Salivary exosomes as potential biomarkers in cancer

Single Vesicle Surface Protein Profiling and Machine Learning-Based Dual Image Analysis for Breast Cancer Detection

Single-vesicle molecular profiling of cancer-associated extracellular vesicles (EVs) is increasingly being recognized as a powerful tool for cancer detection and monitoring. Mask and target dual imaging is a facile method to quantify the fraction of the molecularly targeted population of EVs in biofluids at the single-vesicle level. However, accurate and efficient dual imaging vesicle analysis has been challenging due to the interference of false signals on the mask images and the need to analyze a large number of images in clinical samples. In this work, we report a fully automatic dual imaging analysis method based on machine learning and use it with dual imaging single-vesicle technology (DISVT) to detect breast cancer at different stages. The convolutional neural network Resnet34 was used along with transfer learning to produce a suitable machine learning model that could accurately identify areas of interest in experimental data. A combination of experimental and synthetic data were used to train the model. Using DISVT and our machine learning-assisted image analysis platform, we determined the fractions of EpCAM-positive EVs and CD24-positive EVs over captured plasma EVs with CD81 marker in the blood plasma of pilot HER2-positive breast cancer patients and compared to those from healthy donors. The amount of both EpCAM-positive and CD24-positive EVs was found negligible for both healthy donors and Stage I patients. The amount of EpCAM-positive EVs (also CD81-positive) increased from 18% to 29% as the cancer progressed from Stage II to III. No significant increase was found with further progression to Stage IV. A similar trend was found for the CD24-positive EVs. Statistical analysis showed that both EpCAM and CD24 markers can detect HER2-positive breast cancer at Stages II, III, or IV. They can also differentiate individual cancer stages except those between Stage III and Stage IV. Due to the simplicity, high sensitivity, and high efficiency, the DISVT with the AI-assisted dual imaging analysis can be widely used for both basic research and clinical applications to quantitatively characterize molecularly targeted EV subtypes in biofluids.

Iontophoresis-Enhanced Buccal Delivery of Cisplatin-Encapsulated Chitosan Nanoparticles for Treating Oral Cancer in a Mouse Model

Introduction

Cisplatin is one of the most effective chemotherapeutic drugs used in oral cancer treatment, but systemic administration has side effects. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of iontophoresis on the enhancement of cisplatin release from cisplatin-encapsulated chitosan nanoparticles.

Methods

The effect of different mass ratios of chitosan to tripolyphosphate (TPP) (5:1, 10:1, 15:1, 20:1) on the encapsulation efficiency of cisplatin was investigated. Uptake of cisplatin-encapsulated chitosan by cells was observed using a confocal laser scanning microscope. The cell viability at different cisplatin concentrations was examined using a 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay. Three iontophoresis methods, namely constant-current chronopotentiometry (CCCP), cyclic chronopotentiometry (CCP), and differential pulse voltammetry (DPV), were used to enhance cisplatin release from cisplatin-encapsulated chitosan nanoparticles. In addition, mouse oral squamous cell carcinoma cell lines were implanted into the mouse oral mucosa to induce oral cancer. The effects of enhanced cisplatin release by CCCP, CCP, and DPV on tumor suppression in mice were evaluated. Tumors and lymph nodes were isolated for hematoxylin-eosin staining and immunohistochemistry staining including Ki-67 and pan CK after sacrifice. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry was conducted to quantify the platinum content within the tumors.

Results

The results showed that nanoparticles with a mass ratio of 15:1 exhibited the highest cisplatin encapsulation efficiency (approximately 15.6%) and longest continued release (up to 35 days) in phosphate buffered saline with a release rate of 100%. Cellular uptake results suggested that chitosan nanoparticles were delivered to the cytoplasm via endocytosis. The results of the MTT assay revealed that the survival rate of cells decreased as the cisplatin concentration increased. The CCP (1 mA, on:off = 1 s: 1 s) and DPV (0-0.06 V) groups were the most effective in inhibiting tumor growth, and both groups exhibited the lowest percentage of Ki-67 positive and pan CK positive.

Conclusion

This study is the first to investigate and determine the efficacy of DPV in enhancing in vivo drug release from nanoparticles for the treatment of cancer in animals. The results suggest that the CCP and DPV methods have the potential to be combined with surgery for oral cancer treatment.

Exosomes: from basic research to clinical diagnostic and therapeutic applications in cancer

Cancer continues to pose a global threat despite potent anticancer drugs, often accompanied by undesired side effects. To enhance patient outcomes, sophisticated multifunctional approaches are imperative. Small extracellular vesicles (EVs), a diverse family of naturally occurring vesicles derived from cells, offer advantages over synthetic carriers. Among the EVs, the exosomes are facilitating intercellular communication with minimal toxicity, high biocompatibility, and low immunogenicity. Their tissue-specific targeting ability, mediated by surface molecules, enables precise transport of biomolecules to cancer cells. Here, we explore the potential of exosomes as innovative therapeutic agents, including cancer vaccines, and their clinical relevance as biomarkers for clinical diagnosis. We highlight the cargo possibilities, including nucleic acids and drugs, which make them a good delivery system for targeted cancer treatment and contrast agents for disease monitoring. Other general aspects, sources, and the methodology associated with therapeutic cancer applications are also reviewed. Additionally, the challenges associated with translating exosome-based therapies into clinical practice are discussed, together with the future prospects for this innovative approach.

Role of exosomes in the communication and treatment between OSCC and normal cells

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is a prevalent cancer that needs new therapeutic targets due to the poor postoperative prognosis in patients. Exosomes are currently one of important research areas owing to their unique properties. Exosomes are capable of acting as drug transporters, as well as facilitating interactions between OSCC and normal cells. Exosomes can be detected in body fluids such as blood, urine, cerebrospinal fluid, and bile. When exosomes are released from donor cells, they can carry various bioactive molecules to recipient cells, where these molecules participate in biological processes. This review highlights the mechanisms of exosome transfer between normal and OSCC cells. Exosomes isolated from donor OSCC cells can carry circular RNAs (circRNAs), long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), and microRNAs (miRNAs) and play a role in signaling processes in the recipient OSCC cells, human umbilical vein endothelial cells, and macrophages. Exosomes secreted by carcinoma-associated fibroblasts, macrophages, and stem cells can also enter the recipient OSCC cells and modulate signaling events in these cells. Exosomes isolated from OSCC plasma, serum, and saliva are also associated with OSCC prognosis. Furthermore, while exosomes were shown to be associated with chemotherapy resistance in OSCC, they can also be used for drug delivery during OSCC treatment. In this paper, we reviewed the molecular mechanisms and functions of exosomes from different cell sources in OSCC cells, providing a basis for diagnosis and prognosis prediction in OSCC patients, and offering guidance for the design of molecular targets carried by exosomes in OSCC.

The emerging role of liquid biopsy in oral squamous cell carcinoma detection: advantages and challenges

INTRODUCTION

Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma (OSCC), the sixth most widespread malignancy in the world, accounts for 90% of all cases of oral cancer. The primary risk factors are tobacco chewing, alcohol consumption, viral infection, and genetic modifications. OSCC has a high morbidity rate due to the lack of early diagnostic methods. Nowadays, liquid biopsy plays a vital role in the initial diagnosis of oral cancer. ctNAs extracted from saliva and serum/plasma offer meaningful insights into tumor genetics and dynamics. The interplay of these elements in saliva and serum/plasma showcases their significance in advancing noninvasive, effective OSCC detection and monitoring.

AREAS COVERED

This review mainly focused on the role of liquid biopsy as an emerging point in the diagnosis and prognosis of OSCC and the current advancements and challenges associated with liquid biopsy.

EXPERT OPINION

Liquid biopsy is regarded as a new, minimally invasive, real-time monitoring tool for cancer diagnosis and prognosis. Many biomolecules found in bodily fluids, including ctDNA, ctRNA, CTCs, and EVs, are significant biomarkers to identify cancer in its early stages. Despite these groundbreaking strides, challenges persist. Standardization of sample collection, isolation, processing, and detection methods is imperative for ensuring result reproducibility across diverse studies.

Role of long non-coding RNA in chemoradiotherapy resistance of nasopharyngeal carcinoma

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is a malignant tumor originating from the nasopharyngeal epithelial cells. Common treatment methods for NPC include radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and surgical intervention. Despite these approaches, the prognosis for NPC remains poor due to treatment resistance and recurrence. Hence, there is a crucial need for more comprehensive research into the mechanisms underlying treatment resistance in NPC. Long non coding RNAs (LncRNAs) are elongated RNA molecules that do not encode proteins. They paly significant roles in various biological processes within tumors, such as chemotherapy resistance, radiation resistance, and tumor recurrence. Recent studies have increasingly unveiled the mechanisms through which LncRNAs contribute to treatment resistance in NPC. Consequently, LncRNAs hold promise as potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets for diagnosing NPC. This review provides an overview of the role of LncRNAs in NPC treatment resistance and explores their potential as therapeutic targets for managing NPC.

Salivary Biomarkers for Parkinson's Disease: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis

Parkinson's Disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disease which manifests with motor features, such as bradykinesia, resting tremor, rigidity, and postural instability. Using the non-invasive technique of saliva collection, we designed a systematic review to answer the question "Are salivary biomarkers reliable for the diagnosis of Parkinson's Disease?". Following inclusion and exclusion criteria, 30 studies were included in this systematic review (according to the PRISMA statement guidelines). Mostly proteins were reported as potential biomarkers in saliva. Based on meta-analysis, in PD patients, salivary levels of total alpha-synuclein were significantly decreased, and those of oligomeric alpha-synuclein were significantly increased. Also, according to pooled AUC, heme oxygenase-1 demonstrated significant predictive value for saliva-based PD diagnosis. In conclusion, some potential biomarkers, especially alpha-synuclein, can be altered in the saliva of PD patients, which could be reliably useful for early diagnosis of this neurodegenerative disease differentiating other synucleopathies.

Extensive comparison of salivary collection, transportation, preparation, and storage methods: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Human saliva as a bodily fluid-similar to blood-is utilized for diagnostic purposes. Unlike blood sampling, collecting saliva is non-invasive, inexpensive, and readily accessible. There are no previously published systematic reviews regarding different collection, transportation, preparation, and storage methods for human saliva.

DESIGN

This study has been prepared and organized according to the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) 2020 guidelines. This systematic review has been registered at PROSPERO (Registration ID: CRD42023415384). The study question according to the PICO format was as followed: Comparison of the performance (C) of different saliva sampling, handling, transportation, and storage techniques and methods (I) assessed for analyzing stimulated or unstimulated human saliva (P and O). An electronic search was executed in Scopus, Google Scholar, and PubMed.

RESULTS

Twenty-three descriptive human clinical studies published between 1995 and 2022 were included. Eight categories of salivary features and biomarkers were investigated (i.e., salivary flow rate, total saliva quantity, total protein, cortisol, testosterone, DNA quality and quantity, pH and buffering pH). Twenty-two saliva sampling methods/devices were utilized. Passive drooling, Salivette®, and spitting were the most utilized methods. Sampling times with optimum capabilities for cortisol, iodine, and oral cancer metabolites are suggested to be 7:30 AM to 9:00 AM, 10:30 AM to 11:00 AM, and 14:00 PM to 20:00 PM, respectively. There were 6 storage methods. Centrifuging samples and storing them at -70 °C to -80 °C was the most utilized storage method. For DNA quantity and quality, analyzing samples immediately after collection without centrifuging or storage, outperformed centrifuging samples and storing them at -70 °C to -80 °C. Non-coated Salivette® was the most successful method/device for analyzing salivary flow rate.

CONCLUSION

It is highly suggested that scientists take aid from the reported categorized outcomes, and design their study questions based on the current voids for each method/device.

Quantitative Detection of Biological Nanovesicles in Drops of Saliva Using Microcantilevers

Extracellular nanovesicles (EVs) are lipid-based vesicles secreted by cells and are present in all bodily fluids. They play a central role in communication between distant cells and have been proposed as potential indicators for the early detection of a wide range of diseases, including different types of cancer. However, reliable quantification of a specific subpopulation of EVs remains challenging. The process is typically lengthy and costly and requires purification of relatively large quantities of biopsy samples. Here, we show that microcantilevers operated with sufficiently small vibration amplitudes can successfully quantify a specific subpopulation of EVs directly from a drop (0.1 mL) of unprocessed saliva in less than 20 min. Being a complex fluid, saliva is highly non-Newtonian, normally precluding mechanical sensing. With a combination of standard rheology and microrheology, we demonstrate that the non-Newtonian properties are scale-dependent, enabling microcantilever measurements with a sensitivity identical to that in pure water when operating at the nanoscale. We also address the problem of unwanted sensor biofouling by using a zwitterionic coating, allowing efficient quantification of EVs at concentrations down to 0.1 μg/mL, based on immunorecognition of the EVs' surface proteins. We benchmark the technique on model EVs and illustrate its potential by quantifying populations of natural EVs commonly present in human saliva. The method effectively bypasses the difficulty of targeted detection in non-Newtonian fluids and could be used for various applications, from the detection of EVs and viruses in bodily fluids to the detection of molecular clusters or nanoparticles in other complex fluids.

Comparative analyses of salivary exosomal miRNAs for patients with or without lung cancer

Introduction: Lung cancer is the most frequent cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Exosomes are involved in different types of cancer, including lung cancer. Methods: We collected saliva from patients with (LC) or without (NC) lung cancer and successfully isolated salivary exosomes by ultracentrifugation. MiRNA sequencing was implemented for the exosome samples from NC and LC groups, dgeR was used to determine differentially expressed miRNAs (DE miRNAs), and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) was used to verify three differentially expressed microRNAs (miRNAs). Results: A total of 372 miRNAs were identified based on the sequencing results. Subsequently, 15 DE miRNAs were identified in LC vs. NC, including eight upregulated miRNAs and seven downregulated miRNAs. Some DE miRNAs were validated via qPCR. A total of 488 putative target genes of the upregulated DE miRNAs were found, and the functional analyses indicated that numerous target genes were enriched in the pathways associated with cancer. Discussion: This suggests that miRNAs of salivary exosomes might have the potential to be used as biomarkers for prediction and diagnosis of lung cancer.

The role of exosomes in cancer biology by shedding light on their lipid contents

Exosomes are extracellular bilayer membrane nanovesicles released by cells after the fusion of multivesicular bodies (MVBs) with the plasma membrane. One of the interesting features of exosomes is their ability to carry and transfer various molecules, including lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, and therapeutic cargoes among cells. As intercellular signaling organelles, exosomes participate in various signaling processes such as tumor growth, metastasis, angiogenesis, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and cell physiology such as cell-to-cell communication. Moreover, these particles are considered good vehicles to shuttle vaccines and drugs for therapeutic applications regarding cancers and tumor cells. These bioactive vesicles are also rich in various lipid molecules such as cholesterol, sphingomyelin (SM), glycosphingolipids, and phosphatidylserine (PS). These lipids play an important role in the formation, release, and function of the exosomes and interestingly, some lipids are used as biomarkers in cancer diagnosis. This review aimed to focus on exosomes lipid content and their role in cancer biology.

Exosome Cargos as Biomarkers for Diagnosis and Prognosis of Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most common cancers worldwide. Due to the insidiousness of HCC onset and the lack of specific early-stage markers, the early diagnosis and treatment of HCC are still unsatisfactory, leading to a poor prognosis. Exosomes are a type of extracellular vesicle containing various components, which play an essential part in the development, progression, and metastasis of HCC. A large number of studies have demonstrated that exosomes could serve as novel biomarkers for the diagnosis of HCC. These diagnostic components mainly include proteins, microRNAs, long noncoding RNAs, and circular RNAs. The exosome biomarkers showed high sensitivity and high specificity in distinguishing HCC from health controls and other liver diseases, such as chronic HBV and liver cirrhosis. The expression of these biomarkers also exhibits correlations with various clinical factors such as tumor size, TMN stage, overall survival, and recurrence rate. In this review, we summarize the function of exosomes in the development of HCC and highlight their application as HCC biomarkers for diagnosis and prognosis prediction.

A guide to mass spectrometric analysis of extracellular vesicle proteins for biomarker discovery

Exosomes (small extracellular vesicles) in living organisms play an important role in processes such as cell proliferation or intercellular communication. Recently, exosomes have been extensively investigated for biomarker discoveries for various diseases. An important aspect of exosome analysis involves the development of enrichment methods that have been introduced for successful isolation of exosomes. These methods include ultracentrifugation, size exclusion chromatography, polyethylene glycol-based precipitation, immunoaffinity-based enrichment, ultrafiltration, and asymmetric flow field-flow fractionation among others. To confirm the presence of exosomes, various characterization methods have been utilized such as Western blot analysis, atomic force microscopy, electron microscopy, optical methods, zeta potential, visual inspection, and mass spectrometry. Recent advances in high-resolution separations, high-performance mass spectrometry and comprehensive proteome databases have all contributed to the successful analysis of exosomes from patient samples. Herein we review various exosome enrichment methods, characterization methods, and recent trends of exosome investigations using mass spectrometry-based approaches for biomarker discovery.

Identifying HER2 from serum-derived exosomes in advanced gastric cancer as a promising biomarker for assessing tissue HER2 status and predicting the efficacy of trastuzumab-based therapy

PURPOSE

This study aimed to evaluate the clinical relevance of exosomal HER2 (Exo HER2) level in assessing the tissue HER2 status and predicting the efficacy of trastuzumab treatment.

METHODS

In this prospective study, patients with advanced gastric cancer (AGC) from three hospitals between August 2016 to November 2020 were enrolled. The Exo HER2 level was detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC) was drawn referring to the HER2 tissue status to assess the diagnostic value of Exo HER2. Cox proportional hazards regression and logistic regression were used to evaluate the association between Exo HER2 and progression-free survival (PFS), overall survival (OS), and objective response rate (ORR) in patients who received trastuzumab-based first-line therapy.

RESULTS

In this study, 242 patients with advanced or metastatic gastric adenocarcinoma were registered. Of these, 238 AGC patients were eligible for evaluating serum-derived exosome HER2 diagnostic value, including 114 HER2-positive. Finally, 64 were eligible for efficacy analysis. The area under the ROC curve was 0.746. The optimal cutoff value for diagnosing tissue HER2-positive status was 729.95 ng/ml, with a sensitivity of 66.7% and a specificity of 74.2%. In 64 patients treated with trastuzumab, higher baseline Exo HER2 level indicated better prognosis. 844 ng/ml and 723 ng/ml were the right cutoffs for distinguishing the population with superior PFS (hazard ratio [HR] = 0.41, P = 0.017) and OS (HR = 0.30, P < 0.001), respectively.

CONCLUSION

Serum exosomal HER2 level might serve as an effective biomarker for assessing tissue HER2 status in AGC and screening the potential patients who might benefit from anti-HER2 therapy.

Nanomaterials for Molecular Detection and Analysis of Extracellular Vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as a novel resource of biomarkers for cancer and certain other diseases. Probing EVs in body fluids has become of major interest in the past decade in the development of a new-generation liquid biopsy for cancer diagnosis and monitoring. However, sensitive and specific molecular detection and analysis are challenging, due to the small size of EVs, low amount of antigens on individual EVs, and the complex biofluid matrix. Nanomaterials have been widely used in the technological development of protein and nucleic acid-based EV detection and analysis, owing to the unique structure and functional properties of materials at the nanometer scale. In this review, we summarize various nanomaterial-based analytical technologies for molecular EV detection and analysis. We discuss these technologies based on the major types of nanomaterials, including plasmonic, fluorescent, magnetic, organic, carbon-based, and certain other nanostructures. For each type of nanomaterial, functional properties are briefly described, followed by the applications of the nanomaterials for EV biomarker detection, profiling, and analysis in terms of detection mechanisms.

The Roles of Exosomes in the Diagnose, Development and Therapeutic Resistance of Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Oral cancer is one of the most common cancers worldwide, of which more than half of patients are diagnosed at a locally advanced stage with poor prognosis due to recurrence, metastasis and resistant to treatment. Thus, it is imperative to further explore the potential mechanism of development and drug resistance of oral cancer. Exosomes are small endosome-derived lipid nanoparticles that are released by cells. Since the cargoes of exosomes were inherited from their donor cells, the cargo profiles of exosomes can well recapitulate that of their donor cells. This is the theoretical basis of exosome-based liquid biopsy, providing a tool for early diagnosis of oral cancer. As an important intracellular bioactive cargo delivery vector, exosomes play a critical role in the development of oral cancer by transferring their cargoes to receipt cells. More importantly, recent studies have revealed that exosomes could induce therapy-resistance in oral cancer through multiple ways, including exosome-mediated drug efflux. In this review, we summarize and compare the role of exosomes in the diagnosis, development and therapy-resistant of oral cancer. We also highlight the clinical application of exosomes, and discuss the advantages and challenges of exosomes serving as predictive biomarker, therapy target and therapy vector in oral cancer.

Dual Imaging Single Vesicle Surface Protein Profiling and Early Cancer Detection

Single vesicle molecular profiling has the potential to transform cancer detection and monitoring by precisely probing cancer-associated extracellular vesicles (EVs) in the presence of normal EVs in body fluids, but it is challenging due to the small EV size, low abundance of antigens on individual vesicles, and a complex biological matrix. Here, we report a facile dual imaging single vesicle technology (DISVT) for surface protein profiling of individual EVs and quantification of target-specific EV subtypes based on direct molecular capture of EVs from diluted biofluids, dual EV-protein fluorescence-light scattering imaging, and fast image analysis using Bash scripts, Python, and ImageJ. Plasmonic gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) were used to label and detect targeted surface protein markers on individual EVs with dark-field light scattering imaging at the single particle level. Monte Carlo calculations estimated that the AuNPs could detect EVs down to 40 nm in diameter. Using the DISVT, we profiled surface protein markers of interest across individual EVs derived from several breast cancer cell lines, which reflected the parental cells. Studies with plasma EVs from healthy donors and breast cancer patients revealed that the DISVT, but not the traditional bulk enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, detected human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2)-positive breast cancer at an early stage. The DISVT also precisely differentiated HER2-positive breast cancer from HER2-negative breast cancer. We additionally showed that the amount of tumor-associated EVs was tripled in locally advanced patients compared to that in early-stage patients. These studies suggest that single EV surface protein profiling with DISVT can provide a facile and high-sensitivity method for early cancer detection and quantitative monitoring.

Clinical application and detection techniques of liquid biopsy in gastric cancer

Gastric cancer (GC) is one of the most common tumors worldwide and the leading cause of tumor-related mortality. Endoscopy and serological tumor marker testing are currently the main methods of GC screening, and treatment relies on surgical resection or chemotherapy. However, traditional examination and treatment methods are more harmful to patients and less sensitive and accurate. A minimally invasive method to respond to GC early screening, prognosis monitoring, treatment efficacy, and drug resistance situations is urgently needed. As a result, liquid biopsy techniques have received much attention in the clinical application of GC. The non-invasive liquid biopsy technique requires fewer samples, is reproducible, and can guide individualized patient treatment by monitoring patients' molecular-level changes in real-time. In this review, we introduced the clinical applications of circulating tumor cells, circulating free DNA, circulating tumor DNA, non-coding RNAs, exosomes, and proteins, which are the primary markers in liquid biopsy technology in GC. We also discuss the current limitations and future trends of liquid biopsy technology as applied to early clinical biopsy technology.

Promising applications of human-derived saliva biomarker testing in clinical diagnostics

Saliva testing is a vital method for clinical applications, for its noninvasive features, richness in substances, and the huge amount. Due to its direct anatomical connection with oral, digestive, and endocrine systems, clinical usage of saliva testing for these diseases is promising. Furthermore, for other diseases that seeming to have no correlations with saliva, such as neurodegenerative diseases and psychological diseases, researchers also reckon saliva informative. Tremendous papers are being produced in this field. Updated summaries of recent literature give newcomers a shortcut to have a grasp of this topic. Here, we focused on recent research about saliva biomarkers that are derived from humans, not from other organisms. The review mostly addresses the proceedings from 2016 to 2022, to shed light on the promising usage of saliva testing in clinical diagnostics. We recap the recent advances following the category of different types of biomarkers, such as intracellular DNA, RNA, proteins and intercellular exosomes, cell-free DNA, to give a comprehensive impression of saliva biomarker testing.

Role of Exosomal Non-Coding RNA in the Tumour Microenvironment of Genitourinary System Tumours

In recent years, genitourinary system tumors are common in people of all ages, seriously affecting the quality of life of patients, the pathogenesis and treatment of these diseases are constantly being updated and improved. Exosomes, with a lipid bilayer that enable delivery of their contents into body fluids or other cells. Exosomes can regulate the tumor microenvironment, and play an important role in tumor development. In turn, cellular and non-cellular components of tumor microenvironment also affect the occurrence, progression, invasion and metastasis of tumor. Non-coding RNAs have been shown to be able to be ingested and released by exosomes, and are seen as a potential tool in cancer diagnosis and treatment. Here, we summarize the effect of non-coding RNAs of exosome contents on the tumor microenvironment of genitourinary system tumor, expound the significance of non-coding RNAs of exosome in the occurrence, development, diagnosis and treatment of cancers.

Role of exosomes in tumour growth, chemoresistance and immunity: state-of-the-art

Cancer is one of the most lethal diseases, and limited available treatment options contribute to its high mortality rate. Exosomes are considered membrane-bound nanovesicles that include different molecules such as lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Virtually most cells could release exosomes via exocytosis in physiological and pathological conditions. Tumour-derived exosomes (TDEs) play essential roles in tumorigenesis, proliferation, progression, metastasis, immune escape, and chemoresistance by transferring functional biological cargos, triggering different autocrine, and paracrine signalling cascades. Due to their antigen-presenting properties, exosomes are widely used as biomarkers and drug carriers and have a prominent role in cancer immunotherapy. They offer various advantages in carrier systems (e.g. in chemotherapy, siRNA, and miRNA), delivery of diagnostic agents owing to their stability, loading of hydrophobic and hydrophilic agents, and drug targeting. Novel exosomes-based carriers can be generated as intelligent systems using various sources and crosslinking chemistry extracellular vesicles (EVs). Exosomes studded with targeting ligands, including peptides, can impart in targeted delivery of cargos to tumour cells. In this review, we comprehensively summarised the important role of tumour-derived exosomes in dictating cancer pathogenesis and resistance to therapy. We have therefore, investigated in further detail the pivotal role of tumour-derived exosomes in targeting various cancer cells and their applications, and prospects in cancer therapy and diagnosis. Additionally, we have implicated the potential utility and significance of tumour exosomes-based nanoparticles as an efficient and novel therapeutic carrier and their applications in treating advanced cancers.

Saliva diagnostics: emerging techniques and biomarkers for salivaomics in cancer detection

INTRODUCTION

The pursuit of easy-to-use, non-invasive and inexpensive diagnostics is an urgent task for clinicians and scientists. Saliva is an important component of body fluid with regular changes of contents under various pathophysiological conditions, and the biomarkers identified from saliva shows high application potentials and values in disease diagnostics. This review introduces the latest developments in saliva research, with an emphasis on the detection and application of salivary biomarkers in cancer detection.

AREAS COVERED

Detection of disease-specific biomarkers in saliva samples by existing salivaomic methods can be used to diagnose various human pathological conditions and was introduced in details. This review also covers the saliva collection methods, the analytical techniques as well as the corresponding commercial products, with an aim to describe an holistic process for saliva-based diagnostics.

EXPERT OPINION

Saliva, as a non-invasive and collectable body fluid, can reflect the pathophysiological changes of the human body to a certain extent. Identification of reliable saliva biomarkers can provide a convenient way for cancer detection in clinical applications.

Organically derived exosomes as carriers of anticancer drugs and imaging agents for cancer treatment

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), is the umbrella term used for different types of vesicles produced by the cells, among which exosomes form the largest group. Exosomes perform intercellular communication by carrying several biologics from donor or parental cells and delivering them to recipient cells. Their unique cargo-carrying capacity has recently been explored for use as delivery vehicles of anticancer drugs and imaging agents. Being naturally produced, exosomes have many advantages over synthetic lipid-based nanoparticles currently being used clinically to treat cancer and other diseases. The finding of the role of exosomes in human diseases has led to numerous preclinical and clinical studies exploring their use as an amenable drug delivery vehicle and a theranostic in cancer diagnosis and treatment. However, there are certain limitations associated with exosomes, with the most important being the selection of the biological source for producing highly biocompatible exosomes on a large scale. This review article explores the various sources from which therapeutically viable exosomes can be isolated for use as drug carriers for cancer treatment. The methods of exosome isolation and the process of loading them with cancer therapeutics and imaging agents are also discussed in the follow-up sections. Finally, the article concludes with future directions for exosome-based applications in cancer diagnosis and treatment.

Biomarkers of gastric cancer: current advancement

Gastric cancer (GC) is one of the most prevalent malignant types worldwide, especially in East Asia. Due to its frequently advanced stage at diagnosis, the mortality from GC is high and the prognosis is still unsatisfactory. Thus, early detection using effective screening approaches is vital to decrease the morbidity and mortality of GC. Interestingly, biomarkers can be used for diagnosis, prediction of sensitivity to treatment, and prognosis in GC. The potential biomarkers detectable in liquid biopsies such as circulating tumor cells (CTCs), long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), cell-free DNA (cfDNA), microRNAs, and exosomes reveal numerous information regarding the early prediction and the outcomes for GC patients. Additionally, using the novel serum biomarkers has opened up new opportunities for diagnosing and monitoring patients with GC. This review mainly summarizes the novel progress and approaches in GC biomarkers, which could be potentially used for early diagnosis and therapy monitoring. Meanwhile, we also discussed the advantages, disadvantages, and future perspectives of GC biomarkers.

Microfluidics-Based Urine Biopsy for Cancer Diagnosis: Recent Advances and Future Trends

Urine biopsy, allowing for the detection, analysis and monitoring of numerous cancer-associated urinary biomarkers to provide insights into cancer occurrence, progression and metastasis, has emerged as an attractive liquid biopsy strategy with enormous advantages over traditional tissue biopsy, such as noninvasiveness, large sample volume, and simple sampling operation. Microfluidics enables precise manipulation of fluids in a tiny chip and exhibits outstanding performance in urine biopsy owing to its minimization, low cost, high integration, high throughput and low sample consumption. Herein, we review recent advances in microfluidic techniques employed in urine biopsy for cancer detection. After briefly summarizing the major urinary biomarkers used for cancer diagnosis, we provide an overview of the typical microfluidic techniques utilized to develop urine biopsy devices. Some prospects along with the major challenges to be addressed for the future of microfluidic-based urine biopsy are also discussed.

Exosomics in oral cancer diagnosis, prognosis, and therapeutics - An emergent and imperative non-invasive natural nanoparticle-based approach

Exosomes- the natural nanoparticles belonging to heterogeneous vesicles are released via nearly all sorts of cells, including tumour cells, to oprate intercellular communication. Selective packaging of exosomes amid nucleic acids, phospholipids, and proteins makes them ideal for intercellular communications occurring among different cells. The existence of exosomes has been validated in various biofluids, including saliva. Being non-invasive and in direct contact with oral malignant cells, saliva establishes itself as a preeminent source of early cancer biomarkers. In context, the role and providence of both recipient and donor secreting cells are persuaded through exosomal cargo.Several studies have emphasized the influence of exosomal contents in different stages of cancer development, reconciling interactions between tumour cells and their surrounding niche. More explicitly, a transformation of exosomal contents such as nucleic acids, lipids, and proteins can endorse tumour progression and help ascertain a secluded pre-metastatic niche crammed with substances that errand cancer cell proliferation,angiogenesis, metastasis, and drug resistance. The blooming field of exosomes has directed the evolution of high-end isolation and characterization techniques along with the development of an entirely new field- exosomics that comprises complete analysis of exosomal cargo in various physiological conditions, including oral cancer. Researchers have discovered multiple pathways involved in exosome biogenesis to understand numerous events associated with cancer progression. Tissue-specific packaging of exosomes makes them a novel source of prognostic and diagnostic biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets. The extent of the current review confers the contemporary perception of the versatile task of exosomes, especially salivary exosomes, as potential biomarkers in the progression and diagnosis as well as therapeutics of oral cancers and their potential employment in clinical applications.

Liquid Biopsy and Circulating Biomarkers for the Diagnosis of Precancerous and Cancerous Oral Lesions

Oral cancer is one of the most common malignancies worldwide, accounting for 2% of all cases annually and 1.8% of all cancer deaths. To date, tissue biopsy and histopathological analyses are the gold standard methods for the diagnosis of oral cancers. However, oral cancer is generally diagnosed at advanced stages with a consequent poor 5-year survival (~50%) due to limited screening programs and inefficient physical examination strategies. To address these limitations, liquid biopsy is recently emerging as a novel minimally invasive tool for the early identification of tumors as well as for the evaluation of tumor heterogeneity and prognosis of patients. Several studies have demonstrated that liquid biopsy in oral cancer could be useful for the detection of circulating biomarkers including circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA), microRNAs (miRNAs), proteins, and exosomes, thus improving diagnostic strategies and paving the way to personalized medicine. However, the application of liquid biopsy in oral cancer is still limited and further studies are needed to better clarify its clinical impact. The present manuscript aims to provide an updated overview of the potential use of liquid biopsy as an additional tool for the management of oral lesions by describing the available methodologies and the most promising biomarkers.

Exosomes: Biogenesis, targeting, characterisation and their potential as 'Plug & Play' vaccine platforms

Exosomes are typically characterized as spherical extracellular vesicles less than 150 nm in diameter that have been released into the extracellular environment via fusion of multivesicular bodies (MVBs) to the plasma membrane. Exosomes play a key role in cell-cell communication, vary widely in their composition and potential cargo, and are reportedly involved in processes as diverse as angiogenesis, apoptosis, antigen presentation, inflammation, receptor-mediated endocytosis, cell proliferation, and differentiation, and cell-signaling. Exosomes can also act as biomarkers of health and disease and have enormous potential use as therapeutic agents. Despite this, the understanding of how exosome biogenesis can be utilized to generate exosomes carrying specific targets for particular therapeutic uses, their manufacture, detailed analytical characterization, and methods of application are yet to be fully harnessed. In this review, we describe the current understanding of these areas of exosome biology from a biotechnology and bioprocessing aspect, but also highlight the challenges that remain to be overcome to fully harness the power of exosomes as therapeutic agents, with a particular focus on their use and application as vaccine platforms. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Tumor-associated Exosomes Are Involved in Hepatocellular Carcinoma Tumorigenesis, Diagnosis, and Treatment

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) has become a challenging disease worldwide. There are still limitations in the diagnosis and treatment of HCC, and its high metastatic capacity and high recurrence rate are the main reasons for its poor prognosis. The ability of extracellular vesicles (EVs) to transfer functionally-active substances and their widespread presence in almost all body fluids suggest their unprecedented potential in the study of various cancers. The unique physicochemical properties of EVs determine their potential as antitumor vaccines and drug carriers. In the last decade, the study of EVs in HCC has evolved from a single hot topic to a system with considerable scale. This paper summarizes the role of EVs, especially exosomes, in the occurrence, metastasis and tumor immunity of HCC, reviews their applications in tumor diagnosis, prognosis and treatment, describes the pros and cons of these studies, and looks forward towards the future research directions of EVs in HCC.

Role of Exosomes in Immune Microenvironment of Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common primary liver cancer. Since most patients with HCC are diagnosed at the intermediate or advanced stage and because HCC has a high incidence of metastasis and recurrence, it is one of the leading causes of cancer death. Exosomes are a subtype of extracellular vesicles and are typically 30-150 nm in diameter. Originating from endosomes, they can be secreted by almost all living cells. They are widely present in various body fluids and serve as an important medium for the interactions between cells. A series of studies have revealed that exosomes-mediated intercellular transfer of proteins, nucleic acids, and metabolites plays a crucial role in the initiation and progression of HCC, hypoxia and angiogenesis, chemotherapy sensitivity, and cell death mode and regulates the immune microenvironment. In this paper, we reviewed the recent researches on the multiple roles of tumor-associated exosomes in the progression of HCC. We laid particular focus on those researches that reveal how exosomes regulate the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) and how exosomal cargos affect the progression of HCC. Besides, we emphasize some prospective directions to achieve a more accurate and complete analysis of the HCC immune microenvironment.

Salivary Exosome Proteomics and Bioinformatics Analysis in 7,12-Dimethylbenz[a]anthracene-Induced Oral Cancer with Radiation Therapy-A Syrian Golden Hamster Model

Exosomes carry cellular proteins and contain molecules that can be potential biomarkers of diseases. This study used a Syrian golden hamster model of 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA)-induced oral squamous cell carcinoma with radiation therapy to exclude the confounding factors that may affect outcomes in clinical studies, and re-examine the role of exosomes during tumorigenesis. We used data-dependent acquisition-based quantitative proteomics and bioinformatics analyses and found unique proteins present (desmocollin-2) or absent (Glucagon-cAMP-PKA-CREB pathway-related proteins) in the salivary exosomes of the pre-radiation DMBA-treated group (PreD). Comparing our data to other studies, salivary exosomes in the PreD group were found carrying proteins that the tumor mass does not express and lacking the proteins needed during tumorigenesis. Immunohistochemistry staining showed p53 expression but a negative apoptotic signal in the PreD tumor tissue. We thus suggest that inhibition of desmocollin-2 expression in tumor tissue may impede the activation of cell apoptosis. However, both the origin of the salivary exosomes and main role of the salivary exosome proteins should be clarified in future studies.

Identification of serum exosomal miR-98-5p, miR-183-5p, miR-323-3p and miR-19b-3p as potential biomarkers for glioblastoma patients and investigation of their mechanisms

BACKGROUND

Exosomal miRNAs have attracted increasing interest as potential biomarkers and treatment targets for cancers, however, glioblastoma (GBM)-related exosomal miRNAs remain rarely reported. The study aimed to screen crucial serum exosomal miRNAs in GBM patients and explored their possible mechanisms.

METHODS

Serum exosomal miRNA profile datasets of GBM patients and normal controls were downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus database (GSE112462 and GSE122488). The differentially expressed miRNAs (DEMs) were identified using the limma method. Their diagnostic values were assessed by receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis. The target genes of DEMs were predicted by the miRwalk 2.0 database. Function enrichment analysis was performed using the DAVID database. The expression and prognosis of target genes were validated using TCGA sequencing data and immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

Seven DEMs were shared in two datasets, among which hsa-miR-183-5p and hsa-miR-98-5p as well as has-miR-323-3p or has-miR-19b-3p constituted a diagnostic signature to distinguish GBM from controls, with the area under the ROC curve nearly approximate to 1. MAPK8IP1/FAM175B, OSMR/CASP3, PTPN2 and FBXO32 may be underlying targets for hsa-miR-183-5p, hsa-miR-98-5p, has-miR-323-3p and has-miR-19b-3p, respectively. Function analysis showed all of these target genes were involved in cell proliferation and related signaling pathways [positive regulation of cell proliferation (OSMR), negative regulation of transcription from RNA polymerase II promoter (PTPN2), cell division (FAM175B), regulation of transcription, DNA-templated (MAPK8IP1), hsa05200:Pathways in cancer (CASP3) and hsa04068:FoxO signaling pathway (FBXO32)]. The protein and (or mRNA) expression levels of OSMR, CASP3, PTPN2 and FBXO32 were validated to be upregulated, while MAPK8IP1 and FAM175B were downregulated in GBM tissues. Also, OSMR, CASP3, PTPN2 and FBXO32 were associated with patients' prognosis.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest these four exosomal miRNAs may represent potential diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets for GBM.

The miR-223-3p Regulates Pyroptosis Through NLRP3-Caspase 1-GSDMD Signal Axis in Periodontitis

Salivary exosomes contain various components and may play important roles in oral diseases. The purpose of this study was to verify the possible function of miR-223-3p from salivary exosomes in periodontitis. We isolated the salivary exosomes and found that the miR-223-3p content of salivary exosomes from periodontitis was less than the healthy control. Furthermore, we performed dual-luciferase reporter assay and real-time PCR to verify that (NOD)-like receptor (NLR) pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) was the target of miR-223-3p. When we knocked down the miR-223-3p expression in THP-1-derived macrophages, the expression of NLRP3 and the downstream inflammatory mediators interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and IL-6 were upregulated. By using integrated bioinformatics analysis, we found that pyroptosis and cytokine secretion participated in inflammatory gingival tissues. In addition, NLRP3, and the pyroptosis executioner, gasdermin D (GSDMD) was highly active in inflammatory gingival tissues compared with healthy controls by western blotting and immunohistochemistry. In summary, we speculated that miR-223-3p in salivary exosomes might regulate GSDMD-mediated pyroptosis by targeting NLRP3 in periodontitis. Detection of miR-223-3p expression in salivary exosomes could be used as an important non-invasive method to diagnose and evaluate the severity of periodontitis.

A complete proteomic profile of human and bovine milk exosomes by liquid chromatography mass spectrometry

BACKGROUND

The present study investigates the proteomic content of milk-derived exosomes. A detailed description of the content of milk exosomes is essential to improve our understanding of the various components of milk and their role in nutrition.

METHODS

The exosomes used in this study were isolated as previously described and characterized by their morphology, particle concentration, and the presence of exosomal markers. Human and bovine milk exosomes were evaluated using Information-Dependent Acquisition (IDA) Mass Spectrometry. A direct comparison is made between their proteomic profiles.

RESULTS

IDA analyses revealed similarities and differences in protein content. About 229 and 239 proteins were identified in the human and bovine milk exosome proteome, respectively, of which 176 and 186 were unique to each species. Fifty-three proteins were common in both groups. These included proteins associated with specific biological processes and molecular functions. Most notably, the 4 abundant milk proteins lactadherin, butyrophilin, perilipin-2, and xanthine dehydrogenase/oxidase were present in the top 20 list for both human and bovine milk exosomes.

CONCLUSION

The milk exosome protein profiles we have provided are crucial new information for the field of infant nutrition. They provide new insight into the components of milk from both humans and bovines.

Extracellular Vesicles: Emerging Therapeutics in Cutaneous Lesions

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), as nanoscale membranous vesicles containing DNAs, RNAs, lipids and proteins, have emerged as promising diagnostic and therapeutic agents for skin diseases. Here, we summarize the basic physiology of the skin and the biological characteristic of EVs. Further, we describe the applications of EVs in the treatment of dermatological conditions such as skin infection, inflammatory skin diseases, skin repair and rejuvenation and skin cancer. In particular, plant-derived EVs and clinical trials are discussed. In addition, challenges and perspectives related to the preclinical and clinical applications of EVs are highlighted.

Serum-Derived Neuronal Exosomal miRNAs as Biomarkers of Acute Severe Stress

Stress is the physical and psychological tension felt by an individual while adapting to difficult situations. Stress is known to alter the expression of stress hormones and cause neuroinflammation in the brain. In this study, miRNAs in serum-derived neuronal exosomes (nEVs) were analyzed to determine whether differentially expressed miRNAs could be used as biomarkers of acute stress. Specifically, acute severe stress was induced in Sprague-Dawley rats via electric foot-shock treatment. In this acute severe-stress model, time-dependent changes in the expression levels of stress hormones and neuroinflammation-related markers were analyzed. In addition, nEVs were isolated from the serum of control mice and stressed mice at various time points to determine when brain damage was most prominent; this was found to be 7 days after foot shock. Next-generation sequencing was performed to compare neuronal exosomal miRNA at day 7 with the neuronal exosomal miRNA of the control group. From this analysis, 13 upregulated and 11 downregulated miRNAs were detected. These results show that specific miRNAs are differentially expressed in nEVs from an acute severe-stress animal model. Thus, this study provides novel insights into potential stress-related biomarkers.

Saliva, a bodily fluid with recognized and potential diagnostic applications

Human whole saliva is a bodily fluid that can be obtained easily by noninvasive techniques. Specimens can be collected by the patient also at home in order to monitor health status and variations of several analytes of clinical interest. The contributions to whole saliva include secretions from salivary glands and, among others, from the gingival crevicular fluid that derives from the epithelial mucosa. Therefore, saliva is currently a relevant diagnostic fluid for many substances, including steroids, nonpeptide hormones, therapeutic drugs, and drugs of abuse. This review at first briefly describes the different contributions to whole saliva. A section illustrates the procedures for the collection, handling, and storage of salivary specimens. Another section describes the present use of whole saliva for diagnostic purposes and its specific utilization for the diagnosis of several local and systemic diseases. The final sections illustrate the future opportunities offered by various not conventional techniques with a focus on the most recent –omic investigations. It describes the various issues that have to be taken into account to avoid false positives and negatives, such as the strength of the experimental plan, the adequacy of the number of samples under study, and the proper choice of controls.

An exploratory study demonstrating that salivary cytokine profiles are altered in children with small area thermal injury

Serum can be used to investigate changes in cytokine concentration following burn injury in children, however for children receiving treatment in an outpatient setting, blood is not routinely collected and therefore cannot be used for monitoring. The aim of this study was to investigate the use of saliva as a non-invasive tool for predicting burn outcomes by measuring the concentration of salivary cytokines in children with small area burns. A multiplex cytokine assay was used to measure 17 cytokines in the saliva of paediatric patients with burns (n = 20) and healthy controls (n = 20). After the removal of cytokines that had >30% of samples below the assay lower detection limit, six cytokines including IL-1β, IL-4, IL-7, IL-8, MCP-1 and TNFα were analysed for association with burns. IL-1β and IL-4 were found to be significantly elevated in the paediatric burn patients compared to healthy controls. Interestingly, IL-1β was also significantly elevated in scald burns, compared to contact burns. In addition, biologically meaningful differences in cytokine concentration were identified in patients with different burn characteristics, which warrant further investigation. This exploratory study provides evidence that cytokines can be detected in the saliva of children and that salivary cytokine profiles differ between healthy controls and children with burns. Overall, this study demonstrates the value of saliva for the investigation of cytokines and its potential application in paediatric diagnostics, specifically in situations where blood collection is not appropriate.

Exosomal Surface Protein Detection with Quantum Dots and Immunomagnetic Capture for Cancer Detection

Exosomes carry molecular contents reflective of parental cells and thereby hold great potential as a source of biomarkers for non-invasive cancer detection and monitoring. However, simple and rapid exosomal molecular detection remains challenging. Here, we report a facile method for exosome surface protein detection using quantum dot coupled with immunomagnetic capture and enrichment. In this method, exosomes were captured by magnetic beads based on CD81 protein expression. Surface protein markers of interest were recognized by primary antibody and then detected by secondary antibody-conjugated quantum dot with fluorescent spectroscopy. Validated by ELISA, our method can specifically detect different surface markers on exosomes from different cancer cell lines and differentiate cancer exosomes from normal exosomes. The clinical potential was demonstrated with pilot plasma samples using HER2-positive breast cancer as the disease model. The results show that exosomes from HER2-positive breast cancer patients exhibited a five times higher level of HER2 expression than healthy controls. Exosomal HER2 showed strong diagnostic power for HER2-positive patients, with the area under the curve of 0.969. This quantum dot-based exosome method is rapid (less than 5 h) and only requires microliters of diluted plasma without pre-purification, practical for routine use for basic vesicle research, and clinical applications.

Proteomic Alterations in Salivary Exosomes Derived from Human Papillomavirus-Driven Oropharyngeal Cancer

BACKGROUND

Increasing evidence supports the notion that human papillomavirus (HPV) DNA integration onto the human genome can influence and alter the molecular cargo in the exosomes derived from head and neck cancer cells. However, the molecular cargo of salivary exosomes derived from HPV-driven oropharyngeal cancer (HPV-driven OPC) remains unelucidated.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Salivary exosomes morphology and molecular characterizations were examined using the nanoparticle tracking (NTA), western blot analysis, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and mass spectrometry analysis.

RESULTS

We report that HPV16 DNA was detected (80%) in isolated salivary exosomes of HPV-driven OPC patients. Importantly, we demonstrate elevated protein levels of six main glycolytic enzymes [i.e., aldolase (ALDOA), glyceraldehye-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), lactate dehydrogenase A/B (LDHA and LDHB), phosphoglycerate kinase 1 (PGK1) and pyruvate kinase M1/2 (PKM)] in isolated salivary exosomes of HPV-driven OPC patients, suggesting a novel mechanism underlying the potential role of salivary exosomes in mediating the reciprocal interplay between glucose metabolism and HPV-driven OPC.

CONCLUSION

Our data demonstrate the potential diagnostic value of HPV16 DNA and glycolytic enzymes in salivary exosomes in discriminating healthy controls from HPV-driven OPC patients, thereby opening new avenues in the future for clinical translation studies.

Using dynamic cell communication improves treatment strategies of breast cancer

Several insights from the clinical treatment of breast cancer patients have revealed that only a portion of patients achieve the expected curative effect after traditional targeted therapy, that surgical treatment may promote the development of cancer metastasis, and that the optimal combination of neoadjuvant chemotherapy and traditional treatment is not clear. Therefore, a more precise classification of breast cancer and selection of treatment methods should be undertaken to improve the efficacy of clinical treatment. In the clinical treatment of breast cancer, cell communication molecules are often selected as therapeutic targets. However, various cell communications are not static. Their dynamic changes are related to communicating cells, communicating molecules, and various intertwined internal and external environmental factors. Understanding the dynamic microenvironment can help us improve therapeutic efficacy and provide new ways to more accurately determine the cancer status. Therefore, this review describes multiple types of cellular communication in the breast cancer microenvironment and incorporates internal and external environmental factors as variable signaling factors in cell communication. Using dynamic and developmental concepts, we summarize the functional changes in signaling molecules and cells to aid in the diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) in ischemic conditioning and angiogenesis: Focus on endothelial derived EVs

During myocardial ischemia, timely reperfusion is critical to limit infarct area and the overall loss of cardiac contractile function. However, reperfusion further exacerbates the damage of the ischemic heart. This type of injury is known as ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI). Ischemic conditioning is a procedure which consists of brief cycles of ischemia and reperfusion in order to protect the myocardium against IRI. Remote ischemic conditioning (RIC), namely transient brief episodes of ischemia at a remote site before a subsequent damaging ischemia/reperfusion procedure of the target organ (e.g., the heart), protects against IRI. However, how the stimulus of RIC is transduced from the remote organ to the ischemic heart is still unknown. Recently, extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been proposed to have a role in the RIC procedure. The endothelium releases EVs and is also one of the tissues mostly exposed to EVs during their journey to the target organ. Moreover, EVs may have important roles in angiogenesis and, therefore, in the remodeling of post-ischemic organs. Here we analyze how EVs may contribute to the overall cardioprotective effect and the implication of the endothelium and its EVs in RIC mediated acute cardioprotection as well as in angiogenesis.

Extracellular Vesicles: Novel Opportunities to Understand and Detect Neoplastic Diseases

With a size range from 30 to 1000 nm, extracellular vesicles (EVs) are one of the smallest cell components able to transport biologically active molecules. They mediate intercellular communications and play a fundamental role in the maintenance of tissue homeostasis and pathogenesis in several types of diseases. In particular, EVs actively contribute to cancer initiation and progression, and there is emerging understanding of their role in creation of the metastatic niche. This fact underlies the recent exponential growth in EV research, which has improved our understanding of their specific roles in disease and their potential applications in diagnosis and therapy. EVs and their biomolecular cargo reflect the state of the diseased donor cells, and can be detected in body fluids and exploited as biomarkers in cancer and other diseases. Relatively few studies have been published on EVs in the veterinary field. This review provides an overview of the features and biology of EVs as well as recent developments in EV research including techniques for isolation and analysis, and will address the way in which the EVs released by diseased tissues can be studied and exploited in the field of veterinary pathology. Uniquely, this review emphasizes the important contribution that pathologists can make to the field of EV research: pathologists can help EV scientists in studying and confirming the role of EVs and their molecular cargo in diseased tissues and as biomarkers in liquid biopsies.

Comparisons of Extracellular Vesicles from Human Epidural Fat-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells and Fibroblast Cells

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are generated and secreted by cells into the circulatory system. Stem cell-derived EVs have a therapeutic effect similar to that of stem cells and are considered an alternative method for cell therapy. Accordingly, research on the characteristics of EVs is emerging. EVs were isolated from human epidural fat-derived mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and human fibroblast culture media by ultracentrifugation. The characterization of EVs involved the typical evaluation of cluster of differentiation (CD antigens) marker expression by fluorescence-activated cell sorting, size analysis with dynamic laser scattering, and morphology analysis with transmission electron microscopy. Lastly, the secreted levels of cytokines and chemokines in EVs were determined by a cytokine assay. The isolated EVs had a typical size of approximately 30-200 nm, and the surface proteins CD9 and CD81 were expressed on human epidural fat MSCs and human fibroblast cells. The secreted levels of cytokines and chemokines were compared between human epidural fat MSC-derived EVs and human fibroblast-derived EVs. Human epidural fat MSC-derived EVs showed anti-inflammatory effects and promoted macrophage polarization. In this study, we demonstrated for the first time that human epidural fat MSC-derived EVs exhibit inflammatory suppressive potency relative to human fibroblast-derived EVs, which may be useful for the treatment of inflammation-related diseases.

Factors Affecting Extracellular Vesicles Based Drug Delivery Systems

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) play major roles in intracellular communication and participate in several biological functions in both normal and pathological conditions. Surface modification of EVs via various ligands, such as proteins, peptides, or aptamers, offers great potential as a means to achieve targeted delivery of therapeutic cargo, i.e., in drug delivery systems (DDS). This review summarizes recent studies pertaining to the development of EV-based DDS and its advantages compared to conventional nano drug delivery systems (NDDS). First, we compare liposomes and exosomes in terms of their distinct benefits in DDS. Second, we analyze what to consider for achieving better isolation, yield, and characterization of EVs for DDS. Third, we summarize different methods for the modification of surface of EVs, followed by discussion about different origins of EVs and their role in developing DDS. Next, several major methods for encapsulating therapeutic cargos in EVs have been summarized. Finally, we discuss key challenges and pose important open questions which warrant further investigation to develop more effective EV-based DDS.

The Emerging Role of Exosomes in Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Oral cancer constitutes approximately 2% of all cancers, while the most common type, oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) represents 90% of oral cancers. Although the treatment of OSCC has improved recently, it still has a high rate of local recurrence and poor prognosis, with a 5-year survival rate of only 50%. Advanced stage OSCC tends to metastasize to lymph nodes. Thus, exploring new therapeutic strategies for OSCC is therefore an urgent priority. Exosomes, the small membrane vesicles derived from endosomes, have been detected in a wide array of bodily fluids. Exosomes contain a diversity of proteins, mRNAs, and non-coding RNAs, including microRNAs, long non-coding RNAs, piRNAs, circular RNAs, tsRNAs, and ribosomal RNAs, which are delivered to neighboring cells or even transported to distant sites. Exosomes have been associated with the tumorigenesis of OSCC, promote the proliferation, colonization, and metastasis of OSCC by transferring their contents to the target cells. Furthermore, exosomes are involved in the regulation of the tumor microenvironment to transform conditions favoring cancer progression in vivo. In this review, we summarize the crucial role of exosomes in the tumorigenesis and progression of OSCC and discuss the potential clinical application of exosomes in OSCC treatment.

A study on the effects of tumor-derived exosomes on hepatoma cells and hepatocytes by atomic force microscopy

Tumor-derived exosomes (exos) are closely related to the occurrence, development and treatment of tumors. However, it is not clear how the exosomes affect the physical properties, which lead to the deterioration of the target cells. In this paper, atomic force microscopy (AFM) was used to study the effects of exosomes in HCC-LM3 cells and other cells (SMMC-7721 and HL-7702). The results showed that the HCC-LM3-exos (the exosomes secreted by HCC-LM3 cells, 50 μg mL^-1) significantly promoted the proliferation and migration of HCC-LM3 cells. HCC-LM3-exos also promoted the proliferation and migration of SMMC-7721 and HL-7702 cells at 1000 and 1500 μg mL^-1, respectively. With an increase in time and concentration, the proliferation effect was more significant. On comparing the mechanical properties of the three types of cells (HCC-LM3, SMMC-7721 and HL-7702 cells), the degradation degree and migration ability of the cells were from high to low in the above order. In turn, the surface roughness of the cells decreased, and adhesion and elastic modulus increased. With an increase in treatment time, surface roughness increased, while adhesion and elastic modulus decreased. These suggested that the HCC-LM3-exos could change the mechanical properties of cells, leading to their deterioration, and enhance their migration and invasion ability. In this paper, the effects of exosomes were analyzed from the perspective of the physical parameters of cells, which provide a new idea to study cancer metastasis and prognosis.