1
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Richard AC, Ma CY, Marioni JC, Griffiths GM. Cytotoxic T lymphocytes require transcription for infiltration but not target cell lysis. EMBO Rep 2023; 24:e57653. [PMID: 37860838 PMCID: PMC10626425 DOI: 10.15252/embr.202357653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2023] [Revised: 09/19/2023] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Effector cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) are critical for ridding the body of infected or cancerous cells. CTL T cell receptor (TCR) ligation not only drives the delivery and release of cytolytic granules but also initiates a new wave of transcription. In order to address whether TCR-induced transcriptomic changes impact the ability of CTLs to kill, we asked which genes are expressed immediately after CTLs encounter targets and how CTL responses change when inhibiting transcription. Our data demonstrate that while expression of cytokines/chemokines and transcriptional machinery depend on transcription, cytotoxic protein expression and cytolytic activity are relatively robust to transcription blockade, with CTLs lysing nearby target cells for several hours after actinomycin D treatment. Monitoring CTL movement among target cells after inhibiting transcription demonstrates an infiltration defect that is not rectified by provision of exogenous cytokine/chemokine gradients, indicating a cell-intrinsic transcriptional requirement for infiltration. Together, our results reveal differential molecular control of CTL functions, separating recruitment and infiltration from cytolysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arianne C Richard
- Cambridge Institute for Medical ResearchUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge InstituteUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
- Present address:
Immunology ProgrammeThe Babraham InstituteCambridgeUK
| | - Claire Y Ma
- Cambridge Institute for Medical ResearchUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | - John C Marioni
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge InstituteUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
- European Molecular Biology LaboratoryEuropean Bioinformatics Institute (EMBL‐EBI)HinxtonUK
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2
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Rudd-Schmidt JA, Laine RF, Noori T, Brennan AJ, Voskoboinik I. ALFA-PRF: a novel approach to detect murine perforin release from CTLs into the immune synapse. Front Immunol 2022; 13:931820. [PMID: 36618385 PMCID: PMC9813862 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.931820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
When killing through the granule exocytosis pathway, cytotoxic lymphocytes release key effector molecules into the immune synapse, perforin and granzymes, to initiate target cell killing. The pore-forming perforin is essential for the function of cytotoxic lymphocytes, as its pores disrupt the target cell membrane and allow diffusion of pro-apoptotic serine proteases, granzyme, into the target cell, where they initiate various cell death cascades. Unlike human perforin, the detection of its murine counterpart in a live cell system has been problematic due its relatively low expression level and the lack of sensitive antibodies. The lack of a suitable methodology to visualise murine perforin secretion into the synapse hinders the study of the cytotoxic lymphocyte secretory machinery in murine models of human disease. Here, we describe a novel recombinant technology, whereby a short ALFA-tag sequence has been fused with the amino-terminus of a mature murine perforin, and this allowed its detection by the highly specific FluoTag®-X2 anti-ALFA nanobodies using both Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy of an artificial synapse, and confocal microscopy of the physiological immune synapse with a target cell. This methodology can have broad application in the field of cytotoxic lymphocyte biology and for the many models of human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesse A. Rudd-Schmidt
- Killer Cell Biology Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, VIC, Australia,*Correspondence: Ilia Voskoboinik, ; Jesse A. Rudd-Schmidt,
| | - Romain F. Laine
- Medical Research Council (MRC)-Laboratory for Molecular Cell Biology, University College London, London, United Kingdom,The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom,MicrographiaBio, Translation & Innovation Hub, London, United Kingdom
| | - Tahereh Noori
- Killer Cell Biology Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, VIC, Australia,Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Amelia J. Brennan
- Killer Cell Biology Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Ilia Voskoboinik
- Killer Cell Biology Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, VIC, Australia,Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia,*Correspondence: Ilia Voskoboinik, ; Jesse A. Rudd-Schmidt,
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3
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Hosseinalizadeh H, Habibi Roudkenar M, Mohammadi Roushandeh A, Kuwahara Y, Tomita K, Sato T. Natural killer cell immunotherapy in glioblastoma. Discov Oncol 2022; 13:113. [PMID: 36305981 PMCID: PMC9616998 DOI: 10.1007/s12672-022-00567-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2022] [Accepted: 09/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is one of the most difficult cancers to treat because GBM has the high therapeutic resistance. Recently, immunotherapies for GBM have been used instead of conventional treatments. Among them, Natural killer (NK) cell-based immunotherapy has the potential to treat GBM due to its properties such as the absence of restriction by antigen-antibody reaction and deep penetration into the tumor microenvironment. Especially, genetically engineered NK cells, such as chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-NK cells, dual antigen-targeting CAR NK cells, and adapter chimeric antigen receptor NK cells are considered to be an important tool for GBM immunotherapy. Therefore, this review describes the recent efforts of NK cell-based immunotherapy in GBM patients. We also describe key receptors expressing on NK cells such as killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor, CD16, and natural killer group 2, member D (NKG2DL) receptor and discuss the function and importance of these molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamed Hosseinalizadeh
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Faculty of Paramedicine, Guilan University of Medical Sciences, Rasht, Iran
| | - Mehryar Habibi Roudkenar
- Burn and Regenerative Medicine Research Center, School of Medicine, Velayat Hospital, Guilan University of Medical Sciences, Rasht, Iran.
- Department of Applied Pharmacology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan.
| | - Amaneh Mohammadi Roushandeh
- Burn and Regenerative Medicine Research Center, School of Medicine, Velayat Hospital, Guilan University of Medical Sciences, Rasht, Iran
- Department of Applied Pharmacology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Yoshikazu Kuwahara
- Division of Radiation Biology and Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Tohoku Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Kazuo Tomita
- Department of Applied Pharmacology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan.
| | - Tomoaki Sato
- Department of Applied Pharmacology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan
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4
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Sankar J, Arora S, Joshi G, Kumar R. Pore-forming proteins and their role in cancer and inflammation: Mechanistic insights and plausible druggable targets. Chem Biol Interact 2022; 366:110127. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2022.110127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2022] [Revised: 08/16/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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5
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Pașatu‑Cornea AM, Ciciu E, Tuță LA. Perforin: An intriguing protein in allograft rejection immunology (Review). Exp Ther Med 2022; 24:519. [DOI: 10.3892/etm.2022.11446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 10/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | - Elena Ciciu
- Department of Nephrology, Constanta County Emergency Hospital, 900591 Constanta, Romania
| | - Liliana-Ana Tuță
- Department of Nephrology, Constanta County Emergency Hospital, 900591 Constanta, Romania
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6
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Ham H, Medlyn M, Billadeau DD. Locked and Loaded: Mechanisms Regulating Natural Killer Cell Lytic Granule Biogenesis and Release. Front Immunol 2022; 13:871106. [PMID: 35558071 PMCID: PMC9088006 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.871106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
NK cell-mediated cytotoxicity is a critical element of our immune system required for protection from microbial infections and cancer. NK cells bind to and eliminate infected or cancerous cells via direct secretion of cytotoxic molecules toward the bound target cells. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of the molecular regulations of NK cell cytotoxicity, focusing on lytic granule development and degranulation processes. NK cells synthesize apoptosis-inducing proteins and package them into specialized organelles known as lytic granules (LGs). Upon activation of NK cells, LGs converge with the microtubule organizing center through dynein-dependent movement along microtubules, ultimately polarizing to the cytotoxic synapse where they subsequently fuse with the NK plasma membrane. From LGs biogenesis to degranulation, NK cells utilize several strategies to protect themselves from their own cytotoxic molecules. Additionally, molecular pathways that enable NK cells to perform serial killing are beginning to be elucidated. These advances in the understanding of the molecular pathways behind NK cell cytotoxicity will be important to not only improve current NK cell-based anti-cancer therapies but also to support the discovery of additional therapeutic opportunities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyoungjun Ham
- Division of Oncology Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
| | - Michael Medlyn
- Department of Immunology College of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
| | - Daniel D Billadeau
- Division of Oncology Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States.,Department of Immunology College of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
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7
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Ivanova ME, Lukoyanova N, Malhotra S, Topf M, Trapani JA, Voskoboinik I, Saibil HR. The pore conformation of lymphocyte perforin. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2022; 8:eabk3147. [PMID: 35148176 PMCID: PMC8836823 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abk3147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2021] [Accepted: 12/17/2021] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Perforin is a pore-forming protein that facilitates rapid killing of pathogen-infected or cancerous cells by the immune system. Perforin is released from cytotoxic lymphocytes, together with proapoptotic granzymes, to bind to a target cell membrane where it oligomerizes and forms pores. The pores allow granzyme entry, which rapidly triggers the apoptotic death of the target cell. Here, we present a 4-Å resolution cryo-electron microscopy structure of the perforin pore, revealing previously unidentified inter- and intramolecular interactions stabilizing the assembly. During pore formation, the helix-turn-helix motif moves away from the bend in the central β sheet to form an intermolecular contact. Cryo-electron tomography shows that prepores form on the membrane surface with minimal conformational changes. Our findings suggest the sequence of conformational changes underlying oligomerization and membrane insertion, and explain how several pathogenic mutations affect function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina E. Ivanova
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Birkbeck, University of London, Malet St, London WC1E 7HX, UK
- Imperial College London, Hammersmith Campus, Du Cane Road, London W12 0NN, UK
| | - Natalya Lukoyanova
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Birkbeck, University of London, Malet St, London WC1E 7HX, UK
| | - Sony Malhotra
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Birkbeck, University of London, Malet St, London WC1E 7HX, UK
- Scientific Computing Department, Science and Technology Facilities Council, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Fermi Ave, Harwell, Didcot OX11 0QX, UK
| | - Maya Topf
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Birkbeck, University of London, Malet St, London WC1E 7HX, UK
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology, Leibniz-Institut für Experimentelle Virologie and Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf (UKE), Hamburg, Germany
| | - Joseph A. Trapani
- Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, 305 Grattan St, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia
| | - Ilia Voskoboinik
- Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, 305 Grattan St, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia
| | - Helen R. Saibil
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Birkbeck, University of London, Malet St, London WC1E 7HX, UK
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8
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Zhang G, Zheng G, Jiang F, Wu T, Wu L. Granzyme B and perforin produced by SEC2 mutant-activated human CD4 + T cells and CD8 + T cells induce apoptosis of K562 leukemic cells by the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway. Int J Biol Macromol 2021; 190:284-290. [PMID: 34492245 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.08.225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2021] [Revised: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Staphylococcal enterotoxin C2 (SEC2), a classical representative of superantigens, activates T cells that produce massive cytokines. This characteristic makes SEC2 a promising candidate drug for cancer immunotherapy. Previous study showed that ST-4, a SEC2 mutant, enhanced recognition of mouse T-cell receptor Vβ regions, and activated the increased number of T cells that produced more cytokines. However, the underlying molecular mechanism for stimulation of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and antitumor effect on human tumor cells remains unknown. Herein, we showed that ST-4 significantly activated TCR Vβ 12, 13A, 14, 15, 17, and 20 CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, which produced substantial amounts of granzyme B and perforin. These cytokines exhibited antitumor effect on K562 cells by promoting apoptosis and inducing S-phase cell cycle arrest. Conversely, the granzyme B inhibitor or perforin inhibitor significantly weakened antitumor effect of ST-4, accompanied by a decrease of cleaved proapoptotic BAX and cytochrome c, and an increase of antiapoptotic BCL2. Taken together, these data suggest that granzyme B and perforin produced by ST-4-activated CD4+ T cells and CD8+ T cells play a pivotal role in inducing K562 cell apoptosis by the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway, and support ST-4 as a potential candidate for cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guojun Zhang
- Department of Pathophysiology, College of Basic Medical Science, China Medical University, No. 77 Puhe Road, Shenyang North New Area District, 110122 Shenyang, Liaoning, People's Republic of China
| | - Guoliang Zheng
- Department of Gastric Surgery, Cancer Hospital of China Medical University (Liaoning Cancer Hospital and Institute), No. 44, Xiaoheyan Road, Shenhe District, 110042 Shenyang, Liaoning, People's Republic of China
| | - Fengli Jiang
- Department of Pathophysiology, College of Basic Medical Science, China Medical University, No. 77 Puhe Road, Shenyang North New Area District, 110122 Shenyang, Liaoning, People's Republic of China
| | - Tianyi Wu
- Department of Pathophysiology, College of Basic Medical Science, China Medical University, No. 77 Puhe Road, Shenyang North New Area District, 110122 Shenyang, Liaoning, People's Republic of China
| | - Lizhao Wu
- Department of Pathophysiology, College of Basic Medical Science, China Medical University, No. 77 Puhe Road, Shenyang North New Area District, 110122 Shenyang, Liaoning, People's Republic of China.
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9
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Lisci M, Barton PR, Randzavola LO, Ma CY, Marchingo JM, Cantrell DA, Paupe V, Prudent J, Stinchcombe JC, Griffiths GM. Mitochondrial translation is required for sustained killing by cytotoxic T cells. Science 2021; 374:eabe9977. [PMID: 34648346 DOI: 10.1126/science.abe9977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
[Figure: see text].
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Lisci
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Philippa R Barton
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Lyra O Randzavola
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Claire Y Ma
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Julia M Marchingo
- Cell Signalling and Immunology Division, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 5EH, UK
| | - Doreen A Cantrell
- Cell Signalling and Immunology Division, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 5EH, UK
| | - Vincent Paupe
- MRC Mitochondrial Biology Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Julien Prudent
- MRC Mitochondrial Biology Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Jane C Stinchcombe
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Gillian M Griffiths
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, CB2 0XY, UK
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10
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Perišić Nanut M, Pawelec G, Kos J. Human CD4+ T-Cell Clone Expansion Leads to the Expression of the Cysteine Peptidase Inhibitor Cystatin F. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:8408. [PMID: 34445118 PMCID: PMC8395124 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22168408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2021] [Revised: 07/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The existence of CD4+ cytotoxic T cells (CTLs) at relatively high levels under different pathological conditions in vivo suggests their role in protective and/or pathogenic immune functions. CD4+ CTLs utilize the fundamental cytotoxic effector mechanisms also utilized by CD8+ CTLs and natural killer cells. During long-term cultivation, CD4+ T cells were also shown to acquire cytotoxic functions. In this study, CD4+ human T-cell clones derived from activated peripheral blood lymphocytes of healthy young adults were examined for the expression of cytotoxic machinery components. Cystatin F is a protein inhibitor of cysteine cathepsins, synthesized by CD8+ CTLs and natural killer cells. Cystatin F affects the cytotoxic efficacy of these cells by inhibiting the major progranzyme convertases cathepsins C and H as well as cathepsin L, which is involved in perforin activation. Here, we show that human CD4+ T-cell clones express the cysteine cathepsins that are involved in the activation of granzymes and perforin. CD4+ T-cell clones contained both the inactive, dimeric form as well as the active, monomeric form of cystatin F. As in CD8+ CTLs, cysteine cathepsins C and H were the major targets of cystatin F in CD4+ T-cell clones. Furthermore, CD4+ T-cell clones expressed the active forms of perforin and granzymes A and B. The levels of the cystatin F decreased with time in culture concomitantly with an increase in the activities of granzymes A and B. Therefore, our results suggest that cystatin F plays a role in regulating CD4+ T cell cytotoxicity. Since cystatin F can be secreted and taken up by bystander cells, our results suggest that CD4+ CTLs may also be involved in regulating immune responses through cystatin F secretion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milica Perišić Nanut
- Department of Biotechnology, Jožef Stefan Institute, Jamova Cesta 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
| | - Graham Pawelec
- Interfaculty Institute for Cell Biology, Department of Immunology, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 15/3.008, 72076 Tübingen, Germany;
- Health Sciences North Research Institute, 56 Walford Rd, Sudbury, ON P3E 2H2, Canada
| | - Janko Kos
- Department of Biotechnology, Jožef Stefan Institute, Jamova Cesta 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva Cesta 7, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
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11
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Extracellular Cystatin F Is Internalised by Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes and Decreases Their Cytotoxicity. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12123660. [PMID: 33291222 PMCID: PMC7762138 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12123660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2020] [Revised: 11/29/2020] [Accepted: 12/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Cytotoxic T lymphocytes kill cancer or virally infected cells by exocytosis of lytic granules. This leads to perforin-mediated granzyme entry into the target cell, consequently killing the target cell. Granzymes and perforin are activated by cysteine cathepsins whose activity is regulated by the protein inhibitor cystatin F. Since cystatin F can be secreted by a range of cancer and immune cells in tumour microenvironments, we here investigated whether extracellular cystatin F can be taken up by and affect the function of cytotoxic T lymphocytes. We demonstrated cystatin F uptake into cytotoxic T lymphocytes, down-regulation of target peptidases, and reduced target cell killing. Overall, our results indicate that cystatin F is an important mediator that can impair the killing efficiency of cytotoxic T lymphocytes and thus suggest that it is a possible target for cancer immunotherapy. Abstract Cystatin F is a protein inhibitor of cysteine cathepsins, peptidases involved in the activation of the effector molecules of the perforin/granzyme pathway. Cystatin F was previously shown to regulate natural killer cell cytotoxicity. Here, we show that extracellular cystatin F has a role in regulating the killing efficiency of cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). Extracellular cystatin F was internalised into TALL-104 cells, a cytotoxic T cell line, and decreased their cathepsin C and H activity. Correspondingly, granzyme A and B activity was also decreased and, most importantly, the killing efficiency of TALL-104 cells as well as primary human CTLs was reduced. The N-terminally truncated form of cystatin F, which can directly inhibit cathepsin C (unlike the full-length form), was more effective than the full-length inhibitor. Furthermore, cystatin F decreased cathepsin L activity, which, however, did not affect perforin processing. Cystatin F derived from K-562 target cells could also decrease the cytotoxicity of TALL-104 cells. These results clearly show that, by inhibiting cysteine cathepsin proteolytic activity, extracellular cystatin F can decrease the cytotoxicity of CTLs and thus compromise their function.
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12
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Domagala J, Lachota M, Klopotowska M, Graczyk-Jarzynka A, Domagala A, Zhylko A, Soroczynska K, Winiarska M. The Tumor Microenvironment-A Metabolic Obstacle to NK Cells' Activity. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12123542. [PMID: 33260925 PMCID: PMC7761432 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12123542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Revised: 11/17/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
NK cells have unique capabilities of recognition and destruction of tumor cells, without the requirement for prior immunization of the host. Maintaining tolerance to healthy cells makes them an attractive therapeutic tool for almost all types of cancer. Unfortunately, metabolic changes associated with malignant transformation and tumor progression lead to immunosuppression within the tumor microenvironment, which in turn limits the efficacy of various immunotherapies. In this review, we provide a brief description of the metabolic changes characteristic for the tumor microenvironment. Both tumor and tumor-associated cells produce and secrete factors that directly or indirectly prevent NK cell cytotoxicity. Here, we depict the molecular mechanisms responsible for the inhibition of immune effector cells by metabolic factors. Finally, we summarize the strategies to enhance NK cell function for the treatment of tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Domagala
- Department of Immunology, Medical University of Warsaw, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland; (J.D.); (A.G.-J.); (A.Z.); (K.S.)
- Postgraduate School of Molecular Medicine, Medical University of Warsaw, 02-091 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Mieszko Lachota
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Medical University of Warsaw, 02-006 Warsaw, Poland; (M.L.); (M.K.)
| | - Marta Klopotowska
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Medical University of Warsaw, 02-006 Warsaw, Poland; (M.L.); (M.K.)
| | - Agnieszka Graczyk-Jarzynka
- Department of Immunology, Medical University of Warsaw, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland; (J.D.); (A.G.-J.); (A.Z.); (K.S.)
| | - Antoni Domagala
- Institute of Medical Sciences, Collegium Medicum, Jan Kochanowski University of Kielce, 25-317 Kielce, Poland;
- Department of Urology, Holy Cross Cancer Center, 25-734 Kielce, Poland
| | - Andriy Zhylko
- Department of Immunology, Medical University of Warsaw, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland; (J.D.); (A.G.-J.); (A.Z.); (K.S.)
| | - Karolina Soroczynska
- Department of Immunology, Medical University of Warsaw, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland; (J.D.); (A.G.-J.); (A.Z.); (K.S.)
- Postgraduate School of Molecular Medicine, Medical University of Warsaw, 02-091 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Magdalena Winiarska
- Department of Immunology, Medical University of Warsaw, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland; (J.D.); (A.G.-J.); (A.Z.); (K.S.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +48-225-992-199
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13
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Krawczyk PA, Laub M, Kozik P. To Kill But Not Be Killed: Controlling the Activity of Mammalian Pore-Forming Proteins. Front Immunol 2020; 11:601405. [PMID: 33281828 PMCID: PMC7691655 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.601405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 10/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Pore-forming proteins (PFPs) are present in all domains of life, and play an important role in host-pathogen warfare and in the elimination of cancers. They can be employed to deliver specific effectors across membranes, to disrupt membrane integrity interfering with cell homeostasis, and to lyse membranes either destroying intracellular organelles or entire cells. Considering the destructive potential of PFPs, it is perhaps not surprising that mechanisms controlling their activity are remarkably complex, especially in multicellular organisms. Mammalian PFPs discovered to date include the complement membrane attack complex (MAC), perforins, as well as gasdermins. While the primary function of perforin-1 and gasdermins is to eliminate infected or cancerous host cells, perforin-2 and MAC can target pathogens directly. Yet, all mammalian PFPs are in principle capable of generating pores in membranes of healthy host cells which-if uncontrolled-could have dire, and potentially lethal consequences. In this review, we will highlight the strategies employed to protect the host from destruction by endogenous PFPs, while enabling timely and efficient elimination of target cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrycja A Krawczyk
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Protein and Nucleic Acid Chemistry Division, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Marco Laub
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Protein and Nucleic Acid Chemistry Division, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Patrycja Kozik
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Protein and Nucleic Acid Chemistry Division, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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14
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Abstract
Immune cells use a variety of membrane-disrupting proteins [complement, perforin, perforin-2, granulysin, gasdermins, mixed lineage kinase domain-like pseudokinase (MLKL)] to induce different kinds of death of microbes and host cells, some of which cause inflammation. After activation by proteolytic cleavage or phosphorylation, these proteins oligomerize, bind to membrane lipids, and disrupt membrane integrity. These membrane disruptors play a critical role in both innate and adaptive immunity. Here we review our current knowledge of the functions, specificity, activation, and regulation of membrane-disrupting immune proteins and what is known about the mechanisms behind membrane damage, the structure of the pores they form, how the cells expressing these lethal proteins are protected, and how cells targeted for destruction can sometimes escape death by repairing membrane damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xing Liu
- Center for Microbes, Development and Health; Key Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Immunology; Institut Pasteur of Shanghai; Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China;
| | - Judy Lieberman
- Program in Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital and Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA;
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15
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Chitirala P, Ravichandran K, Schirra C, Chang HF, Krause E, Kazmaier U, Lauterbach MA, Rettig J. Role of V-ATPase a3-Subunit in Mouse CTL Function. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 204:2818-2828. [PMID: 32269094 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1901536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2019] [Accepted: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
CTLs release cytotoxic proteins such as granzymes and perforin through fusion of cytotoxic granules (CG) at the target cell interface, the immune synapse, to kill virus-infected and tumorigenic target cells. A characteristic feature of these granules is their acidic pH inside the granule lumen, which is required to process precursors of granzymes and perforin to their mature form. However, the role of acidic pH in CG maturation, transport, and fusion is not understood. We demonstrate in primary murine CTLs that the a3-subunit of the vacuolar-type (H+)-adenosine triphosphatase is required for establishing a luminal pH of 6.1 inside CG using ClopHensorN(Q69M), a newly generated CG-specific pH indicator. Knockdown of the a3-subunit resulted in a significantly reduced killing of target cells and a >50% reduction in CG fusion in total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy, which was caused by a reduced number of CG at the immune synapse. Superresolution microscopy revealed a reduced interaction of CG with the microtubule network upon a3-subunit knockdown. Finally, we find by electron and structured illumination microscopy that knockdown of the a3-subunit altered the diameter and density of individual CG, whereas the number of CG per CTL was unaffected. We conclude that the a3-subunit of the vacuolar adenosine triphosphatase is not only responsible for the acidification of CG, but also contributes to the maturation and efficient transport of the CG to the immune synapse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Praneeth Chitirala
- Cellular Neurophysiology, Center for Integrative Physiology and Molecular Medicine, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg, Germany
| | - Keerthana Ravichandran
- Cellular Neurophysiology, Center for Integrative Physiology and Molecular Medicine, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg, Germany
| | - Claudia Schirra
- Cellular Neurophysiology, Center for Integrative Physiology and Molecular Medicine, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg, Germany
| | - Hsin-Fang Chang
- Cellular Neurophysiology, Center for Integrative Physiology and Molecular Medicine, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg, Germany
| | - Elmar Krause
- Cellular Neurophysiology, Center for Integrative Physiology and Molecular Medicine, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg, Germany
| | - Uli Kazmaier
- Organic Chemistry, Saarland University, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany; and
| | - Marcel A Lauterbach
- Molecular Imaging, Center for Integrative Physiology and Molecular Medicine, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg, Germany
| | - Jens Rettig
- Cellular Neurophysiology, Center for Integrative Physiology and Molecular Medicine, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg, Germany;
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16
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Prager I, Watzl C. Mechanisms of natural killer cell-mediated cellular cytotoxicity. J Leukoc Biol 2019; 105:1319-1329. [PMID: 31107565 DOI: 10.1002/jlb.mr0718-269r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 309] [Impact Index Per Article: 61.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2019] [Revised: 03/22/2019] [Accepted: 04/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Cellular cytotoxicity, the ability to kill other cells, is an important effector mechanism of the immune system to combat viral infections and cancer. Cytotoxic T cells and natural killer (NK) cells are the major mediators of this activity. Here, we summarize the cytotoxic mechanisms of NK cells. NK cells can kill virally infected of transformed cells via the directed release of lytic granules or by inducing death receptor-mediated apoptosis via the expression of Fas ligand or TRAIL. The biogenesis of perforin and granzymes, the major components of lytic granules, is a highly regulated process to prevent damage during the synthesis of these cytotoxic molecules. Additionally, NK cells have developed several strategies to protect themselves from the cytotoxic activity of granular content upon degranulation. While granule-mediated apoptosis is a fast process, death receptor-mediated cytotoxicity requires more time. Current data suggest that these 2 cytotoxic mechanisms are regulated during the serial killing activity of NK cells. As many modern approaches of cancer immunotherapy rely on cellular cytotoxicity for their effectiveness, unraveling these pathways will be important to further progress these therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel Prager
- Department for Immunology, Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors at TU Dortmund (IfADo), Dortmund, Germany
| | - Carsten Watzl
- Department for Immunology, Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors at TU Dortmund (IfADo), Dortmund, Germany
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17
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Prunk M, Nanut MP, Sabotic J, Svajger U, Kos J. Increased cystatin F levels correlate with decreased cytotoxicity of cytotoxic T cells. Radiol Oncol 2019; 53:57-68. [PMID: 30840596 PMCID: PMC6411024 DOI: 10.2478/raon-2019-0007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2018] [Accepted: 01/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Cystatin F is a protein inhibitor of cysteine peptidases, expressed predominantly in immune cells and localised in endosomal/lysosomal compartments. In cytotoxic immune cells cystatin F inhibits both the major pro-granzyme convertases, cathepsins C and H that activate granzymes, and cathepsin L, that acts as perforin activator. Since perforin and granzymes are crucial molecules for target cell killing by cytotoxic lymphocytes, defects in the activation of either granzymes or perforin can affect their cytotoxic potential. Materials and methods Levels of cystatin F were assessed by western blot and interactions of cystatin F with cathepsins C, H and L were analysed by immunoprecipitation and confocal microscopy. In TALL-104 cells specific activities of the cathepsins and granzyme B were determined using peptide substrates. Results Two models of reduced T cell cytotoxicity of TALL-104 cell line were established, either by treatment by ionomycin or by immunosuppressive transforming growth factor beta. Reduced cytotoxicity correlated with increased levels of cystatin F and with attenuated activities of cathepsins C, H and L and of granzyme B. Co-localisation of cystatin F and cathepsins C, H and L and interactions between cystatin F and cathepsins C and H were demonstrated. Conclusions Cystatin F is designated as a possible regulator of T cell cytotoxicity, similar to its role in natural killer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mateja Prunk
- Jožef Stefan Institute, Department of Biotechnology, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | | | - Jerica Sabotic
- Jožef Stefan Institute, Department of Biotechnology, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Urban Svajger
- Blood Transfusion Centre of Slovenia, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Janko Kos
- Jožef Stefan Institute, Department of Biotechnology, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Prof. Janko Kos, Ph.D., Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva cesta 7, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
Phone: +386 1 4769 604; Fax: +386 1 4258 031
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18
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Kos J, Nanut MP, Prunk M, Sabotič J, Dautović E, Jewett A. Cystatin F as a regulator of immune cell cytotoxicity. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2018; 67:1931-1938. [PMID: 29748898 PMCID: PMC11028163 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-018-2165-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2017] [Accepted: 04/30/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Cysteine cathepsins are lysosomal peptidases involved in the regulation of innate and adaptive immune responses. Among the diverse processes, regulation of granule-dependent cytotoxicity of cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTLs) and natural killer (NK) cells during cancer progression has recently gained significant attention. The function of cysteine cathepsins is regulated by endogenous cysteine protease inhibitors-cystatins. Whereas other cystatins are generally cytosolic or extracellular proteins, cystatin F is present in endosomes and lysosomes and is thus able to regulate the activity of its target directly. It is delivered to endosomal/lysosomal vesicles as an inactive, disulphide-linked dimer. Proteolytic cleavage of its N-terminal part leads to the monomer, the only form that is a potent inhibitor of cathepsins C, H and L, involved in the activation of granzymes and perforin. In NK cells and CTLs the levels of active cathepsin C and of granzyme B are dependent on the concentration of monomeric, active cystatin F. In tumour microenvironment, inactive dimeric cystatin F can be secreted from tumour cells or immune cells and further taken up by the cytotoxic cells. Subsequent monomerization and inhibition of cysteine cathepsins within the endosomal/lysosomal vesicles impairs granzyme and perforin activation, and provokes cell anergy. Further, the glycosylation pattern has been shown to be important in controlling secretion of cystatin F from target cells, as well as internalization by cytotoxic cells and trafficking to endosomal/lysosomal vesicles. Cystatin F is therefore an important mediator used by bystander cells to reduce NK and T-cell cytotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janko Kos
- Department of Biotechnology, Jožef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva 7, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | | | - Mateja Prunk
- Department of Biotechnology, Jožef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Jerica Sabotič
- Department of Biotechnology, Jožef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | | | - Anahid Jewett
- The Jane and Jerry Weintraub Center for Reconstructive Biotechnology, School of Dentistry, University of California-Los Angeles, Los Angeles, USA
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19
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Deligianni E, Silmon de Monerri NC, McMillan PJ, Bertuccini L, Superti F, Manola M, Spanos L, Louis C, Blackman MJ, Tilley L, Siden-Kiamos I. Essential role of Plasmodium perforin-like protein 4 in ookinete midgut passage. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0201651. [PMID: 30102727 PMCID: PMC6089593 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0201651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2018] [Accepted: 07/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Pore forming proteins such as those belonging to the membrane attack/perforin (MACPF) family have important functions in many organisms. Of the five MACPF proteins found in Plasmodium parasites, three have functions in cell passage and one in host cell egress. Here we report an analysis of the perforin-like protein 4, PPLP4, in the rodent parasite Plasmodium berghei. We found that the protein is expressed only in the ookinete, the invasive stage of the parasite formed in the mosquito midgut. Transcriptional analysis revealed that expression of the pplp4 gene commences during ookinete development. The protein was detected in retorts and mature ookinetes. Using two antibodies, the protein was found localized in a dotted pattern, and 3-D SIM super-resolution microcopy revealed the protein in the periphery of the cell. Analysis of a C-terminal mCherry fusion of the protein however showed mainly cytoplasmic label. A pplp4 null mutant formed motile ookinetes, but these were unable to invade and traverse the midgut epithelium resulting in severely impaired oocyst formation and no transmission to naïve mice. However, when in vitro cultured ookinetes were injected into the thorax of the mosquito, thus by-passing midgut passage, sporozoites were formed and the mutant parasites were able to infect naïve mice. Taken together, our data show that PPLP4 is required only for ookinete invasion of the mosquito midgut. Thus PPLP4 has a similar role to the previously studied PPLP3 and PPLP5, raising the question why three proteins with MACPF domains are needed for invasion by the ookinete of the mosquito midgut epithelium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Deligianni
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Foundation for Research and Technology—Hellas, Heraklion, Greece
- * E-mail:
| | | | - Paul J. McMillan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coherent X-ray Science, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Biological Optical Microcopy Platform, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Lucia Bertuccini
- National Centre for Innovative Technologies in Public Health, National Institute of Health, Rome, Italy
| | - Fabiana Superti
- National Centre for Innovative Technologies in Public Health, National Institute of Health, Rome, Italy
| | - Maria Manola
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Foundation for Research and Technology—Hellas, Heraklion, Greece
| | - Lefteris Spanos
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Foundation for Research and Technology—Hellas, Heraklion, Greece
| | - Christos Louis
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Foundation for Research and Technology—Hellas, Heraklion, Greece
| | - Michael J. Blackman
- The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Leann Tilley
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coherent X-ray Science, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Inga Siden-Kiamos
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Foundation for Research and Technology—Hellas, Heraklion, Greece
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20
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Spicer BA, Conroy PJ, Law RH, Voskoboinik I, Whisstock JC. Perforin—A key (shaped) weapon in the immunological arsenal. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2017; 72:117-123. [DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2017.07.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2017] [Revised: 07/05/2017] [Accepted: 07/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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21
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House IG, House CM, Brennan AJ, Gilan O, Dawson MA, Whisstock JC, Law RH, Trapani JA, Voskoboinik I. Regulation of perforin activation and pre-synaptic toxicity through C-terminal glycosylation. EMBO Rep 2017; 18:1775-1785. [PMID: 28808112 DOI: 10.15252/embr.201744351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2017] [Revised: 06/25/2017] [Accepted: 06/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Perforin is a highly cytotoxic pore-forming protein essential for immune surveillance by cytotoxic lymphocytes. Prior to delivery to target cells by exocytosis, perforin is stored in acidic secretory granules where it remains functionally inert. However, how cytotoxic lymphocytes remain protected from their own perforin prior to its export to secretory granules, particularly in the Ca2+-rich endoplasmic reticulum, remains unknown. Here, we show that N-linked glycosylation of the perforin C-terminus at Asn549 within the endoplasmic reticulum inhibits oligomerisation of perforin monomers and thus protects the host cell from premature pore formation. Subsequent removal of this glycan occurs through proteolytic processing of the C-terminus within secretory granules and is imperative for perforin activation prior to secretion. Despite evolutionary conservation of the C-terminus, we found that processing is carried out by multiple proteases, which we attribute to the unstructured and exposed nature of the region. In sum, our studies reveal a post-translational regulatory mechanism essential for maintaining perforin in an inactive state until its secretion from the inhibitory acidic environment of the secretory granule.
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Affiliation(s)
- Imran G House
- Cancer Immunology Program, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, Vic., Australia.,Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Vic., Australia
| | - Colin M House
- Cancer Immunology Program, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, Vic., Australia
| | - Amelia J Brennan
- Cancer Immunology Program, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, Vic., Australia.,Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Vic., Australia
| | - Omer Gilan
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Vic., Australia.,Cancer Research Division, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, Vic., Australia
| | - Mark A Dawson
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Vic., Australia.,Cancer Research Division, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, Vic., Australia.,Centre for Cancer Research, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Vic., Australia.,Department of Haematology, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, Vic., Australia
| | - James C Whisstock
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Vic., Australia.,Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Monash University, Clayton, Vic., Australia
| | - Ruby Hp Law
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Vic., Australia.,Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Monash University, Clayton, Vic., Australia
| | - Joseph A Trapani
- Cancer Immunology Program, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, Vic., Australia.,Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Vic., Australia
| | - Ilia Voskoboinik
- Cancer Immunology Program, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, Vic., Australia .,Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Vic., Australia
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22
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Yao Y, Chen S, Cao M, Fan X, Yang T, Huang Y, Song X, Li Y, Ye L, Shen N, Shi Y, Li X, Wang F, Qian Y. Antigen-specific CD8 + T cell feedback activates NLRP3 inflammasome in antigen-presenting cells through perforin. Nat Commun 2017; 8:15402. [PMID: 28537251 PMCID: PMC5458103 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms15402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2016] [Accepted: 03/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The connection between innate and adaptive immunity is best exemplified by antigen presentation. Although antigen-presenting cells (APCs) are required for antigen receptor-mediated T-cell activation, how T-cells feedback to APCs to sustain an antigen-specific immune response is not completely clear. Here we show that CD8+ T-cell (also called cytotoxic T lymphocytes, CTL) feedback activates the NLRP3 inflammasome in APCs in an antigen-dependent manner to promote IL-1β maturation. Perforin from antigen-specific CTLs is required for NLRP3 inflammasome activation in APCs. Furthermore, such activation of NLRP3 inflammasome contributes to the induction of antigen-specific antitumour immunity and pathogenesis of graft-versus-host diseases. Our study reveals a positive feedback loop between antigen-specific CTLs and APC to amplify adaptive immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yikun Yao
- Department of Nephrology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai 200233, China.,Key Laboratory of Stem Cell Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Institute of Health Sciences, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences &Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Siyuan Chen
- Key Laboratory of Stem Cell Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Institute of Health Sciences, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences &Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Mengtao Cao
- Key Laboratory of Stem Cell Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Institute of Health Sciences, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences &Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Xing Fan
- Key Laboratory of Stem Cell Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Institute of Health Sciences, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences &Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Tao Yang
- Key Laboratory of Stem Cell Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Institute of Health Sciences, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences &Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Yin Huang
- Key Laboratory of Stem Cell Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Institute of Health Sciences, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences &Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Xinyang Song
- Key Laboratory of Stem Cell Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Institute of Health Sciences, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences &Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Yongqin Li
- Key Laboratory of Stem Cell Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Institute of Health Sciences, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences &Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Lilin Ye
- Institute of Immunology, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Nan Shen
- Key Laboratory of Stem Cell Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Institute of Health Sciences, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences &Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200031, China.,Shanghai Institute of Rheumatology, Shanghai Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200001, China
| | - Yufang Shi
- Key Laboratory of Stem Cell Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Institute of Health Sciences, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences &Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Xiaoxia Li
- Department of Immunology, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio 44195, USA
| | - Feng Wang
- Department of Nephrology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai 200233, China
| | - Youcun Qian
- Department of Nephrology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai 200233, China.,Key Laboratory of Stem Cell Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Institute of Health Sciences, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences &Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200031, China
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23
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Zhang G, Xu M, Zhang H, Song Y, Wang J, Zhang C. Up-regulation of granzyme B and perforin by staphylococcal enterotoxin C2 mutant induces enhanced cytotoxicity in Hepa1–6 cells. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2016; 313:1-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2016.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2016] [Revised: 09/24/2016] [Accepted: 10/10/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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24
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García-López R, de la Morena-Barrio ME, Alsina L, Pérez-Dueñas B, Jaeken J, Serrano M, Casado M, Hernández-Caselles T. Natural Killer Cell Receptors and Cytotoxic Activity in Phosphomannomutase 2 Deficiency (PMM2-CDG). PLoS One 2016; 11:e0158863. [PMID: 27415628 PMCID: PMC4944953 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0158863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2015] [Accepted: 06/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background PMM2-CDG is the most common N-glycosylation defect and shows an increased risk of recurrent and/or severe, sometimes fatal, infections in early life. We hypothesized that natural killer (NK) cells, as important mediators of the immune response against microbial pathogens and regulators of adaptive immunity, might be affected in this genetic disorder. Objective To evaluate possible defects on PMM2-CDG NK peripheral blood cell number, killing activity and expression of membrane receptors. Methods We studied fresh and activated NK cells from twelve PMM2-CDG cells. The number and expression of lymphoid surface receptors were studied by flow cytometry. The NK responsiveness (frequency of degranulated NK cells) and killing activity against K562 target cells was determined in the NK cytotoxicity assay. Results We found an increase of blood NK cells in three patients with a severe phenotype. Two of them, who had suffered from moderate/severe viral infections during their first year of life, also had reduced T lymphocyte numbers. Patient activated NK cells showed increased expression of CD54 adhesion molecule and NKG2D and NKp46 activating receptors. NKp46 and 2B4 expression was inversely correlated with the expression of NKG2D in activated PMM2-CDG cells. Maximal NK activity against K562 target cells was similar in control and PMM2-CDG cells. Interestingly, the NK cell responsiveness was higher in patient cells. NKG2D and specially CD54 increased surface expression significantly correlated with the increased NK cell cytolytic activity according to the modulation of the killer activity by expression of triggering receptors and adhesion molecules. Conclusions Our results indicate that hypoglycosylation in PMM2-CDG altered NK cell reactivity against target cells and the expression of CD54 and NKG2D, NKp46 and 2B4 activating receptors during NK cell activation. This suggests a defective control of NK cell killing activity and the overall anti-viral immune response in PMM2-CDG patients. The present work improves our understanding of the immunological functions in PMM2-CDG and possibly in other CDG-I types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto García-López
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Biología Molecular B e Inmunología, Facultad de Medicina, IMIB-University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain
| | - María Eugenia de la Morena-Barrio
- Centro Regional de Hemodonación, Servicio de Hematología y Oncología Médica, Hospital Universitario Morales Meseguer, IMIB-Arrixaca, Murcia, Spain
- CIBERER, Valencia, Spain
| | - Laia Alsina
- Sección de Alergia e Inmunología Clínica, Hospital Sant Joan de Déu, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Belén Pérez-Dueñas
- Departamento de Neurología Infantil, Hospital Sant Joan de Déu, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jaak Jaeken
- Center for Metabolic Diseases, Universitair Ziekenhuis Gasthuisberg, KULeuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Mercedes Serrano
- Departamento de Neurología Infantil, Hospital Sant Joan de Déu, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mercedes Casado
- Departamento de Bioquímica Clínica y Neuropediatría, Hospital Sant Joan de Deu CIBERER-ISCIII, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Trinidad Hernández-Caselles
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Biología Molecular B e Inmunología, Facultad de Medicina, IMIB-University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain
- * E-mail:
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25
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Zhou XH, Luo JM, Bin Q, Huang XH. [Expression of porforin and granzyme B in familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis]. ZHONGHUA XUE YE XUE ZA ZHI = ZHONGHUA XUEYEXUE ZAZHI 2016; 37:227-32. [PMID: 27033761 PMCID: PMC7342954 DOI: 10.3760/cma.j.issn.0253-2727.2016.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To analyze the correlation between genetic variants of PRF1 and expression level of perforin and granzyme B protein, and further determine the relationship between PRF1 gene variants and cytotoxic T lymphocyte/natural killer (CTL/NK) cell function in famililal hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (FHL2). METHODS Eight children of FHL2 (P1-P8) after treatment, as well as parents and siblings of P1-P5 were included, and thirty healthy children came for physical examination were designated as controls. PRF1, Unc13D, STX11, STXBP2, RAB27A, LYST, SH2D1A, BIRC4 exons were amplified by PCR and followed by direct sequencing. Bioinformatics analysis of mutant PRF1 was performed by ExPASy online system. Perforin and granzyme B expression on cytotoxic lymphocyte was detected by flow cytometry. RESULTS ① Three of eight FHL2 children harbored heterozygous missense of PRF1 exons: P1 had compound heterozygous missense mutations (R4C and R33H) and P2 had heterozygous mutations (V50L), P3 had heterozygous mutations (R489W), which confirmed the diagnosis of FHL2. The father (F1) and younger brother (B1) of P1 also had compound heterozygous missense mutation (R4C/R33H), the mother (M2) and younger brother (B2) of P2 had V50L mutation, the father (F3) of P3 had no R489W mutation and the mother of P3 did not participate in this research, so mutation of R4C/R33H of P1 inherited from paternal line, and V50L mutation of P2 came from maternal line, R489W mutation of P3 came from maternal line. ② Comparing to control group, perforin expression of CD8(+) T cells and natural killer (NK) cells of P1, F1, B1, P2, M2 and B2 decreased significantly, but there was no significant difference between two groups in terms of granzyme B expression. CONCLUSIONS R4C/R33H compound heterozygous mutation and V50L heterozygous mutation all cause lower expression of perforin on CTL/NK cells, and may be causative mutations for familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- X H Zhou
- Department of Pediatrics, Guangxi Medical University First Affiliated Hospital, Nanning 530021, China
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Naneh O, Zavec AB, Pahovnik D, Žagar E, Gilbert RJ, Križaj I, Anderluh G. An optimized protocol for expression and purification of murine perforin in insect cells. J Immunol Methods 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2015.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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In-vitro activation of natural killer cells from regional lymph nodes of melanoma patients with interleukin-2 and interleukin-15. Melanoma Res 2015; 25:22-34. [PMID: 25380182 DOI: 10.1097/cmr.0000000000000126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Regional lymph nodes (LNs) represent the first barrier in lymphogenic tumor dissemination in melanoma. Natural killer (NK) cells, the effector cell subpopulation of the innate immune system, are in the first line of antitumor immune defense. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effect of interleukin (IL)-2 and IL-15, two cytokines with similar immune-enhancing effects, on antitumor cytotoxic function and immunophenotype of NK cells from regional LNs of melanoma patients. Mononuclear cells purified from regional LNs of 50 melanoma patients in clinical stage II-IV were treated in vitro for 72 h and 7 days with 200 IU/ml rhIL-2 and 25 ng/ml IL-15 at 37°C in 5% CO2. Both cytokines significantly augmented NK cell cytotoxic activity, transcription of the cytotoxic molecule perforin, and the level of functionally mature perforin in both nonmetastatic and metastatic regional LNs. IL-2 treatment increased the percentage of CD3CD56 NK cells by increasing the CD56 NK cell subset in both nonmetastatic and metastatic LNs, whereas IL-15 treatment did not affect the percentage of NK cells and their subsets. Both cytokines increased on NK cells from nonmetastatic and metastatic LNs the expression of CD69 early activation antigen, the NKG2D activating receptor, as well as CD16 and inhibitory killer-cell immunoglobulin-like receptor CD158b, both inherent to the mature and the cytotoxic NK cell phenotype. In conclusion, our data may indicate the therapeutic potential of the NK cell population from regional LNs either as immunotherapeutic targets or as adoptively transferred after activation with IL-2 or IL-15.
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Perforin gene transfer into hematopoietic stem cells improves immune dysregulation in murine models of perforin deficiency. Mol Ther 2014; 23:737-45. [PMID: 25523759 PMCID: PMC4395774 DOI: 10.1038/mt.2014.242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2014] [Accepted: 12/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Defects in perforin lead to the failure of T and NK cell cytotoxicity, hypercytokinemia, and the immune dysregulatory condition known as familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (FHL). The only curative treatment is allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation which carries substantial risks. We used lentiviral vectors (LV) expressing the human perforin gene, under the transcriptional control of the ubiquitous phosphoglycerate kinase promoter or a lineage-specific perforin promoter, to correct the defect in different murine models. Following LV-mediated gene transfer into progenitor cells from perforin-deficient mice, we observed perforin expression in mature T and NK cells, and there was no evidence of progenitor cell toxicity when transplanted into irradiated recipients. The resulting perforin-reconstituted NK cells showed partial recovery of cytotoxicity, and we observed full recovery of cytotoxicity in polyclonal CD8+ T cells. Furthermore, reconstituted T cells with defined antigen specificity displayed normal cytotoxic function against peptide-loaded targets. Reconstituted CD8+ lymphoblasts had reduced interferon-γ secretion following stimulation in vitro, suggesting restoration of normal immune regulation. Finally, upon viral challenge, mice with >30% engraftment of gene-modified cells exhibited reduction of cytokine hypersecretion and cytopenias. This study demonstrates the potential of hematopoietic stem cell gene therapy as a curative treatment for perforin-deficient FHL.
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Perišić Nanut M, Sabotič J, Jewett A, Kos J. Cysteine cathepsins as regulators of the cytotoxicity of NK and T cells. Front Immunol 2014; 5:616. [PMID: 25520721 PMCID: PMC4251435 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2014] [Accepted: 11/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cysteine cathepsins are lysosomal peptidases involved at different levels in the processes of the innate and adaptive immune responses. Some, such as cathepsins B, L, and H are expressed constitutively in most immune cells. In cells of innate immunity they play a role in cell adhesion and phagocytosis. Other cysteine cathepsins are expressed more specifically. Cathepsin X promotes dendritic cell maturation, adhesion of macrophages, and migration of T cells. Cathepsin S is implicated in major histocompatibility complex class II antigen presentation, whereas cathepsin C, expressed in cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer (NK) cells, is involved in processing pro-granzymes into proteolytically active forms, which trigger cell death in their target cells. The activity of cysteine cathepsins is controlled by endogenous cystatins, cysteine protease inhibitors. Of these, cystatin F is the only cystatin that is localized in endosomal/lysosomal vesicles. After proteolytic removal of its N-terminal peptide, cystatin F becomes a potent inhibitor of cathepsin C with the potential to regulate pro-granzyme processing and cell cytotoxicity. This review is focused on the role of cysteine cathepsins and their inhibitors in the molecular mechanisms leading to the cytotoxic activity of T lymphocytes and NK cells in order to address new possibilities for regulation of their function in pathological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jerica Sabotič
- Department of Biotechnology, Jožef Stefan Institute , Ljubljana , Slovenia
| | - Anahid Jewett
- Division of Oral Biology and Medicine, The Jane and Jerry Weintraub Center for Reconstructive Biotechnology, UCLA School of Dentistry, University of California Los Angeles , Los Angeles, CA , USA
| | - Janko Kos
- Department of Biotechnology, Jožef Stefan Institute , Ljubljana , Slovenia ; Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana , Ljubljana , Slovenia
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Nagasawa M, Ogawa K, Nagata K, Shimizu N. Granulysin and its clinical significance as a biomarker of immune response and NK cell related neoplasms. World J Hematol 2014; 3:128-137. [DOI: 10.5315/wjh.v3.i4.128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2014] [Accepted: 02/20/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Granulysin is a cytotoxic granular protein that was identified from human T cells by using the gene subtraction method in 1987. Based on its amino acid homology, granulysin belongs to the saposin-like protein family. The bioactive 9-kDa form of granulysin is processed from the 15-kDa pro-product in the cytoplasmic granules. It is expressed in CD8-positive αβT cells 5 d after mitogenic stimulation and constitutively in natural killer (NK) cells and γδT cells, although regulation of its expression has not yet been precisely determined. The 9-kDa granulysin form has anti-microbial activity against microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, mycobacteria and parasites, as well as tumoricidal activity against some tumors at 1-10 μmol/L concentrations. Granulysin is secreted in both Ca-dependent and -independent manners. In sera, only the 15-kDa form is detectable and is expected to be a biomarker for immune potency, acute viral infection, anti-tumor immune reaction, acute graft vs host disease, and NK cell associated neoplasm.
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Abstract
Lysosomes were once considered the end point of endocytosis, simply used for macromolecule degradation. They are now recognized to be dynamic organelles, able to fuse with a variety of targets and to be re-formed after fusion events. They are also now known to be the site of nutrient sensing and signaling to the cell nucleus. In addition, lysosomes are secretory organelles, with specialized machinery for regulated secretion of proteins in some cell types. The biogenesis of lysosomes and lysosome-related organelles is discussed, taking into account their dynamic nature and multiple roles.
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Ham H, Billadeau DD. Human immunodeficiency syndromes affecting human natural killer cell cytolytic activity. Front Immunol 2014; 5:2. [PMID: 24478771 PMCID: PMC3896857 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2013] [Accepted: 01/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells are lymphocytes of the innate immune system that secrete cytokines upon activation and mediate the killing of tumor cells and virus-infected cells, especially those that escape the adaptive T cell response caused by the down regulation of MHC-I. The induction of cytotoxicity requires that NK cells contact target cells through adhesion receptors, and initiate activation signaling leading to increased adhesion and accumulation of F-actin at the NK cell cytotoxic synapse. Concurrently, lytic granules undergo minus-end directed movement and accumulate at the microtubule-organizing center through the interaction with microtubule motor proteins, followed by polarization of the lethal cargo toward the target cell. Ultimately, myosin-dependent movement of the lytic granules toward the NK cell plasma membrane through F-actin channels, along with soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor-dependent fusion, promotes the release of the lytic granule contents into the cleft between the NK cell and target cell resulting in target cell killing. Herein, we will discuss several disease-causing mutations in primary immunodeficiency syndromes and how they impact NK cell-mediated killing by disrupting distinct steps of this tightly regulated process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyoungjun Ham
- Department of Immunology, College of Medicine, Mayo Clinic , Rochester, MN , USA
| | - Daniel D Billadeau
- Department of Immunology, College of Medicine, Mayo Clinic , Rochester, MN , USA ; Division of Oncology Research and Schulze Center for Novel Therapeutics, College of Medicine, Mayo Clinic , Rochester, MN , USA
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Abstract
Chlamydiae are obligate intracellular bacterial parasites that infect a wide range of metazoan hosts. Some Chlamydia species are important causes of chronic inflammatory diseases of the ocular, genital and respiratory tracts in humans. Genes located in a variable region of chlamydial genomes termed the plasticity zone are known to be key determinants of pathogenic diversity. The plasticity zone protein CT153, present only in select species, contains a membrane attack complex/perforin (MACPF) domain, which may mediate chlamydial interactions with the host cell. CT153 is present throughout the C. trachomatis developmental cycle and is processed into polypeptides that interact with membranes differently than does the parent protein. Chlamydiae interact extensively with membranes from the time of invasion until they eventually exit host cells, so numerous roles for a MACPF protein in pathogenesis of these pathogens are conceivable. Here, we present an overview of what is known about CT153 and highlight potential roles of a MACPF family protein in a group of pathogens whose intracellular development is marked by a series of interactions with host cell membranes and organelles. Finally, we identify new strategies for identifying CT153 functions made feasible by the recent development of a basic toolset for genetic manipulation of chlamydiae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lacey D Taylor
- Laboratory of Intracellular Parasites, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, National Institutes of Health, 903 S. 4th Street, Hamilton, MT 59840, USA,
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Thiery J, Lieberman J. Perforin: a key pore-forming protein for immune control of viruses and cancer. Subcell Biochem 2014; 80:197-220. [PMID: 24798013 DOI: 10.1007/978-94-017-8881-6_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Perforin (PFN) is the key pore-forming molecule in the cytotoxic granules of immune killer cells. Expressed only in killer cells, PFN is the rate-limiting molecule for cytotoxic function, delivering the death-inducing granule serine proteases (granzymes) into target cells marked for immune elimination. In this chapter we describe our current understanding of how PFN accomplishes this task. We discuss where PFN is expressed and how its expression is regulated, the biogenesis and storage of PFN in killer cells and how they are protected from potential damage, how it is released, how it delivers Granzymes into target cells and the consequences of PFN deficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerome Thiery
- INSERM U753, University Paris Sud and Gustave Roussy Cancer Campus, Villejuif, France,
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36
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de la Roche M, Ritter AT, Angus KL, Dinsmore C, Earnshaw CH, Reiter JF, Griffiths GM. Hedgehog signaling controls T cell killing at the immunological synapse. Science 2013; 342:1247-50. [PMID: 24311692 PMCID: PMC4022134 DOI: 10.1126/science.1244689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The centrosome is essential for cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) function, contacting the plasma membrane and directing cytotoxic granules for secretion at the immunological synapse. Centrosome docking at the plasma membrane also occurs during cilia formation. The primary cilium, formed in nonhematopoietic cells, is essential for vertebrate Hedgehog (Hh) signaling. Lymphocytes do not form primary cilia, but we found and describe here that Hh signaling played an important role in CTL killing. T cell receptor activation, which "prearms" CTLs with cytotoxic granules, also initiated Hh signaling. Hh pathway activation occurred intracellularly and triggered Rac1 synthesis. These events "prearmed" CTLs for action by promoting the actin remodeling required for centrosome polarization and granule release. Thus, Hh signaling plays a role in CTL function, and the immunological synapse may represent a modified cilium.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/metabolism
- Cell Polarity
- Cells, Cultured
- Centrosome/metabolism
- Cytotoxicity, Immunologic
- Hedgehog Proteins/metabolism
- Immunological Synapses
- Kruppel-Like Transcription Factors/genetics
- Kruppel-Like Transcription Factors/metabolism
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Transgenic
- Models, Immunological
- Neuropeptides/genetics
- Neuropeptides/metabolism
- Patched Receptors
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/immunology
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/metabolism
- Receptors, Cell Surface/metabolism
- Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/metabolism
- Signal Transduction
- Smoothened Receptor
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/metabolism
- Zinc Finger Protein GLI1
- rac1 GTP-Binding Protein/genetics
- rac1 GTP-Binding Protein/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Maike de la Roche
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Alex T. Ritter
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK
- National Institute of Child Health and Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Karen L. Angus
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Colin Dinsmore
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Charles H. Earnshaw
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Jeremy F. Reiter
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Gillian M. Griffiths
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK
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37
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Mahdavi M, Amirrasouli H, Alavian SM, Behnava B, Kazerouni F, Keshvari M, Namaki S, Gholami Fesharaki M, Rahimipour H, Mohammadzade J, Zohrehbandian F, Mahdavipour F. Impact of Pegylated Interferon-alfa-2a on Perforin Level in Patients With Chronic Hepatitis B; Preliminary Study. HEPATITIS MONTHLY 2013; 13:e11903. [PMID: 24348645 PMCID: PMC3858956 DOI: 10.5812/hepatmon.11903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2013] [Revised: 07/21/2013] [Accepted: 09/28/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chronic hepatitis B is one of the most common causes of cirrhosis and hepatocellular toxicity in many countries, including Iran. Cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) and Natural killer (NK) cells are the two of main cell populations considered as cytotoxic cells. One of the distinct pathways CTL and NK cells exert cytotoxicity is perforin/granzyme. After the cytotoxic cell/target cell junction, perforin is released from granules by exocytosis. Once it is anchored, perforin forms cylindrical pores through which granzymes and granulysin enter and induce apoptosis. OBJECTIVES Large controlled trials have demonstrated the efficacy of PEG-IFN-α-2a in treatment of chronic hepatitis B. This study was aimed to examine whether the enhancement of cytotoxicity by PEG-IFN-α-2a is mainly due to the perforin pathway. PATIENTS AND METHODS This research work was performed on 50 patients and five healthy people. Patients with chronic hepatitis B were further subdivided into two groups: patients with inactive chronic hepatitis B (carriers, n = 30), and those with active chronic hepatitis B who were under treatment with PEG-IFN-alfa-2a (n = 20) for minimum six and maximum 12 months. Serum perforin level was measured using ELISA method (CUSABIO Company), HBV viral load was assessed using COBAS Taq-man, and we used Elecsys hepatitis B surface antigen (HBs Ag) II quantitative assay method for HBs Ag determination. HBeAg was evaluated by ELISA method, and AST and ALT were measured by routine laboratorymethods. RESULTS Based on the results obtained serum perforin level in healthy group was 0.64 ng/mL, the mean of serum perforin level in inactive HBs Ag carriers was 2.63ng/mL, and 4.63 ng/mL in patients with active chronic hepatitis B under treatment with PEG-IFN-α-2a. The mean of serum perforin level in patients with and without virologic response to treatment were 5.45 ng/mL,and 3.4 ng/mL respectively. Finally in patients with virologic response and seroconverted serum perforin level was 7.23 ng/mL. CONCLUSIONS Based on our results higher perforin level in patients under treatment with PEG-IFN-α-2a, could be an indication of elevated cytotoxicity via perforin/granzyme pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meisam Mahdavi
- Department of Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Paramedical Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, IR Iran
| | - Houshang Amirrasouli
- Department of Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Paramedical Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, IR Iran
- Corresponding author: Houshang Amirrasouli, Faculty of Paramedical Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, IR Iran, Tel: +98-2122713445, Fax: +98-2122721150, E-mail:
| | - Seyed Moayed Alavian
- Baqiyatallah Research Center for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, IR Iran
- Middle East Liver Diseases Center (MELD Center), Tehran, IR Iran
| | - Bita Behnava
- Middle East Liver Diseases Center (MELD Center), Tehran, IR Iran
| | - Faranak Kazerouni
- Department of Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Paramedical Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, IR Iran
| | - Maryam Keshvari
- Blood Transfusion Research Center, High Institute for Research and Education in Transfusion Medicine, Tehran, IR Iran
| | - Saeed Namaki
- Department of Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Paramedical Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, IR Iran
| | | | - Hooman Rahimipour
- Faculty of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, IR Iran
| | - Jahangir Mohammadzade
- Department of Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Paramedical Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, IR Iran
| | - Farahnaz Zohrehbandian
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Basic Sciences, Islamic Azad University, North Tehran Branch, Tehran, IR Iran
| | - Fazel Mahdavipour
- Faculty of Medicine, Ilam University of Medical Sciences, Ilam, IR Iran
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38
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D'Angelo ME, Arjomand A, Trapani JA, Bird PI. Cloning and characterising an unusual perforin from chicken (Gallus gallus). DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 41:105-109. [PMID: 23680640 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2013.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2013] [Revised: 05/01/2013] [Accepted: 05/03/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
In mammals the 67 kDa pore-forming protein perforin is essential to the granule exocytosis pathway used by cytotoxic lymphocytes to eliminate virally infected and malignant cells. There is indirect evidence that this pathway exists in lower vertebrates such as teleost fish and birds, although in genome databases for the chicken and other bird species the perforin gene is incomplete and no full length expressed sequence tag has been reported. We present here the full gene and transcript sequence of chicken perforin. The inferred protein product contains an extended C-terminus that is at least 90 amino acids longer than any mammalian perforin, which is also evident in partial genomic sequences from other birds. To determine whether this extension is present in the translated protein, we raised two polyclonal antisera. The antisera identified a protein of just less than 80 kDa in both transfected COS-1 cells and concanavalin A stimulated chicken splenocytes, indicating that the extended C-terminus is present in the mature protein. Our findings confirm that perforin exists in birds, and show that it is considerably longer than perforin of non-avian vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael E D'Angelo
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Wellington Road, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia.
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39
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Islam A, Li SS, Oykhman P, Timm-McCann M, Huston SM, Stack D, Xiang RF, Kelly MM, Mody CH. An acidic microenvironment increases NK cell killing of Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii by enhancing perforin degranulation. PLoS Pathog 2013; 9:e1003439. [PMID: 23853583 PMCID: PMC3708852 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2012] [Accepted: 05/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcus gattii and Cryptococcus neoformans are encapsulated yeasts that can produce a solid tumor-like mass or cryptococcoma. Analogous to malignant tumors, the microenvironment deep within a cryptococcoma is acidic, which presents unique challenges to host defense. Analogous to malignant cells, NK cells kill Cryptococcus. Thus, as in tumor defense, NK cells must kill yeast cells across a gradient from physiologic pH to less than 6 in the center of the cryptococcoma. As acidic pH inhibits anti-tumor activities of NK cells, we sought to determine if there was a similar reduction in the anticryptococcal activity of NK cells. Surprisingly, we found that both primary human NK cells and the human NK cell line, YT, have preserved or even enhanced killing of Cryptococcus in acidic, compared to physiological, pH. Studies to explore the mechanism of enhanced killing revealed that acidic pH does not increase the effector to target ratio, binding of cytolytic cells to Cryptococcus, or the active perforin content in effector cells. By contrast, perforin degranulation was greater at acidic pH, and increased degranulation was preceded by enhanced ERK1/2 phosphorylation, which is essential for killing. Moreover, using a replication defective ras1 knockout strain of Cryptococcus increased degranulation occurred during more rapid replication of the organisms. Finally, NK cells were found intimately associated with C. gattii within the cryptococcoma of a fatal infection. These results suggest that NK cells have amplified signaling, degranulation, and greater killing at low pH and when the organisms are replicating quickly, which would help maintain microbicidal host defense despite an acidic microenvironment. Immune responses that protect from infection must occur in a variety of unique and potentially hostile environments. Within these environments, acidosis causes profound affects on protective responses. Low pH can occur in focal tumor-like infections, such as in a cryptococcoma produced by the fungal pathogen Cryptococcus. Similarly, low pH occurs in focal malignant tumors. It follows that Cryptococcus and malignant cells can both be killed by NK cells, which provide an important mechanism of host defense. Thus, we asked whether low pH, which impairs tumor killing, might also affect NK cell killing of Cryptococcus. Surprisingly, despite impaired tumor killing, NK cells possess enhanced killing of Cryptococcus at low pH. The mechanism involved a gain in intracellular signal transduction that led to enhanced perforin degranulation. This led us to examine NK cells in persistent cryptococcoma of a fatal brain infection and lung. We found that NK cells associate with Cryptococcus within the cryptococcoma, but perforin is reduced. These studies suggest NK cell cytotoxicity need not be impaired at low pH, and that enhanced signal transduction and degranulation at low pH might be used to enhance host defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anowara Islam
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Shu Shun Li
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Paul Oykhman
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Martina Timm-McCann
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Shaunna M. Huston
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Danuta Stack
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Richard F. Xiang
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Margaret M. Kelly
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Christopher H. Mody
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- * E-mail:
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40
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Surface CD107a/LAMP-1 protects natural killer cells from degranulation-associated damage. Blood 2013; 122:1411-8. [PMID: 23847195 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2012-07-441832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytotoxic lymphocytes are important for immune responses against viral infections and cancer. They are able to kill target cells through the release of cytotoxic granules (CGs) without being harmed in the process. Because the lysosomal-associated membrane proteins (LAMPs) appear on the cell surface after CG exocytosis, we hypothesized that some of these proteins might be involved in transiently protecting cytotoxic lymphocytes from self-destruction. Intracellular expression of CD107a/LAMP-1, and to a lesser extent that of CD107b/LAMP-2, correlated with lymphocyte CG content. Engineered surface expression of CD107a/LAMP-1, but not of CD107b/LAMP-2, reduced the granule-mediated killing of transfected target cells. This was dependent on glycosylation of the CD107a/LAMP-1 hinge. Moreover, surface expression of CD107a/LAMP-1 reduced binding of perforin to cells. Importantly, knockdown of CD107a/LAMP-1 in primary human natural killer (NK) cells and deficiency of CD107a/LAMP-1 in mice resulted in increased NK cell apoptosis upon target cell-induced degranulation. Thus, our data support a novel role of CD107a/LAMP-1 in the protection of NK cells from degranulation-associated suicide, which may represent a general mechanism to transiently limit self-destruction by cytotoxic lymphocytes upon target cell killing.
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41
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Atlas D. The Voltage-Gated Calcium Channel Functions as the Molecular Switch of Synaptic Transmission. Annu Rev Biochem 2013; 82:607-35. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-biochem-080411-121438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Daphne Atlas
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 91904 Jerusalem, Israel;
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42
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So EC, Sallin MA, Zhang X, Chan SL, Sahni L, Schulze DH, Davila E, Strome SE, Jain A. A high throughput method for enrichment of natural killer cells and lymphocytes and assessment of in vitro cytotoxicity. J Immunol Methods 2013; 394:40-8. [PMID: 23680234 DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2013.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2013] [Revised: 03/16/2013] [Accepted: 05/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
In vitro assessment of lymphocyte and natural killer (NK) cell cytotoxicity typically employs density gradient centrifugation and magnetic cell separation to isolate effector cells, and chromium release to assess cytotoxicity. In order to improve the rapidity and scalability of in vitro cytotoxicity assessment, we evaluated the efficacy of a protocol utilizing tetrameric antibody complexes and SepMate™ isolation tubes to negatively select NK cells (TACs/Sep), and calcein-AM release to measure cytotoxicity. We compared the efficiency and accuracy of this protocol to a conventional approach employing density gradient centrifugation and magnetically labeled antibodies (DG/MACS) to isolate NK cells and chromium release to measure cytotoxicity. The TACs/Sep method significantly decreased the time required for NK cell isolation (1h vs. 4h), but resulted in higher red blood cell contamination. NK cell activation marker expression (including CD94, NKG2D, NKp30, NKp46, DNAM-1, 2B4, KIR2DL1/S1, KIR2DL2/L3, intracellular granzyme B, and perforin) was similar when comparing NK cells isolated by the TACs/Sep or DG/MACS methods, but the TACs/Sep method induced higher expression of CD16. In vitro cytotoxicity against HT29 colon cancer and K562 leukemia cells was not affected by the isolation method. Lastly, by combining the TACs/Sep NK cell isolation method with calcein-acetoxymethyl diacetylester (calcein-AM) release, the time required to assess in vitro cytotoxicity was reduced by 33% (4h) compared to protocols employing DG/MACS and chromium release. Altogether, these results provide the foundation for the development of a rapid, high throughput functional assay, and make it practical for the multiplexing of downstream applications, such as flow cytometric analysis and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs).
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward C So
- Division of Research and Development and Surgical Service, Baltimore Veterans Administration Medical Center, 10 N. Greene Street, 5C Surgical Services Area, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA.
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Ibana JA, Myers L, Porretta C, Lewis M, Taylor SN, Martin DH, Quayle AJ. The major CD8 T cell effector memory subset in the normal and Chlamydia trachomatis-infected human endocervix is low in perforin. BMC Immunol 2012; 13:66. [PMID: 23216954 PMCID: PMC3538661 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2172-13-66] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2012] [Accepted: 12/03/2012] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The local tissue microenvironment plays an important role in the induction, homing, maintenance and development of effector functions of T cells. Thus, site-specific differences in phenotypes of mucosal and systemic T cell populations have been observed. Chlamydia trachomatis most commonly infects the endocervix in women, yet little is known about Chlamydia-specific effector T cell immunity at this unique mucosal site. Our previous flow-cytometry-based study of cervical-cytobrush retrieved cells indicated that CD8 T cells are significantly increased in the C. trachomatis-infected human endocervix. The cytolytic function of CD8 T cells is important in the protective immunity against many intracellular pathogens, and requires the cytolytic granule perforin to facilitate the entry of other molecules that mediate the lysis of target cells. Determination of perforin expression of the CD8 T cell population in the endocervix would therefore provide insights on the granule-mediated cytolytic potential of these cells at this site. RESULTS Our histological data revealed that C. trachomatis-infected tissues have significantly higher numbers of CD3 and CD8 T cells compared to non-infected tissues (p<0.01), and that the majority of CD8+ cells do not express perforin in situ. A subsequent flow cytometric analysis of paired blood and endocervix-derived cells (n=16) revealed that while all the CD8 T cell subsets: naïve, effector memory (TEM), central memory (TCM) and terminally differentiated effector memory (TEMRA) can be found in the blood, the endocervix is populated mainly by the TEM CD8 T cell subset. Our data also showed that perforin expression in the TEM population is significantly lower in the endocervix than in the blood of C. trachomatis positive women (n=15; p<0.0001), as well as in C. trachomatis-negative individuals (n=6; p<0.05). Interestingly, our in vitro co-culture study suggests that the exposure of HeLa 229 cervical epithelial cells to IFN gamma could potentially induce a decrease in perforin content in CD8 TEM cells in the same microenvironment. CONCLUSIONS The low perforin content of CD8 TEM cells in the endocervix, the local site of C. trachomatis infection in women, may reflect the unique immunological environment that balances immune protection against sexually transmitted infections and immune- tolerance to support conception.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joyce A Ibana
- Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology Department, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
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Krzewski K, Coligan JE. Human NK cell lytic granules and regulation of their exocytosis. Front Immunol 2012; 3:335. [PMID: 23162553 PMCID: PMC3494098 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2012.00335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2012] [Accepted: 10/22/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells form a subset of lymphocytes that play a key role in immuno-surveillance and host defense against cancer and viral infections. They recognize stressed cells through a variety of germline-encoded activating cell surface receptors and utilize their cytotoxic ability to eliminate abnormal cells. Killing of target cells is a complex, multi-stage process that concludes in the directed secretion of lytic granules, containing perforin and granzymes, at the immunological synapse. Upon delivery to a target cell, perforin mediates generation of pores in membranes of target cells, allowing granzymes to access target cell cytoplasm and induce apoptosis. Therefore, lytic granules of NK cells are indispensable for normal NK cell cytolytic function. Indeed, defects in lytic granule secretion lead or are related to serious and often fatal diseases, such as familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (FHL) type 2–5 or Griscelli syndrome type 2. A number of reports highlight the role of several proteins involved in lytic granule release and NK cell-mediated killing of tumor cells. This review focuses on lytic granules of human NK cells and the advancements in understanding the mechanisms controlling their exocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konrad Krzewski
- Receptor Cell Biology Section, Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health Rockville, MD, USA
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Lopez JA, Brennan AJ, Whisstock JC, Voskoboinik I, Trapani JA. Protecting a serial killer: pathways for perforin trafficking and self-defence ensure sequential target cell death. Trends Immunol 2012; 33:406-12. [PMID: 22608996 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2012.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2012] [Revised: 03/14/2012] [Accepted: 04/02/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Considerable progress has been made in understanding how cytotoxic lymphocytes use the highly toxic pore-forming protein perforin to eliminate dangerous cells, while remaining refractory to lysis. At least two mechanisms jointly preserve the killer cell: the C-terminal residues of perforin dictate its rapid export from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), whose milieu otherwise favours pore formation; perforin is then stored in secretory granules whose acidity prevent its oligomerisation. Following exocytosis, perforin delivers the proapoptotic protease, granzyme B, into the target cell by disrupting its plasma membrane. Although the precise mechanism of perforin/granzyme synergy remains controversial, the recently defined crystal structure of the perforin monomer and cryo-electron microscopy (EM) of the entire pore suggest that passive transmembrane granzyme diffusion is the dominant proapoptotic mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamie A Lopez
- Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, 3002, Victoria, Australia
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Perforin is recaptured by natural killer cells following target cells stimulation for cytotoxicity. Cell Biol Int 2012; 36:223-8. [PMID: 21981014 DOI: 10.1042/cbi20110242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
When encountering target cells, NK (natural killer) cells exocytose Pfn (perforin) and granzyme B to kill challengers. We previously reported that granzyme B is recycled and reused by NK cells via clathrin-dependent endocytosis. However, whether Pfn, a main secretory vesicle content, indispensible to granzyme B killing, undergoes endocytosis remains unknown. We demonstrate that Pfn is recaptured by early endosomes of NK cells via a clathrin-dependent endocytosis after target cell stimulation. Inhibition of clathrin-dependent endocytosis significantly attenuated the cytotoxicity of NK cells. The data suggest that the recovery of Pfn contributes to the cytotoxicity of NK cells. The assay of endocytosis of lytic molecule presents a particular focus for exploring the mechanism of abnormal cytotoxicity of NK cells.
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Perforin activity at membranes leads to invaginations and vesicle formation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2011; 108:21016-21. [PMID: 22173634 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1107473108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The cytotoxic cell granule secretory pathway is essential for immune defence. How the pore-forming protein perforin (PFN) facilitates the cytosolic delivery of granule-associated proteases (granzymes) remains enigmatic. Here we show that PFN is able to induce invaginations and formation of complete internal vesicles in giant unilamellar vesicles. Formation of internal vesicles depends on native PFN and calcium and antibody labeling shows the localization of PFN at the invaginations. This vesiculation is recapitulated in large unilamellar vesicles and in this case PFN oligomers can be seen associated with the necks of the invaginations. Capacitance measurements show PFN is able to increase a planar lipid membrane surface area in the absence of pore formation, in agreement with the ability to induce invaginations. Finally, addition of PFN to Jurkat cells causes the formation of internal vesicles prior to pore formation. PFN is capable of triggering an endocytosis-like event in addition to pore formation, suggesting a new paradigm for its role in delivering apoptosis-inducing granzymes into target cells.
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Abstract
How do killer cells restrain perforin, the most potent toxin known to biologists, at its point of synthesis in the endoplasmic reticulum, where conditions are ideal for its activation? In this issue of Immunity, Brennan et al. (2011) study its trafficking, offering insights into protective mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Froelich
- NorthShore University HealthSystems Research Institute, Evanston, IL 60201, USA.
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Makedonas G, Betts MR. Living in a house of cards: re-evaluating CD8+ T-cell immune correlates against HIV. Immunol Rev 2011; 239:109-24. [PMID: 21198668 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-065x.2010.00968.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The Merck STEP and the Thai RV144 human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) vaccine trials confirmed that we still have a long way to go before developing a prophylactic HIV vaccine. The main issue at hand is that we have yet to identify an immunological correlate of protection against HIV. While many question the T-cell-based approach towards vaccine development, it is likely that T cells will be a necessary part of any vaccine strategy. CD8(+) T cells remain an attractive option because of their ability to specifically recognize and eliminate virally infected host cells. In this review, we recapitulate the evidence for CD8(+) T cells as an immunological correlate against HIV, but more importantly, we assess the means by which we evaluate their antiviral capacity. To achieve a breakthrough in the domain of T-cell-based HIV vaccine development, it has become abundantly clear that we must overhaul our system of immune monitoring and come up with a 'rational' tactic to evaluate the efficacy of HIV-specific CD8(+) T cells.
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Iacovache I, Degiacomi MT, Pernot L, Ho S, Schiltz M, Dal Peraro M, van der Goot FG. Dual chaperone role of the C-terminal propeptide in folding and oligomerization of the pore-forming toxin aerolysin. PLoS Pathog 2011; 7:e1002135. [PMID: 21779171 PMCID: PMC3136475 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2010] [Accepted: 05/11/2011] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Throughout evolution, one of the most ancient forms of aggression between cells or organisms has been the production of proteins or peptides affecting the permeability of the target cell membrane. This class of virulence factors includes the largest family of bacterial toxins, the pore-forming toxins (PFTs). PFTs are bistable structures that can exist in a soluble and a transmembrane state. It is unclear what drives biosynthetic folding towards the soluble state, a requirement that is essential to protect the PFT-producing cell. Here we have investigated the folding of aerolysin, produced by the human pathogen Aeromonas hydrophila, and more specifically the role of the C-terminal propeptide (CTP). By combining the predictive power of computational techniques with experimental validation using both structural and functional approaches, we show that the CTP prevents aggregation during biosynthetic folding. We identified specific residues that mediate binding of the CTP to the toxin. We show that the CTP is crucial for the control of the aerolysin activity, since it protects individual subunits from aggregation within the bacterium and later controls assembly of the quaternary pore-forming complex at the surface of the target host cell. The CTP is the first example of a C-terminal chain-linked chaperone with dual function. Many pathogenic bacteria produce proteins, called pore-forming toxins, designed to perforate the plasma membrane of target cells thus perturbing host cell integrity and functionality. It is, however, important that these toxins do not form pores in the producing bacterium. To prevent this, bacteria initially produce them in a soluble state. After being secreted by the bacterium, the toxin subsequently acquires – often through a multimerization step– the ability to insert into the membrane. Here we were interested in the mechanisms ensuring that the toxin initially folds into the soluble state. Using as an example aerolysin from the human pathogen Aeromonas hydrophila, we show that the bacterium produces the toxin with a C-terminal extension of about 45 amino acids that promotes the folding of the protein into the soluble state. We find that by mutating or removing this extension, the protein folds poorly or not at all. Addition of the peptide in trans however lead to partial recovery of activity suggesting that this extension promotes folding, and being intramolecular thus results in a very high effective concentration. In addition to this chaperone role for correctly folding the monomeric form of the toxin, the C-terminal peptide is also crucial for controlling the folding of the quaternary structure of the mature pore complex at the surface of the target host cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ioan Iacovache
- Global Health Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Matteo T. Degiacomi
- Institute of Bioengineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Lucile Pernot
- Global Health Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Sylvia Ho
- Global Health Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Marc Schiltz
- Laboratoire de Cristallographie, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Matteo Dal Peraro
- Institute of Bioengineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- * E-mail: (FGVDH); (MDP)
| | - F. Gisou van der Goot
- Global Health Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- * E-mail: (FGVDH); (MDP)
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