfilament bundles of alpha-sma for both du-fb and dr-fb, compared with those of pu-fb and pr-fb, and also in nf-fb treated with CVUWF was demonstrated by means of immunohistochemistry.

CONCLUSION

These data demonstrate a reduced motility in the dermal fb of patients with CVI. Patients with reflux disease without ulcer are predisposed to these changes. Furthermore, it appears that CVUWF causes changes in motility and alpha-sma expression in nf-fb as demonstrated in du-fb. These findings suggest that reduced motility and CVUWF, representing the microenvironment of venous ulcers, play a significant role in impaired wound healing.

Cadexomer-iodine in the treatment of venous leg ulcers: what is the evidence?

Studies on the use of cadexomer-iodine in venous leg ulcers have found some evidence of its benefits over other treatments, but most are dated and some used products now contraindicated.

Factor V Leiden mutation in postthrombotic and non-postthrombotic venous ulcers

OBJECTIVE

To determine the prevalence of the factor V Leiden mutation in patients with postthrombotic and non-postthrombotic venous ulcers.

DESIGN

Case-control study.

SETTING

Department of Dermatology, University Hospital of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.

PARTICIPANTS

Seventy-three consecutive outpatients and inpatients with venous ulcers and 45 age- and sex-matched control subjects (matched to the 42 patients with postthrombotic syndrome).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Frequency of postthrombotic and non-postthrombotic findings in patients with venous ulcers. Prevalence of the factor V Leiden mutation in these different subgroups.

RESULTS

Postthrombotic syndrome was identified as the cause of 42 (58%; 95% confidence interval [CI], 45%-69%) of 73 venous ulcers, and the remainder were caused by primary valvular insufficiency. In postthrombotic ulcers, the prevalence of the factor V Leiden mutation was 38% (95% CI, 24%-54%) (16/42), which corresponds to an odds ratio of 13.2 (95% CI, 2.8-62.3; P<.001). In non-postthrombotic venous ulcers, the prevalence was 16% (95% CI, 5%-34%) (5/31), which corresponds to an odds ratio of 3.2 (95% CI, 1.0-10.0; P =.07).

CONCLUSIONS

The factor V Leiden mutation is highly prevalent in patients with postthrombotic venous ulcers. Even patients with non-postthrombotic venous ulcers show a moderately elevated prevalence of the factor V Leiden mutation. Some of the latter might be misclassified because of near-to-perfect revascularization after asymptomatic deep venous thrombosis. However, as long as the therapeutic consequences of the factor V Leiden mutation are not established, systematic screening cannot be recommended in patients with venous ulcers.

The K-Four bandage system: evaluating its effectiveness on recalcitrant venous leg ulcers

This evaluation examined the effectiveness of the K-Four (Parema) high compression bandage system on 50 patients with recalcitrant 'hard-to-heal' venous leg ulcers and relates the outcome to an earlier randomised study which compared three other four-layer bandage systems. Twelve-week healing rates were 53.2% in the current series, which included patients with poor mobility, large ulcers and long pretreatment ulcer duration, rising to 69.5% at 20 weeks. When account was taken of known risk factors for delayed ulcer healing, no significant difference could be identified between between either K-Four or the earlier evaluated bandages, which included the original Charing Cross system, where the overall healing rates were 64.5% and 80%, respectively, at 12 and 20 weeks. It would seem more likely that treatment outcome is related to patient risk factors for delayed healing and bandaging expertise than to the bandage system employed.

Standards of care for venous leg ulcers: compression therapy and moist wound healing

Venous ulcers are the most common type of cutaneous ulceration of the lower extremity, accounting for 70% to 90% of all cases. Despite recent advances in treatment and the development of new modalities, the current standard of care remains compression therapy in combination with appropriate moist wound care principles. The physiology of the venous system and the pathophysiology of venous disease leading to ulceration are described. A review of the use of gradient compression therapy is provided, including a discussion of several types. The history of moist wound healing and the use of hydrocolloids also are included. It is essential for the vascular nurse to be well versed in the areas of compression therapy and moist wound principles as the most effective treatment for venous ulcers at this time.

Resistance to activated protein C due to factor V Leiden mutation: high prevalence in patients with post-thrombotic leg ulcers

BACKGROUND

Activated protein C (APC) resistance is the most frequently diagnosed heritable thrombophilic defect predisposing to thrombosis.

OBJECTIVES

To determine the prevalence of APC resistance due to factor V Leiden mutation in patients with leg ulcers.

METHODS

Within a 2-year-period 100 consecutive patients with leg ulcers were examined for factor V Leiden mutation.

RESULTS

APC resistance due to factor V Leiden mutation was detected in 19 of 53 patients (36%) with post-thrombotic leg ulcers and in three of 47 patients (6%) with ulcers caused by primary varicosis. In a healthy control group APC resistance due to factor V Leiden mutation was found in five of 96 (5%) volunteers.

CONCLUSIONS

In view of this high prevalence of APC resistance of 36%, which has never previously been reported, patients with post-thrombotic leg ulcers should be investigated for APC resistance.

[The pathogenesis and surgical treatment of trophic ulcers of the lower extremities against a background of varicose veins]

The state of the musculo-venous pump of lower extremities was studied in 72 patients with trophic ulcers caused by varicose disease. The methods used were: phlebotonometry, phleboplethysmography, US dopplerography, distal ascending and retrograde-femoral, popliteal and talocrural phlebography. It was established that ectasia and/or valve incompetence of deep and muscle veins of the lower extremities with the formation of blood refluxes along the profound, communicating and superficial veins underlie the disturbances of venous hemodynamics. The authors propose a scheme of pathogenesis of the varicose disease trophic ulcers and recommend to perform pathogenetically justified operations.

Causes and effects of the chronic inflammation in venous leg ulcers

The pathogenesis of venous leg ulcers is multifactorial. In this review article new physiological, molecular and cellular abnormalities in venous ulcers related to the chronic inflammation are presented and discussed. Venous hypertension causes disturbed microcirculation and pathological changes of the capillaries, which eventually locks the condition in a self-amplifying, detrimental cascade with persistent elevated levels and activities of pro-inflammatory cytokines and proteases preventing progress into a healing phase. As a consequence fibroblasts senescence and become less responsive to growth factors the older the ulcers become. Current data imply there is no deficiency but rather an unfavorable distribution of growth factors in venous ulcers. An imbalance in proteolytic enzymes and their endogenous inhibitors is a common finding in chronic venous leg ulcers. Variation in disease severity and concomitant ailments in this heterogeneous patient group may explain the contradictory results in the literature. Thus, to advance the areas of research further, longitudinal studies involving larger number of patients are required to identify the major pathogenic factors.

A new cohesive short-stretch bandage and its application

The undisputed optimum treatment for venous leg ulcers is compression therapy, where an external appliance (multilayer, short-stretch bandaging and compression hosiery) promotes venous return through graduated compression of the tissues and capillaries. However, this is not always acceptable to the patient, particularly when the patient's social life is affected with malodour and pain associated with venous leg ulcers, thereby reducing quality of life. There is a psychosocial consideration when the bandaging system is bulky, hot and difficulty is found with the fitting of shoes. An alternative and clinically effective solution is essential if the wound is to heal. In this case study, the patient was provided with a cohesive and short-stretch compression bandage (Actico), which allowed her to continue her social life while effectively treating her ulcer.

Stasis ulcers refractory to therapy--accelerated healing by treatment with clopidogrel +/- dalteparin: a preliminary report

Stasis ulcers are commonly the result of chronic venous insufficiency. We have recently assessed 15 patients with stasis ulcers that failed to heal after one year of routine wound care. All patients demonstrated a defect in hemostasis, and a biopsy revealed livido vasculitis. Eleven of fifteen patients were treated with clopidogrel and dalteparin, and 4 of 15 patients were treated with clopidogrel alone. Thirteen of fifteen patients (86.6%) completely healed within three months of starting antithrombotic therapy. Patients with stasis ulcers and chronic venous insufficiency who fail to heal with routine wound care should be subjected to biopsy, a procoagulant defect evaluation, and initiation of clopidogrel and dalteparin therapy if a defect is found.

Prevention of venous ulceration by use of compression after deep vein thrombosis

Venous ulcers may result from damage to the lining of the veins after an occurrence of deep vein thrombosis (DVT). As the pressure in the damaged venous system remains pathologically high, a result of DVT, swelling develops, hemosiderin staining develops around the ankle area, and varicosities often develop. These symptoms are part of the postphlebitic syndrome and are a precursor to formation of the chronic venous ulcer. The mainstay of treatment or prevention for venous ulcers remains compression therapy. In spite of the evidence that compression is necessary to reduce edema and allow the ulcer to heal, many patients still are not using compression after DVT to prevent ulcer formation. This article describes the prevalence, cost, etiology, and pathophysiology of postphlebitic syndrome and presents the nursing intervention of compression therapy as an ulcer prevention strategy for the patient with DVT. A variety of compression strategies are discussed. A case study of a patient in need of compression therapy is presented.

The venous stasis syndrome after deep venous thrombosis or pulmonary embolism: a population-based study

OBJECTIVES

To estimate the incidence and determine predictors of venous stasis syndrome and venous ulcers after deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

This population-based retrospective cohort study reviewed medical records of 1527 patients with incident deep venous thrombosis or pulmonary embolism between 1966 and 1990. We recorded baseline characteristics, event type (deep venous thrombosis with or without pulmonary embolism or pulmonary embolism alone), leg side and site of deep venous thrombosis (proximal with or without distal deep venous thrombosis vs distal deep venous thrombosis alone), and venous stasis syndrome and venous ulcer.

RESULTS

Two hundred forty-five patients developed venous stasis syndrome. One-year, 5-year, 10-year, and 20-year cumulative incidence rates were 7.3%, 14.3%, 19.7%, and 26.8%, respectively. By 20 years the cumulative incidence of venous ulcers was 3.7%. Patients with deep venous thrombosis with or without pulmonary embolism were 2.4-fold (95% confidence interval, 1.7-fold-3.2-fold) more likely to develop venous stasis syndrome than patients with pulmonary embolism and no diagnosed deep venous thrombosis. In patients aged 40 years or younger with proximal compared with distal-only deep venous thrombosis, venous stasis syndrome was 3.0-fold more likely (95% confidence interval, 1.6-fold-4.7-fold). In patients with unilateral leg deep venous thrombosis, venous stasis syndrome usually developed in the concordant leg (P < .001). There was a 30% (95% confidence interval, 2%-62%) increased risk for venous ulcer per decade of age at the incident venous thromboembolism.

CONCLUSIONS

The cumulative incidence of venous stasis syndrome continues to increase for 20 years after venous thromboembolism. Pulmonary embolism alone is less likely to cause venous stasis syndrome.

[Chronic venous insufficiency after open tibial fracture. An underestimated problem]

There is a wide range of alternatives for primary bone reconstruction in the treatment of open lower leg fractures with soft tissue damage of the type Gustillo II and III. The primary objective should always be the protection of soft tissue damage whether one uses the fixateur externe, or an unreamed nail or primary bone shortening with secondary callus distraction. In recent years, this approach has produced better results and a reduction in the rate of major amputations. The overall effects of the initial treatment can only be analysed after a number of years. Research results indicate long-term soft tissue complications of the lower leg, varying from harmless swelling to venous ulcer. We conducted a clinical investigation which compared 80 patients, who were treated between 1985 and 1994 using the venous-occlusion plethysmography, to 50 healthy individuals. Clinically significant damage of the deep venous system was found in over 50% of cases. There was a direct correlation between the number of years since the initial treatment and the degree of damage found. Based on these findings, we recommend that the initial treatment of this condition and the preventative treatment of the secondary trauma diseases should follow regulated surgical guidelines and be recognised for insurance purposes.

Prevalence, incidence, management, and predictors of venous ulcers in the long-term-care population using the MDS

OBJECTIVE

To describe the prevalence, incidence, management, and predictors of venous ulcers in residents of certified long-term-care facilities using the Minimum Data Set.

DESIGN

Retrospective cohort study.

SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS

32,221 residents admitted to long-term-care facilities in Missouri between January 1, 1996, and October 30, 1998.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Version 2.0 of the Minimum Data Set was utilized. Assessment items included selected measures from background information, disease diagnoses, physical functioning and structural problems, health conditions, oral/nutritional status, and skin condition.

MAIN RESULTS

Venous ulcer prevalence on admission was 2.5%. The incidence of venous ulcer development for long-term-care residents admitted without an ulcer at 90, 180, 270, and 365 days after admission was 1.0%, 1.3%, 1.8%, and 2.2%, respectively. The most frequent skin treatments for residents with a venous ulcer were ulcer care, dressings, and ointments. Factors associated with venous ulcer development within a year of admission were diabetes mellitus, peripheral vascular disease, and edema.

CONCLUSION

Venous ulcer prevalence and incidence are greater in the long-term-care population than in the community at-large. Residents with a venous ulcer are likely to have comorbid conditions such as diabetes mellitus, peripheral vascular disease, congestive heart failure, edema, wound infection, and pain. Based on these data, risk factors such as history of leg ulcers, recent edema, diabetes mellitus, congestive heart failure, or peripheral vascular disease should prompt clinicians to carefully plan care that will manage a resident's risk for venous ulcer development.