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Lu Y, Ma W, Tang H, Wu X, Yang X, Sun F. 4-methylimidazole exposure impairs sperm mobility by reducing the expression of blood-testis barrier junction protein in mouse testes. Reprod Biol 2024; 24:100928. [PMID: 39083984 DOI: 10.1016/j.repbio.2024.100928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2024] [Revised: 06/30/2024] [Accepted: 07/20/2024] [Indexed: 08/02/2024]
Abstract
4-methylimidazole (4-MI), a derivative of imidazole, is a widely used component in caramel-colored food products such as soy sauce, beer and other soft drinks. The present study is aimed to investigate the effects of 4-MI on the male reproduction. The results revealed that 8 weeks of 4-MI exposure did not significantly alter the body weight and testicular weight of male mice. However, testicular morphology and computer-assisted sperm analysis showed that exposed to 4-MI caused irregular arrangement of spermatogenic cells in the testes and weakened sperm motility. Consistently, we observed the decreased fertilization ability in vivo of 4-MI-treated male mice. We further demonstrated that 4-MI disrupted the blood-testis barrier (BTB) integrity by decreasing the protein expression of BTB-related junction with permeability assay and western blot. In addition, the apoptosis of Sertoli cells (TM4) occurred in 4-MI treated mice, which might be caused by the generation of oxidative stress. Collectively, our findings document that 4-MI exposure damages the sperm mobility via disruption of BTB integrity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yajuan Lu
- Institute of Reproductive Medicine, Medical School, Nantong University, Nantong 226019, China
| | - Wei Ma
- Institute of Reproductive Medicine, Medical School, Nantong University, Nantong 226019, China
| | - Hanyu Tang
- Institute of Reproductive Medicine, Medical School, Nantong University, Nantong 226019, China
| | - Xue Wu
- Institute of Reproductive Medicine, Medical School, Nantong University, Nantong 226019, China
| | - Xiwen Yang
- Institute of Reproductive Medicine, Medical School, Nantong University, Nantong 226019, China; School of Basic Medical Science, Key Laboratory of Fertility Preservation and Maintenance of Ministry of Education, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, China
| | - Fei Sun
- Institute of Reproductive Medicine, Medical School, Nantong University, Nantong 226019, China.
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2
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Massri AJ, Fitzpatrick M, Cunny H, Li JL, Harry GJ. Differential gene expression profiling implicates altered network development in rat postnatal day 4 cortex following 4-Methylimidazole (4-MeI) induced maternal seizures. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2023; 100:107301. [PMID: 37783441 PMCID: PMC10843020 DOI: 10.1016/j.ntt.2023.107301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2023] [Revised: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/04/2023]
Abstract
Compromised maternal health leading to maternal seizures can have adverse effects on the healthy development of offspring. This may be the result of inflammation, hypoxia-ischemia, and altered GABA signaling. The current study examined cortical tissue from F2b (2nd litter of the 2nd generation) postnatal day 4 (PND4) offspring of female Harlan SD rats chronically exposed to the seizuregenic compound, 4-Methylimidazole (0, 750, or 2500 ppm 4-MeI). Maternal seizures were evident only at 2500 ppm 4-MeI. GABA related gene expression as examined by qRT-PCR and whole genome microarray showed no indication of disrupted GABA or glutamatergic signaling. Canonical pathway hierarchical clustering and multi-omics combinatory genomic (CNet) plots of differentially expressed genes (DEG) showed alterations in genes associated with regulatory processes of cell development including neuronal differentiation and synaptogenesis. Functional enrichment analysis showed a similarity of cellular processes across the two exposure groups however, the genes comprising each cluster were primarily unique rather than shared and often showed different directionality. A dose-related induction of cytokine signaling was indicated however, pathways associated with individual cytokine signaling were not elevated, suggesting an alternative involvement of cytokine signaling. Pathways related to growth process and cell signaling showed a negative activation supporting an interpretation of disruption or delay in developmental processes at the 2500 ppm 4-MeI exposure level with maternal seizures. Thus, while GABA signaling was not altered as has been observed with maternal seizures, the pattern of DEG suggested a potential for alteration in neuronal network formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdull J Massri
- Integrative Bioinformatics, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, 111 T. W. Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Mackenzie Fitzpatrick
- Mechanistic Toxicology Branch, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, 111 T. W. Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Helen Cunny
- Office of the Scientific Director, Division of Translational Toxicology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, 111 T. W. Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Jian-Liang Li
- Integrative Bioinformatics, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, 111 T. W. Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - G Jean Harry
- Mechanistic Toxicology Branch, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, 111 T. W. Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA.
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3
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Zhang Z, Chen Y, Deng P, He Z, Qin F, Chen Q, Wang Z, Chen J, Zeng M, Pan H. Isotope dilution-HPLC-MS/MS to investigate the production patterns and possible pathways of free and protein-bound AGEs and 4-MI in cookies. Food Res Int 2023; 173:113477. [PMID: 37803800 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2023.113477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2023] [Revised: 09/09/2023] [Accepted: 09/11/2023] [Indexed: 10/08/2023]
Abstract
A qualitative and quantitative method for detecting free and protein-bound advanced glycation end products (AGEs) and 4-methylimidazole (4-MI) was established using isotope dilution-HPLC-MS/MS, and successfully applied in cookies and model systems. The effects of different temperatures (160-220 °C) on the formation of free and protein-bound AGEs and 4-MI in cookies were discussed, and the possible model systems (Maillard reaction pathway 1 using wheat gluten protein + glucose + sucrose; direct addition pathway 1 using wheat gluten protein + CML/CEL/4-MI) of protein-bound AGEs and 4-MI were verified. The results showed that the contents of protein-bound CML, CEL, and 4-MI were higher than free content with a tendency of increasing first and subsequently decreasing with temperature, reaching a maximum at 200 °C in cookies. In the model systems, the levels of protein-bound CML, CEL, and 4-MI are higher than those of free CML, CEL, and 4-MI. The protein-bound CML, CEL, and 4-MI accounted for 90.73, 87.64, and 97.56% of the total amount in the model system 1, while accounting for 68.19, 59.00, and 50.96% in the model system 2, respectively. In comparison, protein-bound CML, CEL, and 4-MI could be easily generated directly by Maillard reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zening Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Yang Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Peng Deng
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Zhiyong He
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Fang Qin
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Qiuming Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Zhaojun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Jie Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Maomao Zeng
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China.
| | - Hongyang Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Resources, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China.
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4
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Abdullah S, Ganguly S. An overview of imidazole and its analogues as potent anticancer agents. Future Med Chem 2023; 15:1621-1646. [PMID: 37727960 DOI: 10.4155/fmc-2023-0020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The quest for novel, physiologically active imidazoles remains an exciting topic of research among medicinal chemists. The imidazole ring is a five-membered aromatic heterocycle that is found in both natural and synthesized compounds. Multiple anticancer drug classes are currently available on the market, but concerns including toxicity, limited efficacy and solubility have lowered the overall therapeutic index. Therefore, the hunt for new potential chemotherapeutic agents persists. The development of imidazole as a reliable and safer alternative to anticancer treatment is generating much attention among experts. Tubulin or microtubule polymerization inhibition and changes in the structure and function of DNA, VEGF, topoisomerase, kinases, histone deacetylases and certain other proteins that affect gene expression are among the putative targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salik Abdullah
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Jharkhand, 835215, India
| | - Swastika Ganguly
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Jharkhand, 835215, India
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5
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Akbari N, Shafaroodi H, Jahanbakhsh M, Sabah S, Molaee- aghaee E, Sadighara P. 4-Methylimidazole, a carcinogenic component in food, amount, methods used for measurement; a systematic review. Food Chem X 2023; 18:100739. [PMID: 37397204 PMCID: PMC10314196 DOI: 10.1016/j.fochx.2023.100739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2023] [Revised: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 06/02/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023] Open
Abstract
4-methylimidazole (4-MEI) is widely used industrially. This carcinogenic component has been reported in some types of food. It is usually produced by the caramelization process in food, drinks and caramel coloring. The possible mechanism for the formation of this compound in food is the Maillard reaction. In order to estimate the amount of substance 4-MEI in food, a systematic study was conducted. The selected keywords were 4-methylimidazole, 4-MEI, beverage, drink, meat, milk, and coffee. 144 articles were obtained from the initial search. The articles were evaluated and finally, the data of 15 manuscripts were extracted. Based on the data extracted from selected articles, the highest amount is reported in caramel color, coffee, and cola drinks. In 70% of the selected studies, the analytical method was based on liquid chromatography. In this method, there is no need for derivatization. SPE columns were used to extract samples in most manuscripts. According to per capita consumption, the most exposure to 4-MEI is through coffee. In high risk food products, regular monitoring with analytical methods with high sensitivity is recommended. Furthermore, most of the selected studies were about the validation method, so few samples were selected. It is recommended to design more studies with a high sample size to accurately evaluate this carcinogenic compound in food.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nader Akbari
- Department of Environmental Health, Food Safety Division, Faculty of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hamed Shafaroodi
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mahdi Jahanbakhsh
- Department of Environmental Health, Food Safety Division, Faculty of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Samireh Sabah
- Food and Drug Administration, Ministry of Health and Medical Education, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ebrahim Molaee- aghaee
- Department of Environmental Health, Food Safety Division, Faculty of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Parisa Sadighara
- Department of Environmental Health, Food Safety Division, Faculty of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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6
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Kobets T, Smith BPC, Williams GM. Food-Borne Chemical Carcinogens and the Evidence for Human Cancer Risk. Foods 2022; 11:foods11182828. [PMID: 36140952 PMCID: PMC9497933 DOI: 10.3390/foods11182828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Revised: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Commonly consumed foods and beverages can contain chemicals with reported carcinogenic activity in rodent models. Moreover, exposures to some of these substances have been associated with increased cancer risks in humans. Food-borne carcinogens span a range of chemical classes and can arise from natural or anthropogenic sources, as well as form endogenously. Important considerations include the mechanism(s) of action (MoA), their relevance to human biology, and the level of exposure in diet. The MoAs of carcinogens have been classified as either DNA-reactive (genotoxic), involving covalent reaction with nuclear DNA, or epigenetic, involving molecular and cellular effects other than DNA reactivity. Carcinogens are generally present in food at low levels, resulting in low daily intakes, although there are some exceptions. Carcinogens of the DNA-reactive type produce effects at lower dosages than epigenetic carcinogens. Several food-related DNA-reactive carcinogens, including aflatoxins, aristolochic acid, benzene, benzo[a]pyrene and ethylene oxide, are recognized by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as causes of human cancer. Of the epigenetic type, the only carcinogen considered to be associated with increased cancer in humans, although not from low-level food exposure, is dioxin (TCDD). Thus, DNA-reactive carcinogens in food represent a much greater risk than epigenetic carcinogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tetyana Kobets
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-914-594-3105; Fax: +1-914-594-4163
| | - Benjamin P. C. Smith
- Future Ready Food Safety Hub, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Singapore
| | - Gary M. Williams
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA
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7
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He C, Wang H, Gong D, Lv S, Wu G, Wang R, Chen Y, Ding Y, Li Y, Wang B. Insights into high concentrations of particle-bound imidazoles in the background atmosphere of southern China: Potential sources and influencing factors. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 806:150804. [PMID: 34653468 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2021] [Revised: 09/19/2021] [Accepted: 10/01/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Imidazoles are important constituents in atmospheric brown carbon and have gained increasing attention in the past decade. Although imidazoles have been studied widely in laboratories, the sparse field observations severely limit the understanding of imidazole's abundance and sources in the atmosphere. In this study, we measured particle-bound imidazoles and their precursors at a background forest site in the Nanling Mountains of southern China. The average concentration of imidazoles (4.17 ± 3.76 ng/m3) was found to be significantly higher than other background sites worldwide. Further analyses revealed that a majority of imidazoles (59.1%) at the site originated from secondary formation through reactions of dicarbonyls (e.g., glyoxal and methylglyoxal) and reduced nitrogen species, with relatively minor contributions from regional transport (32.8%) and biomass burning (8.1%). In addition, the key factors influencing secondary formation of imidazoles, such as relative humidity, water-soluble inorganic ions, and pH, were analyzed. Our results indicated that the secondary formation of imidazoles can be greatly enhanced under high humidity conditions, particularly during fog events. Overall, this study offers valuable insights into potential sources and influencing factors of ambient imidazoles in background atmospheres.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunqian He
- Institute for Environmental and Climate Research, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China; Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Joint Laboratory of Collaborative Innovation for Environmental Quality, Guangzhou, China
| | - Hao Wang
- Institute for Environmental and Climate Research, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China; Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Joint Laboratory of Collaborative Innovation for Environmental Quality, Guangzhou, China; Australia-China Centre for Air Quality Science and Management (Guangdong), Guangzhou, China.
| | - Daocheng Gong
- Institute for Environmental and Climate Research, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China; Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Joint Laboratory of Collaborative Innovation for Environmental Quality, Guangzhou, China
| | - Shaojun Lv
- Institute for Environmental and Climate Research, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Gengchen Wu
- Institute for Environmental and Climate Research, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China; Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Joint Laboratory of Collaborative Innovation for Environmental Quality, Guangzhou, China; Australia-China Centre for Air Quality Science and Management (Guangdong), Guangzhou, China
| | - Ruiwen Wang
- Institute for Environmental and Climate Research, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China; Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Joint Laboratory of Collaborative Innovation for Environmental Quality, Guangzhou, China; Australia-China Centre for Air Quality Science and Management (Guangdong), Guangzhou, China
| | - Yaqiu Chen
- Institute for Environmental and Climate Research, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China; Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Joint Laboratory of Collaborative Innovation for Environmental Quality, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yaozhou Ding
- Institute for Environmental and Climate Research, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yanlei Li
- Institute for Environmental and Climate Research, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Boguang Wang
- Institute for Environmental and Climate Research, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China; Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Joint Laboratory of Collaborative Innovation for Environmental Quality, Guangzhou, China; Australia-China Centre for Air Quality Science and Management (Guangdong), Guangzhou, China.
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8
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Original pathway to selectively precipitate cobalt from an old battery solution thanks to imidazole linker. Sep Purif Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2021.119890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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9
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Analysis of α-dicarbonyl compounds and 4-methylimidazole in coffee made with various roasting and brewing conditions. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2021.112231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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10
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Mehri F, Salimi A, Jamali Z, Kahrizi F, Faizi M. Exposure to 4-methylimidazole as a food pollutant induces neurobehavioral toxicity in mother and developmental impairments in the offspring. TOXIN REV 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/15569543.2020.1728338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Fereshteh Mehri
- Food and Drug Control Laboratory, Nutrition Heath Research Center, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
| | - Ahmad Salimi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, Ardabil, Iran
| | - Zhaleh Jamali
- Student Research Committee, School of Medicine, Shahroud University of Medical Sciences, Shahroud, Iran
- Department of Addiction Studies, School of Medicine, Shahroud University of Medical Sciences, Shahroud, Iran
| | - Farzad Kahrizi
- Department of Toxicology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Damghan Islamic Azad University, Damghan, Iran
| | - Mehrdad Faizi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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11
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Borghoff SJ, Fitch SE, Black MB, McMullen PD, Andersen ME, Chappell GA. A systematic approach to evaluate plausible modes of actions for mouse lung tumors in mice exposed to 4-methylimidozole. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2021; 124:104977. [PMID: 34174380 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2021.104977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2021] [Revised: 06/07/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The National Toxicology Program (NTP) reported that chronic dietary exposure to 4-methylimidazole (4-MeI) increased the incidence of lung adenomas/carcinomas beyond the normally high spontaneous rate in B6C3F1 mice. To examine plausible modes of action (MoAs) for mouse lung tumors (MLTs) upon exposure to high levels of 4-MeI, and their relevance in assessing human risk, a systematic approach was used to identify and evaluate mechanistic data (in vitro and in vivo) in the primary and secondary literature, along with high-throughput screening assay data. Study quality, relevance, and activity of mechanistic data identified across the evidence-base were organized according to key characteristics of carcinogens (KCCs) to identify potential key events in known or novel MLT MoAs. Integration of these evidence streams provided confirmation that 4-MeI lacks genotoxic and cytotoxic activity with some evidence to support a lack of mitogenic activity. Further evaluation of contextual and chemical-specific characteristics of 4-MeI was consequently undertaken. Due to lack of genotoxicity, along with transcriptomic and histopathological lung changes up to 28 and 90 days of exposure, the collective evidence suggests MLTs observed following exposure to high levels of 4-MeI develop at a late stage in the mouse chronic bioassay, albeit the exact MoA remains unclear.
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12
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Buczkowska M, Paciorek K, Kapcińska A, Górski M. Caramel colors in terms of scientific research, with particular
consideration of their toxicity. POSTEP HIG MED DOSW 2021. [DOI: 10.5604/01.3001.0014.8497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Caramel colors, the most common food additives in the world, are divided into four classes (IIV),
marked with the symbols E150 a-d, respectively. Individual classes of caramel colors differ
from each other in physico-chemical properties and the method of preparation, which affects
the formation of various compounds that are important for the assessment of food safety A number of studies on all caramel classes of have been performed, including toxicokinetic,
genotoxic, carcinogenic and reproductive and developmental toxicity studies, which have
not shown harmful effects of these additives at doses not exceeding ADI. However, there is
an increasing number of scientific reports of the possible toxic effects present in caramels of
low-molecular compounds. Currently, three compounds are considered to be toxicologically
important and resulting from the possible concentration in the final product: 5-HMF (present
in all classes), 4(5)-MeI (present in caramel classes III and IV) or THI (present in caramel
class III). 4(5)-MeI has a neurotoxic effect and was considered in 2011 as a possible human
carcinogen (class 2B, according to IARC). In the case of THI, studies have confirmed its lymphopenic
activity, probably secondary to its immunosuppressive effect. Consequently, in the
1980s, JECFA set acceptable levels 4(5)-MeI and THI, for the caramel classes in which these
compounds may be present. The toxicity of 5-HMF has not been confirmed unequivocally,
but studies have shown that this compound is not neutral to living organisms.
Currently, most international organizations and scientific institutes recognize these additives
as safe for consumers, but at the same time scientists emphasize the need for further
research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Buczkowska
- Zakład Toksykologii i Ochrony Zdrowia w Środowisku Pracy, Katedra Toksykologii i Uzależnień, Wydział Nauk o Zdrowiu w Bytomiu, Śląski Uniwersytet Medyczny w Katowicach
| | - Kamila Paciorek
- Drugie Koło Naukowe przy Zakładzie Toksykologii i Ochrony Zdrowia w Środowisku Pracy, Katedra Toksykologii i Uzależnień
| | - Anna Kapcińska
- Drugie Koło Naukowe przy Zakładzie Toksykologii i Ochrony Zdrowia w Środowisku Pracy, Katedra Toksykologii i Uzależnień
| | - Michał Górski
- Szkoła Doktorska Śląskiego Uniwersytetu Medycznego w Katowicach, Wydział Nauk o Zdrowiu w Bytomiu Śląski Uniwersytet Medyczny
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13
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Maillard reaction in Chinese household-prepared stewed pork balls with brown sauce: potentially risky and volatile products. FOOD SCIENCE AND HUMAN WELLNESS 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fshw.2021.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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14
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Zheng J, Guo H, Ou J, Liu P, Huang C, Wang M, Simal-Gandara J, Battino M, Jafari SM, Zou L, Ou S, Xiao J. Benefits, deleterious effects and mitigation of methylglyoxal in foods: A critical review. Trends Food Sci Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2020.10.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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15
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He NX, Bayen S. An overview of chemical contaminants and other undesirable chemicals in alcoholic beverages and strategies for analysis. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2020; 19:3916-3950. [PMID: 33337040 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Revised: 08/21/2020] [Accepted: 09/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The presence of chemical contaminant in alcoholic beverages is a widespread and notable problem with potential implications for human health. With the complexity and wide variation in the raw materials, production processes, and contact materials involved, there are a multitude of opportunities for a diverse host of undesirable compounds to make their way into the final product-some of which may currently remain unidentified and undetected. This review provides an overview of the notable contaminants (including pesticides, environmental contaminants, mycotoxins, process-induced contaminants, residues of food contact material [FCM], and illegal additives) that have been detected in alcoholic products thus far based on prior reviews and findings in the literature, and will additionally consider the potential sources for contamination, and finally discuss and identify gaps in current analytical strategies. The findings of this review highlight a need for further investigation into unwanted substances in alcoholic beverages, particularly concerning chemical migrants from FCMs, as well as a need for comprehensive nontargeted analytical techniques capable of determining unanticipated contaminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nancy Xiaohe He
- Department of Food Science and Agricultural Chemistry, McGill University, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec, Canada
| | - Stéphane Bayen
- Department of Food Science and Agricultural Chemistry, McGill University, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec, Canada
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16
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Multigenerational reproductive assessment of 4-methylimidazole administered in the diet to Hsd:Sprague Dawley SD rats. Reprod Toxicol 2020; 98:13-28. [DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2020.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Revised: 02/11/2020] [Accepted: 03/11/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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17
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Kelty JS, Keum C, Brown VJ, Edwards PC, Carratt SA, Van Winkle LS. Comparison of acute respiratory epithelial toxicity for 4-Methylimidazole and naphthalene administered by oral gavage in B6C3F1 mice. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2020; 116:104761. [PMID: 32768664 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2020.104761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2020] [Revised: 08/01/2020] [Accepted: 08/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
4-Methylimidazole (4MEI) is a contaminant in food and consumer products. Pulmonary toxicity and carcinogenicity following chronic dietary exposures to 4MEI is a regulatory concern based on previous rodent studies. This study examined acute pulmonary toxicity in B6C3F1 mice from 6 h to 5 days after oral gavage with a single dose of 150 mg/kg 4MEI, a double dose delivered 6 h apart, or vehicle controls. Oral gavage of 150 mg/kg naphthalene, a prototypical Club cell toxicant, was used as a positive control. Intrapulmonary conducting airway cytotoxicity was assessed in fixed-pressure inflated lungs using qualitative histopathology scoring, quantitative morphometric measurement of vacuolated and exfoliating epithelial cells, and immunohistochemistry. 4MEI treatment did not change markers of cytotoxicity including the mass of vacuolated epithelium, the thickness of the epithelium, or the distributions of epithelial proteins: secretoglobin 1A1, proliferating cell nuclear antigen, calcitonin gene-related peptide, and myeloperoxidase. 4MEI and vehicle controls caused slight cytotoxicity with rare vacuolization of the epithelium relative to the severe bronchiolar epithelial cell toxicity found in the naphthalene exposed mice at terminal bronchioles, intrapulmonary airways, or airway bifurcations. In summary, 4MEI caused minimal airway epithelial toxicity without characteristic Club Cell toxicity when compared to naphthalene, a canonical Club Cell toxicant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacklyn S Kelty
- Center for Health and Environment, University of California, Davis, Bldg 3792, Rm 129, 1250 Old Davis Road, Davis, 95616, CA, USA.
| | - Chayoung Keum
- Center for Health and Environment, University of California, Davis, Bldg 3792, Rm 129, 1250 Old Davis Road, Davis, 95616, CA, USA.
| | - Veneese J Brown
- Center for Health and Environment, University of California, Davis, Bldg 3792, Rm 129, 1250 Old Davis Road, Davis, 95616, CA, USA.
| | - Patricia C Edwards
- Center for Health and Environment, University of California, Davis, Bldg 3792, Rm 129, 1250 Old Davis Road, Davis, 95616, CA, USA.
| | - Sarah A Carratt
- Center for Health and Environment, University of California, Davis, Bldg 3792, Rm 129, 1250 Old Davis Road, Davis, 95616, CA, USA.
| | - Laura S Van Winkle
- Center for Health and Environment, University of California, Davis, Bldg 3792, Rm 129, 1250 Old Davis Road, Davis, 95616, CA, USA; Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Cell Biology School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, One Shields Ave, Davis, 95616, CA, USA.
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18
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Vogel CFA, Van Winkle LS, Esser C, Haarmann-Stemmann T. The aryl hydrocarbon receptor as a target of environmental stressors - Implications for pollution mediated stress and inflammatory responses. Redox Biol 2020; 34:101530. [PMID: 32354640 PMCID: PMC7327980 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2020.101530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 218] [Impact Index Per Article: 54.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2020] [Revised: 03/20/2020] [Accepted: 03/31/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) is a ligand-activated transcription factor regulating the expression of genes, for instance encoding the monooxygenases cytochrome P450 (CYP) 1A1 and CYP1A2, which are important enzymes in metabolism of xenobiotics. The AHR is activated upon binding of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), persistent organic pollutants (POPs), and related ubiquitous environmental chemicals, to mediate their biological and toxic effects. In addition, several endogenous and natural compounds can bind to AHR, thereby modulating a variety of physiological processes. In recent years, ambient particulate matter (PM) associated with traffic related air pollution (TRAP) has been found to contain significant amounts of PAHs. PM containing PAHs are of increasing concern as a class of agonists, which can activate the AHR. Several reports show that PM and AHR-mediated induction of CYP1A1 results in excessive generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), causing oxidative stress. Furthermore, exposure to PM and PAHs induce inflammatory responses and may lead to chronic inflammatory diseases, including asthma, cardiovascular diseases, and increased cancer risk. In this review, we summarize findings showing the critical role that the AHR plays in mediating effects of environmental pollutants and stressors, which pose a risk of impacting the environment and human health. PAHs present on ambient air pollution particles are ligands of the cellular AHR. AHR-dependent induction of CYP1, AKR, NOX and COX-2 genes can be a source of ROS generation. AHR signaling and NRF2 signaling interact to regulate the expression of antioxidant genes. Air pollution and ROS can affect inflammation, which is partially triggered by AHR and associated immune responses. Skin, lung, and the cardiovascular system are major target sites for air pollution-induced inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph F A Vogel
- Center for Health and the Environment, University of California, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA; Department of Environmental Toxicology, University of California, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Laura S Van Winkle
- Center for Health and the Environment, University of California, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA; School of Veterinary Medicine Department of Anatomy, University of California, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 5616, USA
| | - Charlotte Esser
- IUF - Leibniz-Research Institute for Environmental Medicine, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
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19
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Evjen S, Høgmoen Åstrand OA, Gaarder M, Paulsen RE, Fiksdahl A, Knuutila HK. Degradative Behavior and Toxicity of Alkylated Imidazoles. Ind Eng Chem Res 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.9b05100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sigvart Evjen
- Department of Chemistry, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), 7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | | | - Mona Gaarder
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Ragnhild E. Paulsen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Anne Fiksdahl
- Department of Chemistry, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), 7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Hanna K. Knuutila
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), 7034 Trondheim, Norway
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20
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Metabolism of 4-methylimidazole in Fischer 344 rats and B6C3F1 mice. Food Chem Toxicol 2019; 123:181-194. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2018.10.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2018] [Revised: 09/25/2018] [Accepted: 10/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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21
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Tsai JN, Sun CY, Ding YJ, Wang YH, Lo KC, Wen CC, Lin JW, Chang CF, Hsu LS, Chen HM, Fong TH, Chen YH. Embryonic exposure to 4-methylimidazole leads to zebrafish myofibril misalignment. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2018; 33:1321-1328. [PMID: 30259639 DOI: 10.1002/tox.22640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2018] [Revised: 08/15/2018] [Accepted: 08/17/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
4-methylimidazole (4-MI) is an imidazole-derived organic chemical compound that can be used as a raw material in the manufacture of diverse chemicals and has been identified as an ingredient of caramel color in soybean sauce, beers, and other soft drinks. The aim of the present study was to investigate the teratogenic effects of 4-MI during zebrafish embryogenesis. Zebrafish embryos were treated with different dosages of 4-MI (0-120 mM) for different exposure durations (12-60 hours). The percentages of embryos with malformed phenotypes increased as the exposure dosages and duration time of 4-MI increased. We also used immunofluorescence and transmission microscopy to evaluate the subtle changes in the myofibril alignment and ultrastructure of muscle organization. Our data showed that 4-MI treatment disturbs muscle fiber alignment. Electron microscopy data indicated that Z-lines were undetectable in the 4-MI-treated embryos. Although the thick and thin filaments were visible, they were all disorganized. In addition, zebrafish embryos treated by 4-MI exhibited aberrant expression of 2 muscle-specific genes, myod and myogenin. Taken together, we concluded that early exposure to 4-MI affects zebrafish myogenesis, especially in myofibril alignment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jen-Ning Tsai
- Department of Medical Laboratory and Biotechnology, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
- Clinical Laboratory, Chung Shan Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Chiao-Yin Sun
- Department of Nephrology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Keelung, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Ju Ding
- Department of Chemistry, Tamkang University, New Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Yun-Hsin Wang
- Department of Chemistry, Tamkang University, New Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Kang-Chieh Lo
- Department of Chemistry, Tamkang University, New Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Chi-Chung Wen
- Department of Mathematics, Tamkang University, Tamsui, New Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Jia-Wei Lin
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, Tamkang University, Taiwan
| | - Chiung-Fang Chang
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Li-Sung Hsu
- Clinical Laboratory, Chung Shan Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
- Institute of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Immunology, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Hui-Min Chen
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Tsorng-Harn Fong
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yau-Hung Chen
- Department of Chemistry, Tamkang University, New Taipei City, Taiwan
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22
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Rekha B, Velmurugan G, Freddy AJ, Anusha S, Ramprasath T, Karthik KV, Suresh S, Kulshrestha P, Mithieux G, Lyon AR, Selvam GS, Ramasamy S. Chronic intake of 4-Methylimidazole induces Hyperinsulinemia and Hypoglycaemia via Pancreatic Beta Cell Hyperplasia and Glucose Dyshomeostasis. Sci Rep 2018; 8:17037. [PMID: 30451881 PMCID: PMC6242838 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-35071-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2018] [Accepted: 10/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Caramel colours are the preferential food colouring agent globally, reaches wide age groups through eatables. Colas, a sweetened carbonated drink are most common caramel coloured beverage and its consumption is linked with diabetes, obesity, pancreatic cancer and other endocrine disorders. A major by-product produced during caramelization is 4-methylimidazole (4-MEI) that is detected in noteworthy concentrations in colas and other beverages. Previous studies revealed the neurotoxic and carcinogenic potential of 4-MEI in animals at higher doses but the effect of 4-MEI at theoretical maximum daily intake dose on glucose homeostasis is unexplored. Here, mice treated with 4-MEI (32 µg/kg bodyweight/day) for seven weeks exhibited severe hypoglycaemia and hyperinsulinemia mediated by hyperplasia of pancreatic beta cells and induces metabolic alterations. On combinatorial treatment, 4-MEI suppressed the glucogenic potential of non-artificial sweeteners and promotes lipogenesis. Furthermore, increased levels of C-peptide, LDL-cholesterol and triglycerides were observed in the humans with regular intake of 4-MEI containing beverages. In summary, 4-MEI induced pancreatic beta cell hyperplasia and leads to disruption of glucose and lipid homeostasis. This study suggests the need for further assessment and reconsideration of the wide usage of 4-MEI containing caramels as food additives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Balakrishnan Rekha
- Department of Molecular Biology, Cardiac Hypertrophy Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai-625 021, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Ganesan Velmurugan
- DST Unit of Nanoscience & TUE, Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology, Chennai-600 036, Tamilnadu, India
| | - Allen J Freddy
- Department of Zoology, Madras Christian College, Chennai-600 059, Tamilnadu, India
| | - Sivakumar Anusha
- Department of Molecular Biology, Cardiac Hypertrophy Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai-625 021, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Tharmarajan Ramprasath
- Center for Molecular and Translational Medicine, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, 30303, USA
| | - Karuppusamy V Karthik
- Department of Molecular Biology, Cardiac Hypertrophy Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai-625 021, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Shanmugarajan Suresh
- Department of Molecular Biology, Cardiac Hypertrophy Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai-625 021, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Prerna Kulshrestha
- Department of Molecular Biology, Cardiac Hypertrophy Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai-625 021, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Gilles Mithieux
- Institut de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, U1213, Lyon, 69372, France.,Université de Lyon, Lyon, 69008, France.,Université Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, 69622, France
| | - Alexander R Lyon
- NIHR Cardiovascular Biomedical Research Unit, Royal Brompton Hospital and Imperial College, London, United Kingdom
| | - Govindan Sadasivam Selvam
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Biological Sciences, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai, 625 021, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Subbiah Ramasamy
- Department of Molecular Biology, Cardiac Hypertrophy Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai-625 021, Tamil Nadu, India.
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23
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Vollmuth TA. Caramel color safety – An update. Food Chem Toxicol 2018; 111:578-596. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2017.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2017] [Revised: 11/30/2017] [Accepted: 12/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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24
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Feng Z, Lu Y, Zhao Y, Ye H. Fast Extraction and Detection of 4-Methylimidazole in Soy Sauce Using Magnetic Molecularly Imprinted Polymer by HPLC. Molecules 2017; 22:molecules22111885. [PMID: 29099078 PMCID: PMC6150302 DOI: 10.3390/molecules22111885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2017] [Revised: 10/31/2017] [Accepted: 11/01/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
On the basis of magnetic molecularly imprinted polymer (MMIP) solid-phase extraction coupled with high performance liquid chromatography, we established a new method for the determination of the 4-methylimidazole (4-MEI) in soy sauce. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM) were used to characterize the synthesized MMIPs. To evaluate the polymers, batch rebinding experiments were carried out. The binding strength and capacity were determined from the derived Freundlich isotherm (FI) equation. The selective recognition capability of MMIPs was investigated with a reference compound and a structurally similar compound. As a selective pre-concentration sorbents for 4-methylimidazole in soy sauce, the MMIPs showed a satisfied recoveries rate of spiked samples, ranged from 97% to 105%. As a result, the prepared MMIPs could be applied to selectively pre-concentrate and determine 4-methylimidazole in soy sauce samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zufei Feng
- Department of Applied Chemistry, School of Science, Xi'an University of Technology, Xi'an 710061, China.
| | - Yan Lu
- Department of Applied Chemistry, School of Science, Xi'an University of Technology, Xi'an 710061, China.
| | - Yingjuan Zhao
- Department of Applied Chemistry, School of Science, Xi'an University of Technology, Xi'an 710061, China.
| | - Helin Ye
- School of Chemistry and Environmental Science, Lanzhou City University, Lanzhou 730070, China.
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25
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Jung MC, Kim MK, Lee KG. Reduction of 4(5)-Methylimidazole Using Cookie Model Systems. J Food Sci 2017; 82:2526-2531. [PMID: 28892158 DOI: 10.1111/1750-3841.13864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2017] [Revised: 07/31/2017] [Accepted: 08/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to determine the reduction of 4(5)-methylimidazole (4-MI) under various baking conditions. For 4-MI analysis, an analytical method using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was developed. The developed method was validated with linearity (r2 > 0.999), recovery (101% to 103%, 3 levels), and precision (1.5% to 4.3%, 3 levels). Limits of detection and quantification were 18.5 and 56.0 μg/kg, respectively. This method was used to monitor the level of 4-MI in 11 commercial cookies, which ranged from 71.5 to 1254.8 μg/kg. Time and temperature were modified in the cookie model system to reduce 4-MI. The largest reduction in 4-MI (56%) was achieved by baking at 140 °C for 8 min; however the cookies baked at this condition were not well accepted by consumers. With combination of consumer liking test result, baking cookies at 140 °C for 16 min is optimal for 4-MI reduction (28% reduction), while it has minimal impact on consumer acceptance. A strong correlation (r2 = 0.9981) was found between caramel colorant and 4-MI in the cookie model system. PRACTICAL APPLICATION A consumer awareness toward toxicity of 4-MI has been arising, and method to reduce the levels of 4-MI in food products are being developed in many studies. Yet, these reduction studies in food model systems only focused on use of food additives for 4-MI reduction. Current study investigated the use of process modification on 4-MI reduction in cookie, and suggested that baking cookies longer at lower temperature, in turn, reduces the levels of 4-MI in cookies without compromising consumer acceptance. Finding from current study can practically aid bakery industry to ensure safety of bakery products without affecting consumer likings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min-Chul Jung
- Dept. of Food Science and Biotechnology, Dongguk Univ.-Seoul, 32, Dongguk-ro, Ilsandong-gu, Goyang-si, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Mina K Kim
- Dept. of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Chonbuk Natl. Univ., 567, Backjedaero, Deakjin-gu, Jeonju-si, Chonrabuk-do, 54896, Republic of Korea
| | - Kwang-Geun Lee
- Dept. of Food Science and Biotechnology, Dongguk Univ.-Seoul, 32, Dongguk-ro, Ilsandong-gu, Goyang-si, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
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26
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Choi SJ, Jung MY. Simple and Fast Sample Preparation Followed by Gas Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) for the Analysis of 2- and 4-Methylimidazole in Cola and Dark Beer. J Food Sci 2017; 82:1044-1052. [DOI: 10.1111/1750-3841.13666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2016] [Revised: 11/26/2016] [Accepted: 01/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sol Ji Choi
- Dept. of Food and Biotechnology, Graduate School; Woosuk Univ., Jeonbuk Province; 565-701Samnye-eup Wanju-gun Jeonbuk Province 565-701 South Korea
| | - Mun Yhung Jung
- Dept. of Food and Biotechnology, Graduate School; Woosuk Univ., Jeonbuk Province; 565-701Samnye-eup Wanju-gun Jeonbuk Province 565-701 South Korea
- Agricultural and Food Product Safety Analysis Center; Woosuk Univ., Jeonbuk Province; 565-701 South Korea
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27
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Celik R, Topaktas M. Genotoxic effects of 4-methylimidazole on human peripheral lymphocytes in vitro. Drug Chem Toxicol 2017; 41:27-32. [DOI: 10.1080/01480545.2017.1281289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rima Celik
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Letters, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey
| | - Mehmet Topaktas
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Letters, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey
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28
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Morita T, Uneyama C. Genotoxicity assessment of 4-methylimidazole: regulatory perspectives. Genes Environ 2016; 38:20. [PMID: 27822321 PMCID: PMC5088675 DOI: 10.1186/s41021-016-0050-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2016] [Accepted: 06/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
4-Methylimidazole (4-MI) is formed as a result of the Maillard reaction process, and therefore is found in many foods and beverages. It is also found in soft drinks (i.e., cola) as a by-product in the production of some caramel colors. NTP bioassays revealed clear evidence of lung carcinogenicity of 4-MI in male and female mice, but not in rats and then IARC classified 4-MI as group 2B carcinogen. Genotoxicity studies with 4-MI were negative in the Ames tests and in the erythrocyte micronucleus tests with mice or rats. US California EPA (CEPA) evaluated the testing has not been adequately comprehensive to rule out a genotoxic mode of action; as target tissue of the carcinogenicity of 4-MI was lung, the lung should be used as a source tissue for in vitro metabolic activation system. Thus, CEPA defined the No Significant Risk Level (NSRL) for 10-5 lifetime risk level of cancer by 4-MI as 29 μg/day based on the non-threshold approach. As higher levels of 4-MI than the NSRL were identified in some kinds of cola, health concerns of 4-MI were drawn the attention. On the other hand, other regulatory bodies (e.g., European Food Safety Authority, EFSA) showed no concerns of 4-MI from the use of caramel colors in food. EFSA evaluated 4-MI is not genotoxic, so, non-observed adverse effect level of 4-MI was considered to be 80 mg/kg/day. In this paper, genotoxic assessments of 4-MI in different regulatory bodies are presented and the risk evaluation of 4-MI is discussed based on new genotoxicity data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takeshi Morita
- Division of Risk Assessment, National Institute of Health Sciences, 1-18-1 Kamiyoga, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 158-8501 Japan
| | - Chikako Uneyama
- Division of Safety Information on Drug and Food, National Institute of Health Sciences, 1-18-1 Kamiyoga, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 158-8501 Japan
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29
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Ye H, Chen X, Feng Z. Preparations of magnetic molecularly imprinted polymer for selective recognition and determination of 4-methylimidazole in soft beverage by high performance liquid chromatography. ADSORPT SCI TECHNOL 2016. [DOI: 10.1177/0263617416667361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Helin Ye
- School of Chemistry & Environmental Science, Lanzhou City University, China
| | - Xiaofen Chen
- Analysis and Testing Center, Lanzhou University, China
| | - Zufei Feng
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Xi’an University of Technology, China
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30
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31
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Clemens RA, Jones JM, Kern M, Lee SY, Mayhew EJ, Slavin JL, Zivanovic S. Functionality of Sugars in Foods and Health. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2016; 15:433-470. [DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2015] [Revised: 12/21/2015] [Accepted: 12/31/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Roger A. Clemens
- USC School of Pharmacy; Intl. Center for Regulatory Science; 1540 Alcazar St., CHP 140 Los Angeles CA 90089 U.S.A
| | - Julie M. Jones
- St. Catherine Univ; 4030 Valentine Court; Arden Hills Minnesota 55112 U.S.A
| | - Mark Kern
- San Diego State Univ; School of Exercise and Nutritional Sciences; 5500 Campanile Dr. San Diego CA 92182-7251 U.S.A
| | - Soo-Yeun Lee
- Univ. of Illinois at Urbana Champaign; 351 Bevier Hall MC-182, 905 S Goodwin Ave. Urbana IL 61801 U.S.A
| | - Emily J. Mayhew
- Univ. of Illinois at Urbana Champaign; 399A Bevier Hall; 905 S Goodwin Ave. Urbana IL 61801 U.S.A
| | - Joanne L. Slavin
- Univ. of Minnesota; 166 Food Science & Nutrition; 1354 Eckles Ave. Saint Paul MN 55108-1038 U.S.A
| | - Svetlana Zivanovic
- Mars Petcare; Global Applied Science and Technology; 315 Cool Springs Boulevard Franklin TN 37067 U.S.A
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32
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Wu X, Yu D, Kong F, Yu S. Effects of divalent cations on the formation of 4(5)-methylimidazole in fructose/ammonium hydroxide caramel model reaction. Food Chem 2016; 201:253-8. [PMID: 26868573 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.01.098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2015] [Revised: 01/17/2016] [Accepted: 01/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The objective of the present study was to detail the changes of 4(5)-methylimidazole (4-MI) and its precursors in the presence of divalent cations (Ca(2+), Mg(2+)) in a fructose/ammonium hydroxide caramel model system. The content of 4-MI and its precursor methylglyoxal (MGO) was inhibited by divalent cations (Ca(2+), Mg(2+)). The possible explanation might be that fructose and its Heyns product glucosamine interact with divalent cations to form complexes and inhibit the degradation of glucosamine into MGO. Moreover, the changes of fructose, NH4(+) and brown intensity in the presence of divalent cations indicated that fructose and glucosamine underwent intra-intermolecular polymerisation into melanoidins rather than the degradation reaction into aldehydes and ketones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinlan Wu
- College of Light Industry and Food Sciences, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Di Yu
- College of Light Industry and Food Sciences, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Fansheng Kong
- College of Light Industry and Food Sciences, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Shujuan Yu
- College of Light Industry and Food Sciences, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China; State Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Engineering, Guangzhou 510640, China; Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Green Processing of Natural Products and Product Safety, Guangzhou 510640, China.
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33
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Klupinski TP, Strozier ED, Friedenberg DA, Brinkman MC, Gordon SM, Clark PI. Identification of New and Distinctive Exposures from Little Cigars. Chem Res Toxicol 2016; 29:162-8. [PMID: 26605856 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.5b00371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Little cigar mainstream smoke is less well-characterized than cigarette mainstream smoke in terms of chemical composition. This study compared four popular little cigar products against four popular cigarette products to determine compounds that are either unique to or more abundant in little cigars. These compounds are categorized as new or distinctive exposures, respectively. Total particulate matter samples collected from machine-generated mainstream smoke were extracted with methylene chloride, and the extracts were analyzed using two-dimensional gas chromatography-time-of-flight mass spectrometry. The data were evaluated using novel data-processing algorithms that account for characteristics specific to the selected analytical technique and variability associated with replicate sample analyses. Among more than 25 000 components detected across the complete data set, ambrox was confirmed as a new exposure, and 3-methylbutanenitrile and 4-methylimidazole were confirmed as distinctive exposures. Concentrations of these compounds for the little cigar mainstream smoke were estimated at approximately 0.4, 0.7, and 12 μg/rod, respectively. In achieving these results, this study has demonstrated the capability of a powerful analytical approach to identify previously uncharacterized tobacco-related exposures from little cigars. The same approach could also be applied to other samples to characterize constituents associated with tobacco product classes or specific tobacco products of interest. Such analyses are critical in identifying tobacco-related exposures that may affect public health.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Sydney M Gordon
- Battelle , 505 King Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 43201, United States
| | - Pamela I Clark
- School of Public Health, Department of Behavioral and Community Health, Tobacco Center of Regulatory Science, University of Maryland , College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
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34
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Lee S, Lee KG. Analysis and risk assessment of 4(5)-methylimidazole in brown colored foods and beverages. FOOD ADDITIVES & CONTAMINANTS PART B-SURVEILLANCE 2016; 9:59-65. [DOI: 10.1080/19393210.2015.1127294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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35
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Beevers C, Adamson RH. Evaluation of 4-methylimidazole, in the Ames/Salmonella test using induced rodent liver and lung S9. ENVIRONMENTAL AND MOLECULAR MUTAGENESIS 2016; 57:51-57. [PMID: 26765635 DOI: 10.1002/em.21968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2015] [Revised: 07/17/2015] [Accepted: 07/17/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
4-methylimidazole (4-MeI) is formed by the interaction of ammonia with reducing sugars and low levels have been identified as a by-product in coffee, soy sauce, wine, dark beers, soft drinks, and caramel colors. The 4-MeI has been reported to induce alveolar/bronchiolar tumors in mice but not rats. Its mechanism of action is unlikely to be due to genotoxicity as 4-MeI does not induce mutation in Salmonella typhimurium and does not induce micronuclei in rodent peripheral erythrocytes or bone marrow cells. However, the question of whether genetically reactive intermediates could be formed via lung-specific metabolism has not previously been addressed. The 4-MeI was tested for its ability to induce mutation in five standard Ames strains of S. typhimurium using induced rat (F344/N) and mouse (B6C3F1) liver and lung S9 as a source of exogenous metabolism. The chemicals were tested in an OECD 471-compliant bacterial reverse mutation assay, using both plate-incorporation and pre-incubation methodologies, together with 10% S-9 metabolic activation. No induction of mutation (as measured by an increase in revertant colonies) was observed and it was concluded that 4-MeI was not mutagenic in S. typhimurium using either rodent liver or lung S9 for exogenous metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carol Beevers
- Department of Genetic and Molecular Toxicology, Covance Laboratories, Ltd, North Yorkshire, HG3 1PY, United Kingdom
| | - Richard H Adamson
- Department of Genetic and Molecular Toxicology, TPN Associates, LLC, Germantown, Maryland
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36
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Lee S, Lee JB, Hwang J, Lee KG. Effect of Various Food Additives on the Levels of 4(5)-Methylimidazole in a Soy Sauce Model System. J Food Sci 2016; 81:T262-7. [PMID: 26661512 DOI: 10.1111/1750-3841.13183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2015] [Accepted: 11/12/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
In this study, the effect of food additives such as iron sulfate, magnesium sulfate, zinc sulfate, citric acid, gallic acid, and ascorbic acid on the reduction of 4(5)-methylimidazole (4(5)-MI) was investigated using a soy sauce model system. The concentration of 4(5)-MI in the soy sauce model system with 5% (v/v) caramel colorant III was 1404.13 μg/L. The reduction rate of 4(5)-MI level with the addition of 0.1M additives followed in order: iron sulfate (81%) > zinc sulfate (61%) > citric acid (40%) > gallic acid (38%) > ascorbic acid (24%) > magnesium sulfate (13%). Correlations between 4(5)-MI levels and the physicochemical properties of soy sauce, including the amount of caramel colorant, pH value, and color differences, were determined. The highest correlations were found between 4(5)-MI levels and the amount of caramel colorant and pH values (r(2) = 0.9712, r(2) = 0.9378). The concentration of caramel colorants in 8 commercial soy sauces were estimated, and ranged from 0.01 to 1.34% (v/v).
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Affiliation(s)
- Sumin Lee
- Dept. of Food Science and Biotechnology, Dongguk Univ., Seoul, 32, Dongguk-ro, Ilsandong-gu, Goyang-si, Gyeonggi-do, 400-820, Republic of Korea
| | - Jung-Bin Lee
- Dept. of Food Science and Biotechnology, Dongguk Univ., Seoul, 32, Dongguk-ro, Ilsandong-gu, Goyang-si, Gyeonggi-do, 400-820, Republic of Korea
| | - Junho Hwang
- Dept. of Food Science and Biotechnology, Dongguk Univ., Seoul, 32, Dongguk-ro, Ilsandong-gu, Goyang-si, Gyeonggi-do, 400-820, Republic of Korea
| | - Kwang-Geun Lee
- Dept. of Food Science and Biotechnology, Dongguk Univ., Seoul, 32, Dongguk-ro, Ilsandong-gu, Goyang-si, Gyeonggi-do, 400-820, Republic of Korea
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37
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Norizadeh Tazehkand M, Topaktas M, Yilmaz MB. Assessment of chromosomal aberration in the bone marrow cells of Swiss Albino mice treated by 4-methylimidazole. Drug Chem Toxicol 2015; 39:307-11. [DOI: 10.3109/01480545.2015.1113989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Mehmet Topaktas
- Faculty of Science and Letters, Department of Biology, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey, and
| | - Mehmet Bertan Yilmaz
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Biology, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey
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38
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Bu F, Li T, Ding Y, Sun L, Tu T, Zhou F, Qi W, Jiang X, Fang J, Hu J, Zhu W, Sun X. Cytotoxic effects of 4-methylimidazole on bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells in vitro. Am J Transl Res 2015; 7:1736-1746. [PMID: 26692921 PMCID: PMC4656754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2015] [Accepted: 07/12/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
4-Methylimidazole (4-MI) is found in a great number of food products. The National Toxicology Program (NTP) revealed that 4-MI is carcinogenic and can also cause anemia and weight loss. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are able to support hematopoiesis and migrate to the site of tumors. To investigate whether 4-MI has an impact on MSCs, we have measured the ability of cell (osteoblast, adipocyte) proliferation, apoptosis, cell cycle, gene expression, migration and differentiation between control group and the 4-MI group. The results showed that higher concentrations of 4-MI (≥150 μg/ml) had significant effects on BMSCs viability while lower concentrations (≤100 μg/ml) had no significant effects on cell proliferation, apoptosis, migration, differentiation, and expression of relevant marker genes of hematopoietic cytokines, including TPO, SCF, VEGF and FLt3. The results also indicated that 4-MI (≤100 μg/ml) may have no significant effect on the biological characteristics of MSCs. Low concentration of 4-MI in foods and beverages have no toxic effect on BMSCs. The anemia and weight loss of animals caused by 4-MI may not be due to its effect on BMSCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fan Bu
- School of Medicine, Jiangsu University 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212013, P.R. China
| | - Tao Li
- School of Medicine, Jiangsu University 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212013, P.R. China
| | - Yanling Ding
- School of Medicine, Jiangsu University 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212013, P.R. China
| | - Lingxian Sun
- School of Medicine, Jiangsu University 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212013, P.R. China
| | - Tao Tu
- School of Medicine, Jiangsu University 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212013, P.R. China
| | - Fangfang Zhou
- School of Medicine, Jiangsu University 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212013, P.R. China
| | - Wenkai Qi
- School of Medicine, Jiangsu University 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212013, P.R. China
| | - Xinyi Jiang
- School of Medicine, Jiangsu University 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212013, P.R. China
| | - Jie Fang
- School of Medicine, Jiangsu University 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212013, P.R. China
| | - Jiabo Hu
- School of Medicine, Jiangsu University 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212013, P.R. China
| | - Wei Zhu
- School of Medicine, Jiangsu University 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212013, P.R. China
| | - Xiaochun Sun
- School of Medicine, Jiangsu University 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212013, P.R. China
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39
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Cruzan G, Harkema JR, Hosako H, Wasil JM, Murray FJ. Evaluation of the mode of action of mouse lung tumors induced by 4-methylimidazole. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2015; 73:501-8. [PMID: 26456664 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2015.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2015] [Revised: 09/25/2015] [Accepted: 10/05/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
4-Methylimidazole (4-MEI) occurs in certain foods and beverages as a product of browning reactions. An increased incidence of lung tumors was reported in mice, but not rats, exposed to levels of 4-MEI in their diet that far exceed human dietary intake. This investigation evaluated the hypothesis that 4-MEI induces mouse lung tumors by the same mode of action (MOA) as styrene: CYP2F2 metabolic activation and increased BrdU labeling. Using styrene (200 mg/kg/day by gavage) as a positive control, histopathology and DNA synthesis (measured by BrdU incorporation) in the bronchiolar region were evaluated in: (1) a 5-day comparative toxicity study in C57BL/6 "wild type" and CYP2F2 "knock out" (KO) mice given 4-MEI at the same dietary concentrations used in the NTP cancer bioassay, and (2) a 13-week comparative toxicity study of C57BL/6 and B6C3F1 mice receiving 0, 1250 or 2500 ppm of 4-MEI in the diet for 6, 15, 34 and 91 days. In contrast to styrene, 4-MEI had no consistent effect on BrdU labeling or histopathology in the lungs of mice in the dose range that had been shown to produce lung tumors in another study. The results of these studies do not support the hypothesis that 4-MEI and styrene induce lung tumors by the same MOA.
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Affiliation(s)
- George Cruzan
- ToxWorks, 1153 Roadstone Rd., Bridgeton, NJ 08302, USA.
| | - Jack R Harkema
- Michigan State University, 1129 Farm Ln., Rm. 212, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA.
| | - Hiromi Hosako
- WIL Research Laboratories LLC, 1407 George Rd., Ashland, OH 44805, USA.
| | - Jennifer M Wasil
- WIL Research Laboratories LLC, 1407 George Rd., Ashland, OH 44805, USA
| | - F Jay Murray
- Murray & Associates, 5529 Perugia Cir., San Jose, CA 95138, USA.
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40
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Wu X, Huang M, Kong F, Yu S. Short communication: Study on the formation of 2-methylimidazole and 4-methylimidazole in the Maillard reaction. J Dairy Sci 2015; 98:8565-71. [PMID: 26409957 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2015-9597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2015] [Accepted: 08/04/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
2-Methylimidazole (2-MI) and 4-methylimidazole (4-MI) can be formed via the Maillard reaction during dairy thermal treatment. In this study, different reactions between α-dicarbonyl compounds (methylglyoxal, glyoxal) and aldehydes (formaldehyde, acetaldehyde) in the presence of ammonium sulfate were performed to investigate the formation of 2-MI and 4-MI. Two formation pathways of 2-MI and 4-MI were proposed. One pathway is that α-dicarbonyl compound reacts with equivalent ammonia to form an intermediate, while aldehyde reacts with equivalent ammonia to form another intermediate, then the 2 intermediates react together to generate 2-MI or 4-MI. Alternatively, α-dicarbonyl compound can react with double ammonia to form an intermediate, and subsequently reacts with aldehyde to form 2-MI or 4-MI. Additionally, possible mechanisms were also proposed to explain the phenomenon that the 2-MI content was much lower than 4-MI in Maillard reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinlan Wu
- College of Light Industry and Food Sciences, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Minghui Huang
- College of Light Industry and Food Sciences, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Fansheng Kong
- College of Light Industry and Food Sciences, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Shujuan Yu
- College of Light Industry and Food Sciences, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China; State Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Engineering, Guangzhou 510640, China; Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Green Processing of Natural Products and Product Safety, Guangzhou 510640, China.
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41
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Dieu Phan TT, Bittová M, Mikulášek K, Kráčmar S, Kubáň V, Valášek P, Svobodová B. Content of 4(5)-methylimidazole, caffeine and chlorogenic acid in commercial coffee brands. POTRAVINARSTVO 2015. [DOI: 10.5219/422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Content of 4(5)-methylimidazole (4-MeI), caffeine and chlorogenic acid in commercial coffee brands were determined using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with UV DAD and MS detectors. Positive ion ESI mass spectra of the 4-MeI standard yielded intense signals corresponding to [M+H]+ (83.0604) and [2M+H]+ ions (165.1115). Also, adducts of 4-MeI with acetonitrile from mobile were detected - [M+ACN]+ ions (124.0849). The LOD of 2.5 ng mL-1 and LOQ of 8.4 ng.mL-1 were calculated according to the following formulas: LOD = 3.SD/S, and LOQ = 10.SD/S, where S is the slope of the calibration curve and SD is the standard deviation of the noise. The caffeine content was compared to the results of the standard addition, 1st derivative and liquid-liquid extraction spectrophotometry. 4-MeI was in tens µg g-1 in the Vietnamese coffees while in units µg.g-1 in all Czech and Brazilian coffees (<2.4 µg.g-1 and <4.9 µg.g-1, respectively). The results for caffeine were within the documented range (0.31 - 2.20%) in all coffee samples. The lower content of caffeine and chlorogenic acid was observed in Vietnamese coffees. All the methods used for determination of caffeine in the Czech and Brazilian coffees gave acceptable precision and accuracy. However, there were significant differences in the results in Vietnamese coffees. The caffeine extractability (100 °C, 3 min brewing) almost reached 100% in Czech and Brazilian coffees, while it was less than 90% in Vietnamese coffees. The Czech and Brazilian coffees tend to produce more caffeine in brews than the Vietnamese coffee because of the different composition of blends and the particle size degree.
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42
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Development of a monoclonal antibody-based indirect competitive immunosorbent assay for 4(5)-Methylimidazole detection in caramels. Food Chem 2015; 170:354-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.07.148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2014] [Revised: 07/18/2014] [Accepted: 07/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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43
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Seo S, Ka MH, Lee KG. Reduction of carcinogenic 4(5)-methylimidazole in a caramel model system: influence of food additives. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2014; 62:6481-6486. [PMID: 24933159 DOI: 10.1021/jf502008q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The effect of various food additives on the formation of carcinogenic 4(5)-methylimidazole (4-MI) in a caramel model system was investigated. The relationship between the levels of 4-MI and various pyrazines was studied. When glucose and ammonium hydroxide were heated, the amount of 4-MI was 556 ± 1.3 μg/mL, which increased to 583 ± 2.6 μg/mL by the addition of 0.1 M of sodium sulfite. When various food additives, such as 0.1 M of iron sulfate, magnesium sulfate, zinc sulfate, tryptophan, and cysteine were added, the amount of 4-MI was reduced to 110 ± 0.7, 483 ± 2.0, 460 ± 2.0, 409 ± 4.4, and 397 ± 1.7 μg/mL, respectively. The greatest reduction, 80%, occurred with the addition of iron sulfate. Among the 12 pyrazines, 2-ethyl-6-methylpyrazine with 4-MI showed the highest correlation (r = -0.8239).
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Affiliation(s)
- Seulgi Seo
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, Dongguk University-Seoul , 3-26 Pil-dong, Jung-gu, Seoul, 100-715, Korea
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44
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Wu P, Zhang L, Wang L, Zhang J, Tan Y, Tang J, Ma B, Pan X, Jiang W. Simultaneous determination of ethyl carbamate and 4-(5-)methylimidazole in yellow rice wine and soy sauce by gas chromatography with mass spectrometry. J Sep Sci 2014; 37:2172-6. [DOI: 10.1002/jssc.201400141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2014] [Revised: 04/30/2014] [Accepted: 05/15/2014] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pinggu Wu
- Center for Disease Control and Prevention of Zhejiang Province; Hangzhou P. R. China
| | - Liqun Zhang
- Center for Disease Control and Prevention of Hangzhou; Hangzhou P. R. China
| | - Liyuan Wang
- Center for Disease Control and Prevention of Zhejiang Province; Hangzhou P. R. China
| | - Jing Zhang
- Center for Disease Control and Prevention of Zhejiang Province; Hangzhou P. R. China
| | - Ying Tan
- Center for Disease Control and Prevention of Zhejiang Province; Hangzhou P. R. China
| | - Jun Tang
- Center for Disease Control and Prevention of Zhejiang Province; Hangzhou P. R. China
| | - Bingjie Ma
- Center for Disease Control and Prevention of Zhejiang Province; Hangzhou P. R. China
| | - Xiaodong Pan
- Center for Disease Control and Prevention of Zhejiang Province; Hangzhou P. R. China
| | - Wei Jiang
- Center for Disease Control and Prevention of Zhejiang Province; Hangzhou P. R. China
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45
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Kim TR, Kim SU, Shin Y, Kim JY, Lee SM, Kim JH. Determination of 4-Methylimidazole and 2-Acetyl-4()- tetrahydroxybutylimidazole in Caramel Color and Processed Foods by LC-MS/MS. Prev Nutr Food Sci 2014; 18:263-8. [PMID: 24551828 PMCID: PMC3925216 DOI: 10.3746/pnf.2013.18.4.263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2013] [Accepted: 12/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, the quick HPLC-MS/MS method for the simultaneous separation of 2-acetyl-4(5)-tetrahydrox-ybuthylimidazole (THI) and 4-(5)-methylimidazole (4-MI) in alkaline medium was used for caramel color and processed foods in Korea. After a simple sample pretreatment, 51 4-MI-labeled samples were positive for 4-MI and 2 also contained THI. The concentration of 4-MI was 260.5 ~ 24,499.3 μg/kg in caramel color, less than LOD ~ 1,712.5 μg/kg in sauce, 1,242.3, 5,972.2 μg/kg in balsamic vinegar, 2,118.3 ~ 5,802.4 μg/kg in complex seasoning, 82.7 ~ 5,110.6 μg/kg in curry, and 29.9 ~ 464.4 μg/kg in soft drinks. The recovery rate of 4-MI was 97.1 ~ 111.0% in sauce and 81.9 ~ 110.0% in powder and that of THI was 83.6 ~ 106.4% in sauce and 61.2 ~ 99.4% in powder. Our results concluded a safe amount of 4-MI and THI compared to the limit of Korea additive code but the processed foods do not have a limit of caramel color and 4-MI in Korea. Therefore, research and monitoring of 4-MI and THI is needed for processed foods in Korea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tae Rang Kim
- Department of Food and Drug, Seoul Metropolitan Government Research Institute of Public Health and Environment, Seoul 138-701, Korea
| | - Su Un Kim
- Department of Food and Drug, Seoul Metropolitan Government Research Institute of Public Health and Environment, Seoul 138-701, Korea
| | - Young Shin
- Department of Food and Drug, Seoul Metropolitan Government Research Institute of Public Health and Environment, Seoul 138-701, Korea
| | - Ji Young Kim
- Department of Food and Drug, Seoul Metropolitan Government Research Institute of Public Health and Environment, Seoul 138-701, Korea
| | - Sang Me Lee
- Department of Food and Drug, Seoul Metropolitan Government Research Institute of Public Health and Environment, Seoul 138-701, Korea
| | - Jung Hun Kim
- Department of Food and Drug, Seoul Metropolitan Government Research Institute of Public Health and Environment, Seoul 138-701, Korea
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46
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Krishna KA, Goel S, Krishna G. SAR genotoxicity and tumorigenicity predictions for 2-MI and 4-MI using multiple SAR software. Toxicol Mech Methods 2014; 24:284-93. [DOI: 10.3109/15376516.2014.881946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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47
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Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry Analysis of 4-Methylimidazole in Balsamic Vinegars and Processed Sauces. FOOD ANAL METHOD 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s12161-013-9782-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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48
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Piontek K, Strittmatter E, Ullrich R, Gröbe G, Pecyna MJ, Kluge M, Scheibner K, Hofrichter M, Plattner DA. Structural basis of substrate conversion in a new aromatic peroxygenase: cytochrome P450 functionality with benefits. J Biol Chem 2013; 288:34767-76. [PMID: 24126915 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.514521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Aromatic peroxygenases (APOs) represent a unique oxidoreductase sub-subclass of heme proteins with peroxygenase and peroxidase activity and were thus recently assigned a distinct EC classification (EC 1.11.2.1). They catalyze, inter alia, oxyfunctionalization reactions of aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons with remarkable regio- and stereoselectivities. When compared with cytochrome P450, APOs appear to be the choice enzymes for oxyfunctionalizations in organic synthesis due to their independence from a cellular environment and their greater chemical versatility. Here, the first two crystal structures of a heavily glycosylated fungal aromatic peroxygenase (AaeAPO) are described. They reveal different pH-dependent ligand binding modes. We model the fitting of various substrates in AaeAPO, illustrating the way the enzyme oxygenates polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Spatial restrictions by a phenylalanine pentad in the active-site environment govern substrate specificity in AaeAPO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klaus Piontek
- From the Institute of Organic Chemistry, University of Freiburg, Albertstrasse 21, 79104 Freiburg
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49
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Klinger KM, Liebner F, Fritz I, Potthast A, Rosenau T. Formation and ecotoxicity of N-heterocyclic compounds on ammoxidation of mono- and polysaccharides. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2013; 61:9004-14. [PMID: 23967874 PMCID: PMC3788623 DOI: 10.1021/jf4019596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Ammoxidation of technical lignins under mild conditions is a suitable approach to artificial humic substances. However, carbohydrates as common minor constituents of technical lignins have been demonstrated to be a potential source of N-heterocyclic ecotoxic compounds. Ethyl acetate extracts of ammoxidation mixtures of the monosaccharides glucose and xylose exhibited considerable growth inhibiting activity in the OECD 201 test, with 4-methyl-1H-imidazole, 4-(hydroxymethyl)-1H-imidazole, and 3-hydroxypyridine being the most active compounds. The amount of N-heterocyclic compounds formed at moderate ammoxidation conditions (70 °C, 0.2 MPa O2, 3 h) was significantly lower for the polysaccharides cellulose and xylan (16-30 μg/g of educt) compared to glucose (15.4 mg). Ammoxidation at higher temperature is not recommendable for carbohydrate-rich materials as much higher amounts of N-heterocyclic compounds were formed from both monosaccharides (100 °C: 122.4-160.5 mg/g of educt) and polysaccharides (140 °C: 5.52-16.03 mg/g of educt).
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl Michael Klinger
- Department of Chemistry, University
of Natural Resources and Life Sciences
Vienna, Konrad-Lorenz-Straße 24, A-3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Falk Liebner
- Department of Chemistry, University
of Natural Resources and Life Sciences
Vienna, Konrad-Lorenz-Straße 24, A-3430 Tulln, Austria
- (F.L.) Phone: +43-1-47654-6458. Fax: +43-1-47654-6059. E-mail:
| | - Ines Fritz
- Department of Agrobiotechnology, University
of Natural Resources and Life Sciences
Vienna, Konrad-Lorenz-Straße 20, A-3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Antje Potthast
- Department of Chemistry, University
of Natural Resources and Life Sciences
Vienna, Konrad-Lorenz-Straße 24, A-3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Thomas Rosenau
- Department of Chemistry, University
of Natural Resources and Life Sciences
Vienna, Konrad-Lorenz-Straße 24, A-3430 Tulln, Austria
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Zhu G, Fan J, Gao X, Wang J. A Surface Molecularly Imprinted Polymer for Selective Extraction and Liquid Chromatographic Determination of 4-Methylimidazole in Environmental Samples. ADSORPT SCI TECHNOL 2013. [DOI: 10.1260/0263-6174.31.9.791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Guifen Zhu
- School of Chemistry and Environmental Science, Henan Key Laboratory for Environmental Pollution Control, Key Laboratory for Yellow River and Huai River Water Environmental and Pollution Control, Ministry of Education, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, Henan 453007, P.R. China
| | - Jing Fan
- School of Chemistry and Environmental Science, Henan Key Laboratory for Environmental Pollution Control, Key Laboratory for Yellow River and Huai River Water Environmental and Pollution Control, Ministry of Education, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, Henan 453007, P.R. China
| | - Xia Gao
- School of Chemistry and Environmental Science, Henan Key Laboratory for Environmental Pollution Control, Key Laboratory for Yellow River and Huai River Water Environmental and Pollution Control, Ministry of Education, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, Henan 453007, P.R. China
- Department of Public Health, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, Henan 453003, P.R. China
| | - Jianji Wang
- School of Chemistry and Environmental Science, Henan Key Laboratory for Environmental Pollution Control, Key Laboratory for Yellow River and Huai River Water Environmental and Pollution Control, Ministry of Education, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, Henan 453007, P.R. China
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