A systematic literature review and meta-analysis of the effectiveness of extracorporeal-CPR versus conventional-CPR for adult patients in cardiac arrest

Comparative Efficacy of Extracorporeal Versus Conventional Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation in Adult Refractory Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest: A Retrospective Study at a Single Center

Background: Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ECPR) has the potential to improve neurological outcomes in patients with refractory out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA), offering an alternative to conventional cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CCPR). However, its effectiveness in OHCA remains controversial despite advancements in resuscitation techniques. Methods: This retrospective single-center study compared neurological outcomes and 30-day survival between ECPR and CCPR patients from January 2014 to January 2022. Patients aged 18-75 with witnessed OHCA, minimal no flow and low flow times, and cardiac arrests occurring at home or in public places were included. All patients were transported directly to our institution, a tertiary medical center serving the southeastern region of Seoul, where extracorporeal membrane oxygenation implantation was consistently performed in the emergency department. Neurological outcomes were assessed using Cerebral Performance Category scores, with good outcomes defined as scores of 1-2. Statistical analyses included logistic regression models and Kaplan-Meier survival curves, adjusted for confounders using inverse probability of treatment weighting. Results: ECPR was associated with significantly better neurological outcomes than CCPR (p < 0.001). Factors predicting poor outcomes included older age and longer low flow times, while male sex and shockable rhythms were protective. No significant difference was found in 30-day survival between the ECPR and CCPR groups, although a trend toward better survival was noted with ECPR. Conclusions: ECPR may improve neurological outcomes in patients with refractory OHCA compared to CCPR, although it does not significantly affect 30-day survival. Further studies are necessary to validate these findings and explore the long-term impacts of ECPR.

Time to initiation of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in conventional cardiopulmonary resuscitation affects the patient survival prognosis

BACKGROUND

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is the cornerstone intervention for cardiac arrest, with extracorporeal CPR (ECPR) demonstrating enhanced survival and neurologic outcomes in in-hospital cardiac arrest. This study explores the time interval between CPR initiation and the onset of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) in ECPR recipients, investigating its impact on survival outcomes.

METHODS

This retrospective analysis included 1950 adults who received CPR at a single medical center between March 2019 and April 2023. Data from 198 adult patients who had ECMO inserted during CPR were analyzed. The interval from CPR initiation to ECMO initiation was quantified and categorized as ≤20, 20-40, and >40 min. Cox regression analysis assessed associations between CPR-to-ECMO time and short- and long-term mortalities.

RESULTS

Among the 198 patients who underwent ECPR, 116 (58.6%) experienced 30-day mortality. Initiation of ECMO within 20 min occurred in 46 (23.2%), whereas 74 (37.4%) had ECMO initiated after 40 min. Cox regression revealed a significant association between time from CPR to ECMO initiation and 30-day mortality (adjusted hazard ratio [HR]: 2.20 in >40 min, HR: 2.63 in 20-40 min, p = 0.006) and 6-month mortality (HR: 1.81, in >40 min, HR: 1.99 in 20-40 min, p = 0.021).

CONCLUSIONS

This study revealed that, in ECPR recipients, a shorter duration between CPR initiation and ECMO flow commencement is associated with improved short- and long-term patient prognoses. These findings emphasize the critical role of timely ECMO application in optimizing outcomes for patients undergoing ECPR.

[Ethical aspects in the context of extracorporeal life support systems (ECLS): consensus paper of the DGK, DGTHG and DGAI]

Extracorporeal life support systems (ECLS) are life-sustaining measures for severe cardiovascular diseases, serving as bridging treatment either until cardiovascular function is restored or alternative treatment, such as heart transplantation or the implantation of permanent ventricular assist devices is performed. Given the insufficient evidence and frequent urgency of implantation without initial patient consent, the ethical challenges and psychological burden for patients, relatives and the interprofessional intensive care team are significant. As with any treatment, an appropriate therapeutic goal for ECLS treatment based on the indications and patient informed consent is mandatory. In order to integrate the necessary ethical considerations into everyday clinical practice, a structured algorithm for handling ECLS is proposed here, which takes ethical aspects into due account.

Risk factors for neurological disability outcomes in patients under extracorporeal membrane oxygenation following cardiac arrest: An observational study

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to identify factors associated with neurological and disability outcomes in patients who underwent ECMO following cardiac arrest.

METHODS

This retrospective, single-center, observational study included adult patients who received ECMO treatment for in-hospital cardiac arrest (IHCA) or out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) between February 2016 and March 2020. Factors associated with neurological and disability outcomes in these patients who underwent ECMO were assessed.

SETTING

Hamad General Hospital, Qatar.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Neurological disability outcomes were assessed using the Modified Rankin Scale (mRS) and the Cerebral Performance Category (CPC) scale.

RESULTS

Among the 48 patients included, 37 (77 %) experienced OHCA, and 11 (23 %) had IHCA. The 28-day survival rate was 14 (29.2 %). Of the survivors, 9 (64.3 %) achieved a good neurological outcome, while 5 (35.7 %) experienced poor neurological outcomes. Regarding disability, 5 (35.7 %) of survivors had no disability, while 9 (64.3 %) had some form of disability. The results showed significantly shorter median time intervals in minutes, including collapse to cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) (3 vs. 6, P = 0.001), CPR duration (12 vs. 35, P = 0.001), CPR to extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ECPR) (20 vs. 40, P = 0.001), and collapse-to-ECPR (23 vs. 45, P = 0.001), in the good outcome group compared to the poor outcome group.

CONCLUSION

This study emphasizes the importance of minimizing the time between collapse and CPR/ECMO initiation to improve neurological outcomes and reduce disability in cardiac arrest patients. However, no significant associations were found between outcomes and other demographic or clinical variables in this study. Further research with a larger sample size is needed to validate these findings.

IMPLICATIONS FOR CLINICAL PRACTICE

The study underscores the significance of reducing the time between collapse and the initiation of CPR and ECMO. Shorter time intervals were associated with improved neurological outcomes and reduced disability in cardiac arrest patients.

Impact of Lactate Clearance on Clinical and Neurological Outcomes of Patients With Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest Treated With Extracorporeal Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation: A Secondary Data Analysis

OBJECTIVES

Serial evaluations of lactate concentration may be more useful in predicting outcomes in patients with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) than a single measurement. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of lactate clearance (LC) on clinical and neurologic outcomes in patients with OHCA who underwent extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ECPR).

DESIGN

Retrospective multicenter observational study.

SETTING

Patients with OHCA receiving ECPR at 36 hospitals in Japan between January 1, 2013, and December 31, 2018.

PATIENTS

This study evaluated 1227 patients, with lactate initial assessed upon emergency department admission and lactate second measured subsequently. To adjust for the disparity in the time between lactate measurements, the modified 6-hour LC was defined as follows: ([lactate initial -lactate second ]/lactate initial ) × 100 × (6/the duration between the initial and second measurements [hr]). The patients were divided into four groups according to the modified 6-hour LC with an equivalent number of patients among LC quartiles: Q1 (LC < 18.8), Q2 (18.8 < LC < 59.9), Q3 (60.0 < LC < 101.2), and Q4 (101.2 < LC).

INTERVENTIONS

None.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

The 30-day survival rates increased as the 6-hour LC increased (Q1, 21.2%; Q2, 36.8%; Q3, 41.4%; Q4, 53.6%; p for trend < 0.001). In the multivariate analysis, the modified 6-hour LC was significantly associated with a 30-day survival rate (adjusted odds ratio [AOR], 1.003; 95% CI, 1.001-1.005; p < 0.001) and favorable neurologic outcome (AOR, 1.002; 95% CI, 1.000-1.004; p = 0.027).

CONCLUSIONS

In patients with OHCA who underwent ECPR, an increase in the modified 6-hour LC was associated with favorable clinical and neurologic outcome. Thus, LC can be a criterion to assess whether ECPR should be continued.

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation technology for adults: an evidence mapping based on systematic reviews

BACKGROUND

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) is a cutting-edge life-support measure for patients with severe cardiac and pulmonary illnesses. Although there are several systematic reviews (SRs) about ECMO, it remains to be seen how quality they are and how efficacy and safe the information about ECMO they describe is in these SRs. Therefore, performing an overview of available SRs concerning ECMO is crucial.

METHODS

We searched four electronic databases from inception to January 2023 to identify SRs with or without meta-analyses. The Assessment of Multiple Systematic Reviews 2 (AMSTAR-2) tool, and the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) system were used to assess the methodological quality, and evidence quality for SRs, respectively. A bubble plot was used to visually display clinical topics, literature size, number of SRs, evidence quality, and an overall estimate of efficacy.

RESULTS

A total of 17 SRs met eligibility criteria, which were combined into 9 different clinical topics. The methodological quality of the included SRs in this mapping was "Critically low" to "Moderate". One of the SRs was high-quality evidence, three on moderate, three on low, and two on very low-quality evidence. The most prevalent study used to evaluate ECMO technology was observational or cohort study with frequently small sample sizes. ECMO has been proven beneficial for severe ARDS and ALI due to the H1N1 influenza infection. For ARDS, ALF or ACLF, and cardiac arrest were concluded to be probably beneficial. For dependent ARDS, ARF, ARF due to the H1N1 influenza pandemic, and cardiac arrest of cardiac origin came to an inconclusive conclusion. There was no evidence for a harmful association between ECMO and the range of clinical topics.

CONCLUSIONS

There is limited available evidence for ECMO that large sample, multi-center, and multinational RCTs are needed. Most clinical topics are reported as beneficial or probably beneficial of SRs for ECMO. Evidence mapping is a valuable and reliable methodology to identify and present the existing evidence about therapeutic interventions.

Prognostic effects of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) start time and the interval between CPR to extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ECPR) on patient outcomes under extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO): a single-center, retrospective observational study

BACKGROUND

The impact of the chronological sequence of events, including cardiac arrest (CA), initial cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC), and extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ECPR) implementation, on clinical outcomes in patients with both out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) and in-hospital cardiac arrest (IHCA), is still not clear. The aim of this study was to investigate the prognostic effects of the time interval from collapse to start of CPR (no-flow time, NFT) and the time interval from start of CPR to implementation of ECPR (low-flow time, LFT) on patient outcomes under Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation (ECMO).

METHODS

This single-center, retrospective observational study was conducted on 48 patients with OHCA or IHCA who underwent ECMO at Hamad General Hospital (HGH), the tertiary governmental hospital of Qatar, between February 2016 and March 2020. We investigated the impact of prognostic factors such as NFT and LFT on various clinical outcomes following cardiac arrest, including 24-hour survival, 28-day survival, CPR duration, ECMO length of stay (LOS), ICU LOS, hospital LOS, disability (assessed using the modified Rankin Scale, mRS), and neurological status (evaluated based on the Cerebral Performance Category, CPC) at 28 days after the CA.

RESULTS

The results of the adjusted logistic regression analysis showed that a longer NFT was associated with unfavorable clinical outcomes. These outcomes included longer CPR duration (OR: 1.779, 95%CI: 1.218-2.605, P = 0.034) and decreased survival rates for ECMO at 24 h (OR: 0.561, 95%CI: 0.183-0.903, P = 0.009) and 28 days (OR: 0.498, 95%CI: 0.106-0.802, P = 0.011). Additionally, a longer LFT was found to be associated only with a higher probability of prolonged CPR (OR: 1.818, 95%CI: 1.332-3.312, P = 0.006). However, there was no statistically significant connection between either the NFT or the LFT and the improvement of disability or neurologically favorable survival after 28 days of cardiac arrest.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on our findings, it has been determined that the NFT is a more effective predictor than the LFT in assessing clinical outcomes for patients with OHCA or IHCA who underwent ECMO. This understanding of their distinct predictive abilities enables medical professionals to identify high-risk patients more accurately and customize their interventions accordingly.

Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation versus conventional CPR in cardiac arrest: an updated meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis

BACKGROUND

Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ECPR) may reduce mortality and improve neurological outcomes in patients with cardiac arrest. We updated our existing meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis to further evaluate ECPR compared to conventional CPR (CCPR).

METHODS

We searched three international databases from 1 January 2000 through 1 November 2023, for randomised controlled trials or propensity score matched studies (PSMs) comparing ECPR to CCPR in both out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) and in-hospital cardiac arrest (IHCA). We conducted an updated random-effects meta-analysis, with the primary outcome being in-hospital mortality. Secondary outcomes included short- and long-term favourable neurological outcome and survival (30 days-1 year). We also conducted a trial sequential analysis to evaluate the required information size in the meta-analysis to detect a clinically relevant reduction in mortality.

RESULTS

We included 13 studies with 14 pairwise comparisons (6336 ECPR and 7712 CCPR) in our updated meta-analysis. ECPR was associated with greater precision in reducing overall in-hospital mortality (OR 0.63, 95% CI 0.50-0.79, high certainty), to which the trial sequential analysis was concordant. The addition of recent studies revealed a newly significant decrease in mortality in OHCA (OR 0.62, 95% CI 0.45-0.84). Re-analysis of relevant secondary outcomes reaffirmed our initial findings of favourable short-term neurological outcomes and survival up to 30 days. Estimates for long-term neurological outcome and 90-day-1-year survival remained unchanged.

CONCLUSIONS

We found that ECPR reduces in-hospital mortality, improves neurological outcome, and 30-day survival. We additionally found a newly significant benefit in OHCA, suggesting that ECPR may be considered in both IHCA and OHCA.

Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation versus conventional cardiopulmonary resuscitation in adults with cardiac arrest: a comparative meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis

BACKGROUND

Although outcomes of patients after cardiac arrest remain poor, studies have suggested that extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ECPR) might improve survival and neurological outcomes. We aimed to investigate any potential benefits of using ECPR over conventional cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CCPR) in patients with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) and in-hospital cardiac arrest (IHCA).

METHODS

In this systematic review and meta-analysis, we searched MEDLINE via PubMed, Embase, and Scopus from Jan 1, 2000, to April 1, 2023, for randomised controlled trials and propensity-score matched studies. We included studies comparing ECPR with CCPR in adults (aged ≥18 years) with OHCA and IHCA. We extracted data from published reports using a prespecified data extraction form. We did random-effects (Mantel-Haenszel) meta-analyses and rated the certainty of evidence using the Grading of Recommendations, Assessments, Developments, and Evaluations (GRADE) approach. We rated the risk of bias of randomised controlled trials using the Cochrane risk-of-bias 2.0 tool, and that of observational studies using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale. The primary outcome was in-hospital mortality. Secondary outcomes included complications during extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, short-term (from hospital discharge to 30 days after cardiac arrest) and long-term (≥90 days after cardiac arrest) survival with favourable neurological outcomes (defined as cerebral performance category scores 1 or 2), and survival at 30 days, 3 months, 6 months, and 1 year after cardiac arrest. We also did trial sequential analyses to evaluate the required information sizes in the meta-analyses to detect clinically relevant reductions in mortality.

FINDINGS

We included 11 studies (4595 patients receiving ECPR and 4597 patients receiving CCPR) in the meta-analysis. ECPR was associated with a significant reduction in overall in-hospital mortality (OR 0·67, 95% CI 0·51-0·87; p=0·0034; high certainty), without evidence of publication bias (pegger=0·19); the trial sequential analysis was concordant with the meta-analysis. When considering IHCA only, in-hospital mortality was lower in patients receiving ECPR than in those receiving CCPR (0·42, 0·25-0·70; p=0·0009), whereas when considering OHCA only, no differences were found (0·76, 0·54-1·07; p=0·12). Centre volume (ie, the number of ECPR runs done per year in each centre) was associated with reductions in odds of mortality (regression coefficient per doubling of centre volume -0·17, 95% CI -0·32 to -0·017; p=0·030). ECPR was also associated with an increased rate of short-term (OR 1·65, 95% CI 1·02-2·68; p=0·042; moderate certainty) and long-term (2·04, 1·41-2·94; p=0·0001; high certainty) survival with favourable neurological outcomes. Additionally, patients receiving ECPR had increased survival at 30-day (OR 1·45, 95% CI 1·08-1·96; p=0·015), 3-month (3·98, 1·12-14·16; p=0·033), 6-month (1·87, 1·36-2·57; p=0·0001), and 1-year (1·72, 1·52-1·95; p<0·0001) follow-ups.

INTERPRETATION

Compared with CCPR, ECPR reduced in-hospital mortality and improved long-term neurological outcomes and post-arrest survival, particularly in patients with IHCA. These findings suggest that ECPR could be considered for eligible patients with IHCA, although further research into patients with OHCA is warranted.

FUNDING

None.

Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation for refractory out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials

INTRODUCTION

Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ECPR) is currently recommended as a rescue therapy for selected patients in refractory out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA). However, there is conflicting evidence regarding its effect on survival and neurological outcomes. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials (RCTs) to evaluate whether ECPR is superior to standard CPR in refractory OHCA.

METHODS

We performed a systematic search of electronic databases (PubMed, CENTRAL, and Scopus) until March 2023. Studies were eligible if they a) were RCTs, and b) compared ECPR vs. standard CPR for OHCA. Outcomes were defined as survival with a favorable neurological status (cerebral performance category 1 or 2) at both the shortest follow-up and at 6 months, and in-hospital mortality. Meta-analyses using a random-effects model were undertaken.

RESULTS

Three RCTs, with a total of four hundred and eighteen patients, were included. Compared with standard CPR, ECPR was associated with a non-statistically significant higher rate of survival with a favorable neurological outcome at the shortest follow-up (26.4% vs. 17.2%; RR 1.47 [95% CI 0.91-2.40], P = 0.12) and at 6 months (28.3% vs. 18.6%; RR 1.48 [95% CI 0.88-2.49], P = 0.14). The mean absolute rate of in-hospital mortality was not significantly lower in the ECPR group (RR 0.89 [95% CI 0.74-1.07], P = 0.23).

CONCLUSION

ECPR was not associated with a significant improvement in survival with favorable neurologic outcomes in refractory OHCA patients. Nevertheless, these results constitute the rationale for a well-conducted, large-scale RCT, aiming to clarify the effectiveness of ECPR compared to standard CPR.

Higher mean cerebral oxygen saturation shortly after extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation in patients who regain consciousness

INTRODUCTION

In cardiac arrest, cerebral ischemia and reperfusion injury mainly determine the neurological outcome. The aim of this study was to investigate the relation between the course of cerebral oxygenation and regain of consciousness in patients treated with extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ECPR). We hypothesized that rapid cerebral oxygenation increase causes unfavorable outcomes.

METHODS

This prospective observational study was conducted in three European hospitals. We included adult ECPR patients between October 2018 and March 2020, in whom cerebral regional oxygen saturation (rSO2 ) measurements were started minutes before ECPR initiation until 3 h after. The primary outcome was regain of consciousness, defined as following commands, analyzed using binary logistic regression.

RESULTS

The sample consisted of 26 ECPR patients (23% women, Agemean 46 years). We found no significant differences in rSO2 values at baseline (49.1% versus 49.3% for regain versus no regain of consciousness). Mean cerebral rSO2 values in the first 30 min after ECPR initiation were higher in patients who regained consciousness (38%) than in patients who did not regain consciousness (62%, odds ratio 1.23, 95% confidence interval 1.01-1.50).

CONCLUSION

Higher mean cerebral rSO2 values in the first 30 min after initiation of ECPR were found in patients who regained consciousness.

Resuscitating the resuscitation: A single-centre experience on extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation

AIM

Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ECPR) is the rapid deployment of venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) during active cardiopulmonary resuscitation or in patients with intermittent return of spontaneous circulation. This study aimed to describe the demographic characteristics and outcomes of patients undergoing ECPR to identify survival-associated factors.

METHODS

The study was conducted in an extracorporeal life support centre of a tertiary hospital in Turkey and included all patients who underwent ECPR for in-hospital cardiac arrest between April 2013 and June 2021. Complications included bleeding, neurological injury, renal failure, hepatic failure, limb ischemia and bloodstream infections. The primary outcomes were survival of ECMO and survival to discharge. Neurological outcomes were assessed using the Pediatric Cerebral Performance Category Scale for children and the Category of Cerebral Performance Scale for adults.

RESULTS

The study included 26 patients (24 paediatric, 2 adults), 22 (85%) of them had cardiac pathology. Bleeding was the most common complication. Twelve (46%) patients survived ECMO, 9 (35%) survived to discharge. Sex, age, primary diagnosis, cardiac arrest rhythm and ECMO duration were not significantly associated with the primary outcomes. Bleeding, neurological injury and renal failure were associated with poorer survival to discharge. The neurological outcomes of all survivors to discharge were good.

CONCLUSIONS

ECPR is not commonly accessible. Sharing the experience of the few treating centres to date is crucial to accumulating sufficient knowledge about its efficiency and raising clinician awareness. This limited single-centre experience demonstrated the utility of ECPR.

Paediatric In-hospital cardiopulmonary resuscitation quality and outcomes in children with CHD during nights and weekends

BACKGROUND

Survival after paediatric in-hospital cardiac arrest is worse on nights and weekends without demonstration of disparity in cardiopulmonary resuscitation quality. It is unknown whether these findings differ in children with CHD. This study aimed to determine whether cardiopulmonary resuscitation quality might explain the hypothesised worse outcomes of children with CHD during nights and weekends.

METHODS

In-hospital cardiac arrest data collected by the Pediatric Resuscitation Quality Collaborative for children with CHD. Chest compression quality metrics and survival outcomes were compared between events that occurred during day versus night, and during weekday versus weekend using multivariable logistic regression.

RESULTS

We evaluated 3614 sixty-second epochs of chest compression data from 132 subjects between 2015 and 2020. There was no difference in chest compression quality metrics during day versus night or weekday versus weekend. Weekday versus weekend was associated with improved survival to hospital discharge (adjusted odds ratio 4.56 [1.29,16.11]; p = 0.02] and survival to hospital discharge with favourable neurological outcomes (adjusted odds ratio 6.35 [1.36,29.6]; p = 0.02), but no difference with rate of return of spontaneous circulation or return of circulation. There was no difference in outcomes for day versus night.

CONCLUSION

For children with CHD and in-hospital cardiac arrest, there was no difference in chest compression quality metrics by time of day or day of week. Although there was no difference in outcomes for events during days versus nights, there was improved survival to hospital discharge and survival to hospital discharge with favourable neurological outcome for events occurring on weekdays compared to weekends.

Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation in adults and children: A review of literature, published guidelines and pediatric single-center program building experience

Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ECPR) is an adjunct supportive therapy to conventional cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CCPR) employing veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (VA-ECMO) in the setting of refractory cardiac arrest. Its use has seen a significant increase in the past decade, providing hope for good functional recovery to patients with cardiac arrest refractory to conventional resuscitation maneuvers. This review paper aims to summarize key findings from the ECPR literature available to date as well as the recommendations for ECPR set forth by leading national and international resuscitation societies. Additionally, we describe the successful pediatric ECPR program at Texas Children's Hospital, highlighting the logistical, technical and educational features of the program.

Correlation between the warning symptoms and prognosis of cardiac arrest

BACKGROUND

A low survival rate in patients with cardiac arrest is associated with failure to recognize the condition in its initial stage. Therefore, recognizing the warning symptoms of cardiac arrest in the early stage may play an important role in survival.

AIM

To investigate the warning symptoms of cardiac arrest and to determine the correlation between the symptoms and outcomes.

METHODS

We included all adult patients with all-cause cardiac arrest who visited Peking University Third Hospital or Beijing Friendship Hospital between January 2012 and December 2014. Data on population, symptoms, resuscitation parameters, and outcomes were analysed.

RESULTS

Of the 1021 patients in the study, 65.9% had symptoms that presented before cardiac arrest, 25.2% achieved restoration of spontaneous circulation (ROSC), and 7.2% survived to discharge. The patients with symptoms had higher rates of an initial shockable rhythm (12.2% vs 7.5%, P = 0.020), ROSC (29.1% vs 17.5%, P = 0.001) and survival (9.2% vs 2.6%, P = 0.001) than patients without symptoms. Compared with the out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) without symptoms subgroup, the OHCA with symptoms subgroup had a higher rate of calls before arrest (81.6% vs 0.0%, P < 0.001), health care provider-witnessed arrest (13.0% vs 1.4%, P = 0.001) and bystander cardiopulmonary resuscitation (15.5% vs 4.9%, P = 0.002); a shorter no flow time (11.7% vs 2.8%, P = 0.002); and a higher ROSC rate (23.8% vs 13.2%, P = 0.011). Compared to the in-hospital cardiac arrest (IHCA) without symptoms subgroup, the IHCA with symptoms subgroup had a higher mean age (66.2 ± 15.2 vs 62.5 ± 16.3 years, P = 0.005), ROSC (32.0% vs 20.6%, P = 0.003), and survival rates (10.6% vs 2.5%, P < 0.001). The top five warning symptoms were dyspnea (48.7%), chest pain (18.3%), unconsciousness (15.2%), paralysis (4.3%), and vomiting (4.0%). Chest pain (20.9% vs 12.7%, P = 0.011), cardiac etiology (44.3% vs 1.5%, P < 0.001) and survival (33.9% vs 16.7%, P = 0.001) were more common in males, whereas dyspnea (54.9% vs 45.9%, P = 0.029) and a non-cardiac etiology (53.3% vs 41.7%, P = 0.003) were more common in females.

CONCLUSION

Most patients had warning symptoms before cardiac arrest. Dyspnea, chest pain, and unconsciousness were the most common symptoms. Immediately recognizing these symptoms and activating the emergency medical system prevents resuscitation delay and improves the survival rate of OHCA patients in China.

Cases of prolonged cardiac arrest with preserved gasping successfully resuscitated with ECPR

Longer cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) time is associated with worsened neurological outcomes in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA). Gasping during CPR is a favorable neurological predictor for OHCA. Recently, the efficacy of extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ECPR) in refractory cardiac arrest has been reported. However, the significance of gasping in refractory cardiac arrest patients with long CPR durations treated with ECPR is still unclear. We report two cases of cardiac arrest with gasping that were successfully resuscitated by ECPR, despite extremely long low-flow times. In case 1, a 58-year-old man presented with cardiac arrest and ventricular fibrillation (VF). Gasping was observed when the patient arrived at the hospital. ECPR was initiated 82 min after cardiac arrest. The patient was diagnosed with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. ECMO was withdrawn on day 4, and the patient was discharged without neurological impairment. In case 2, a 49-year-old man experienced cardiac arrest with VF, and his gasping was preserved during transportation. On arrival, VF persisted, and gasping was observed; therefore, ECMO was initiated 93 min after cardiac arrest. He was diagnosed with acute myocardial infarction. ECMO was withdrawn on day 4 and he was discharged from the hospital without any neurological impairment. Resuscitation and ECPR should not be abandoned in case of preserved gasping, even when the low-flow time is extremely long.

Eligibility of extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation on in-hospital cardiac arrests in Sweden: a national registry study

AIMS

Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ECPR) for refractory cardiac arrest (CA) is used in selected cases. The incidence of ECPR-eligible patients is not known. The aim of this study was to identify the ECPR-eligible patients among in-hospital CAs (IHCA) in Sweden and to estimate the potential gain in survival and neurological outcome, if ECPR was to be used.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Data between 1 January 2015 and 30 August 2019 were extracted from the Swedish Cardiac Arrest Register (SCAR). Two arbitrary groups were defined, based on restrictive or liberal inclusion criteria. In both groups, logistic regression was used to determine survival and cerebral performance category (CPC) for conventional cardiopulmonary resuscitation (cCPR). When ECPR was assumed to be possible, it was considered equivalent to return of spontaneous circulation, and the previous logistic regression model was applied to define outcome for comparison of conventional CPR and ECPR. The assumption in the model was a minimum of 15 min of refractory CA and 5 min of cannulation. A total of 9209 witnessed IHCA was extracted from SCAR. Depending on strictness of inclusion, an average of 32-64 patients/year remains in refractory after 20 min of cCPR, theoretically eligible for ECPR. If optimal conditions for ECPR are assumed and potential negative side effects disregarded of, the estimated potential benefit of survival of ECPR in Sweden would be 10-19 (0.09-0.19/100 000) patients/year, when a 30% success rate is expected. The benefit of ECPR on survival and CPC scoring was found to be detrimental over time and minimal at 60 min of cCPR.

CONCLUSION

The number of ECPR-eligible patients among IHCA in Sweden is dependent on selection criteria and predicted to be low. There is an estimated potential benefit of ECPR, on survival and neurological outcome if initiated within 60 min of the IHCA.

Accuracy of the Initial Rhythm to Predict a Short No-Flow Time in Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest

OBJECTIVES

The no-flow time (NFT) can help establish prognosis in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) patients. It is often used as a selection criterion for extracorporeal resuscitation. In patients with an unwitnessed OHCA for whom the NFT is unknown, the initial rhythm has been proposed to identify those more likely to have had a short NFT. Our objective was to determine the predictive accuracy of an initial shockable rhythm for an NFT of 5 minutes or less (NFT ≤ 5).

DESIGN

Retrospective analysis of prospectively collected data.

SETTING

Prehospital OHCA in eight U.S. and three Canadian sites.

PATIENTS

A total of 28,139 adult patients with a witnessed nontraumatic OHCA were included, of whom 11,228 (39.9%) experienced an emergency medical service-witnessed OHCA (NFT = 0), 695 (2.7%) had a bystander-witnessed OHCA, and an NFT less than or equal to 5, and 16,216 (57.6%) with a bystander-witnessed OHCA and an NFT greater than 5.

INTERVENTIONS

Sensitivity, specificity, and likelihood ratios of an initial shockable rhythm to identify patients with an NFT less than or equal to 5 minutes.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

The sensitivity of an initial shockable rhythm to identify patients with an NFT less than or equal to 5 was poor (25% [95% CI, 25-26]), but specificity was moderate (70% [95% CI, 69-71]). The positive and likelihood ratios were inverted (negative accuracy) (positive likelihood ratio, 0.76 [95% CI, 0.74-0.79]; negative likelihood ratio, 1.12 [95% CI, 1.10-1.12]). Including only patients with a bystander-witnessed OHCA improved the sensitivity to 48% (95% CI, 45-52), the positive likelihood ratio to 1.45 (95% CI, 1.33-1.58), and the negative likelihood ratio to 0.77 (95% CI, 0.72-0.83), while slightly lowering the specificity to 67% (95% CI, 66-67).

CONCLUSIONS

Our analysis demonstrated that the presence of a shockable rhythm at the time of initial assessment was poorly sensitive and only moderately specific for OHCA patients with a short NFT. The initial rhythm, therefore, should not be used as a surrogate for NFT in clinical decision-making.

The impact of on-site cardiac rhythm on mortality in patients supported with extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation: A retrospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ECPR) is increasingly used in patients with out-of-hospital or in-hospital cardiac arrest in whom conventional cardiopulmonary resuscitation remains unsuccessful. The aim of this study was to analyze the impact of initial cardiac rhythm-detected on-site of the cardiac arrest-on mortality.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective cohort study of patients who received ECPR in our tertiary care cardiac arrest center. Patients were divided into three groups depending on their cardiac rhythm: shockable rhythm, pulseless electrical activity, and asystole. The primary endpoint was mortality within the first 7 days after ECPR deployment. Secondary endpoints were mortality within 28 days and the impact of pre-ECPR potassium, serum lactate, pH, and pCO₂ on mortality. The association of the initial cardiac rhythm and the location of arrhythmia detection (patient monitored in hospital [category: monitored], not monitored but hospitalized [in-hospital], not monitored, not hospitalized [out-of hospital]) with the primary and secondary outcome was examined by means of univariable and multivariable logistic regression.

RESULTS

Sixty-five patients could be included in the final analysis. Thirty-two patients (49.2%, 95%CI 36.6%-61.9%) died within the first 7 days. In terms of 7-day-mortality patients differed in the initial cardiac rhythm (p = 0.040) and with respect to the location of arrhythmia detection (p = 0.002). Shockable cardiac rhythm (crude OR 0.21; 95%CI 0.03-0.98) and pulseless electrical activity (0.13; 0.02-0.61) as the initial rhythm on-site showed better odds for survival compared to asystole. However, this association did neither persist in adjusted analysis nor pairwise comparison.

DISCUSSION

The study could not demonstrate a better outcome with shockable rhythm after ECPR. More homogeneous and adequately powered cohorts are needed to better understand the impact of cardiac rhythm on patient outcomes after ECPR.

Bradykinin postconditioning protects rat hippocampal neurons after restoration of spontaneous circulation following cardiac arrest via activation of the AMPK/mTOR signaling pathway

Bradykinin (BK) is an active component of the kallikrein-kinin system that has been shown to have cardioprotective and neuroprotective effects. We previously showed that BK postconditioning strongly protects rat hippocampal neurons upon restoration of spontaneous circulation (ROSC) after cardiac arrest. However, the precise mechanism underlying this process remains poorly understood. In this study, we treated a rat model of ROSC after cardiac arrest (induced by asphyxiation) with 150 μg/kg BK via intraperitoneal injection 48 hours after ROSC following cardiac arrest. We found that BK postconditioning effectively promoted the recovery of rat neurological function after ROSC following cardiac arrest, increased the amount of autophagosomes in the hippocampal tissue, inhibited neuronal cell apoptosis, up-regulated the expression of autophagy-related proteins LC3 and NBR1 and down-regulated p62, inhibited the expression of the brain injury marker S100β and apoptosis-related protein caspase-3, and affected the expression of adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase/mechanistic target of rapamycin pathway-related proteins. Adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase inhibitor compound C clearly inhibited BK-mediated activation of autophagy in rats after ROSC following cardiac arrest, which aggravated the injury caused by ROSC. The mechanistic target of rapamycin inhibitor rapamycin enhanced the protective effects of BK by stimulating autophagy. Our findings suggest that BK postconditioning protects against injury caused by ROSC through activating the adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase/mechanistic target of the rapamycin pathway.

Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized and propensity score-matched studies

BACKGROUND

In selected patients with refractory out-of-hospital cardiac arrest, extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation represents a promising approach when conventional cardiopulmonary resuscitation fails to achieve return of spontaneous circulation. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to compare extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation to conventional cardiopulmonary resuscitation.

METHODS

We searched PubMed, EMBASE, and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials up to November 28, 2021, for randomized trials and observational studies reporting propensity score-matched data and comparing adults with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest treated with extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation with those treated with conventional cardiopulmonary resuscitation. The primary outcome was survival with favorable neurological outcome at the longest follow-up available. Secondary outcomes were survival at the longest follow-up available and survival at hospital discharge/30 days.

RESULTS

We included six studies, two randomized and four propensity score-matched studies. Patients treated with extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation had higher rates of survival with favorable neurological outcome (81/584 [14%] vs. 46/593 [7.8%]; OR = 2.11; 95% CI, 1.41-3.15; p < 0.001, number needed to treat 16) and of survival (131/584 [22%] vs. 102/593 [17%]; OR = 1.40; 95% CI, 1.05-1.87; p = 0.02) at the longest follow-up available compared with conventional cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Survival at hospital discharge/30 days was similar between the two groups (142/584 [24%] vs. 122/593 [21%]; OR = 1.26; 95% CI, 0.95-1.66; p = 0.10).

CONCLUSIONS

Evidence from randomized trials and propensity score-matched studies suggests increased survival and favorable neurological outcome in patients with refractory out-of-hospital cardiac arrest treated with extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Large, multicentre randomized studies are still ongoing to confirm these findings.

Hyperoxia and mortality in conventional versus extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation

PURPOSE

Hyperoxia has been associated with adverse outcomes in post cardiac arrest (CA) patients. Study-objective was to examine the association between hyperoxia and 30-day mortality in a mixed cohort of two different modes of Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR): Extracorporeal (ECPR) vs. Conventional (CCPR).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

In this retrospective cohort study of CA patients admitted to a tertiary level CA centre in Australia (over a 6.5-year time period) mean arterial oxygen levels (PaO₂) and episodes of extreme hyperoxia (maximum of mean PaO₂ ≥ 300 mmHg) were analysed over the first 8 days post CA.

RESULTS

One hundred and sixty-nine post CA patients were assessed (ECPR n = 79 / CCPR n = 90). Mean PaO₂-levels were higher in the ECPR vs CCPR group (211 mmHg ± 58.4 vs 119 mmHg ± 18.1; p < 0.0001) as was the proportion with at least one episode of extreme hyperoxia (74.7% vs 16.7%; p < 0.001). After adjusting for confounders and the mode of CPR any episode of extreme hyperoxia was independently associated with a 2.52-fold increased risk of 30-day mortality (OR: 2.52, 95% CI: 1.06-5.98; p = 0.036).

CONCLUSIONS

We found extreme hyperoxia was more common in ECPR patients in the first 8 days post CA and independently associated with higher 30-day mortality, irrespective of the CPR-mode.

Predictors of Survival and Favorable Neurologic Outcome in Patients Treated with eCPR: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (eCPR) can improve survival in selected patients with cardiac arrest (CA). In this meta-analysis, we evaluated factors associated with short-term survival and favorable neurologic outcome (FNO) post-eCPR. In June 2019, we systematically searched electronic databases for studies reporting on survival and predictors associated with short-term survival or FNO post-eCPR using multivariable analysis. We meta-analyzed outcomes and predictors using the inverse variance method with a random-effects model. We identified 92 studies with 13 factors amenable to meta-analysis. Pooled short-term survival and FNO were 25% and 16% respectively. Lower lactate, return of spontaneous circulation, shockable rhythm, shorter CPR duration, baseline pH, shorter low-flow time, and history of hypertension were significantly associated with short-term survival. In addition, shockable rhythm, lower lactate, and use of targeted temperature management were associated with FNO. The identified factors associated with short-term survival and FNO post-eCPR could guide prognosis prediction at the time of CA.

Extracorporeal life support in adult patients with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest

The use of extracorporeal life support in cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) of adult patients experiencing out-of-hospital cardiac arrest by the application of veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) during cardiac arrest has been increasing over the past decade. This can be attributed to the encouraging results of extracorporeal CPR (ECPR) in multiple observational studies. To date, only one randomised controlled trial has compared ECPR to conventional advanced life support measures. Patient selection is crucial for the success of ECPR programmes. A rapid and organised approach is required for resuscitation, i.e. cannula insertion with ECMO pump initiation in combination with other aspects of post-cardiac arrest care such as targeted temperature management and early coronary reperfusion. The provision of an ECPR service can be costly, resource intensive and technically challenging, as limited studies have reported on its cost-effectiveness.

Favorable prognosis by extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation for subsequent shockable rhythm patients

BACKGROUND

Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) patients who convert from an initial non-shockable rhythm to a subsequent shockable rhythm reportedly have a better prognosis for survival than those without rhythm conversion. We evaluated the effectiveness of extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ECPR) for OHCA patients with a subsequent shockable rhythm.

METHODS

This study was conducted using the Japanese Association of Acute Medicine OHCA registry. We included OHCA patients with a subsequent shockable rhythm from June 2014 to December 2017. The included patients were divided into those with and without ECPR. The primary outcome was 30-day survival. Logistic regression analysis and propensity score matching were performed to compare the outcomes between patients with and without ECPR.

RESULTS

A total of 2,102 patients were analyzed, consisting of 162 with ECPR and 1,940 without ECPR. Before propensity score matching, 24 (14.8%) patients with ECPR and 61 (3.1%) patients without ECPR survived for 30 days; ECPR was associated with increased survival (P < 0.05; odds ratio [OR], 5.35; 95% confidence interval [CI], 3.09-9.02). After propensity score matching, 22/149 (14.8%) patients with ECPR and 10/149 (6.7%) patients without ECPR survived for 30 days; ECPR was associated with increased survival (P < 0.05; OR, 2.40; 95% CI, 1.04-5.91).

CONCLUSIONS

ECPR was associated with increased survival among OHCA patients with a subsequent shockable rhythm.

Predictors of Favorable Neurologic Outcomes in a Territory-First Extracorporeal Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation Program

Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ECPR) is an advanced resuscitation method that has been associated with better outcomes after cardiac arrest compared with conventional cardiopulmonary resuscitation. This is a retrospective analysis of all patients who received ECPR for cardiac arrest in Hong Kong's first ECPR program from 2012 to 2020. The primary outcome was favorable neurologic outcome at 3 months. A new risk prediction model was developed and its performance was compared with published risk scores. One-hundred two patients received ECPR and 19 (18.6%) patients survived with favorable neurologic outcome. Having a shockable rhythm was the strongest predictor of favorable neurologic outcome in multivariate analysis (odds ratio, 9.64; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.49 to 62.30; P = 0.017). We developed a simple model with three parameters for the prediction of favorable neurologic outcomes - presence of shockable rhythm, mean arterial pressure after extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, and the Acute Physiology And Chronic Health Evaluation IV score, with an area under receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.85 (95% CI, 0.77 to 0.94). In Hong Kong's first ECPR program, 18.6% patients survived with favorable neurologic outcomes, and having a shockable rhythm at presentation was the strongest predictor. Risk scores are useful in predicting important patient outcomes and should be included in clinical decision-making for patients who received ECPR.

Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation in-hospital cardiac arrest due to acute coronary syndrome

Background

The aim of this study was to analyze the effect of extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation on survival and neurological outcomes in in-hospital cardiac arrest patients.

Methods

Between January 2018 and December 2020, a total of 22 patients (17 males, 5 females; mean age: 52.8±9.0 years; range, 32 to 70 years) treated with extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation using veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation support for in-hospital cardiac arrest after acute coronary syndrome were retrospectively analyzed. The patients were divided into two groups as those weaned (n=13) and non-weaned (n=9) from the veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Demographic data of the patients, heart rhythms at the beginning of conventional cardiopulmonary resuscitation, the angiographic and interventional results, survival and neurological outcomes of the patients before and after extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation were recorded.

Results

There was no significant difference between the groups in terms of comorbidity and baseline laboratory test values. The underlying rhythm was ventricular fibrillation in 92% of the patients in the weaned group and there was no cardiac rhythm in 67% of the patients in the non-weaned group (p=0.125). The recovery in the mean left ventricular ejection fraction was significantly evident in the weaned group (36.5±12.7% vs. 21.1±7.4%, respectively; p=0.004). The overall wean rate from veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation was 59.1%; however, the discharge rate from hospital of survivors without any neurological sequelae was 36.4%.

Conclusion

In-hospital cardiac arrest is a critical emergency situation requiring instantly life-saving interventions through conventional cardiopulmonary resuscitation. If it fails, extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation should be initiated, regardless the underlying etiology or rhythm disturbances. An effective conventional cardiopulmonary resuscitation is mandatory to prevent brain and body hypoperfusion.

Does cerebral near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) help to predict futile cannulation in extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ECPR)?

AIM OF THE STUDY

Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ECPR) is an evolving technique to improve cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) outcomes. Identifying a readily available tool helpful for predicting patient's outcome is warranted. The aim of the study was to evaluate the capability of cranial near-infrared spectroscopy (cNIRS) to identify non-survivors or patients with unfavorable neurologic outcome prior to cannulation for ECPR to avoid futile cannulations.

METHODS

Retrospective analysis (2015-2021) of 97 patients requiring ECPR due to cardiac arrest with prior cNIRS measurement, which was performed immediately after ECPR team arrived on scene. Lowest possible regional cerebral oxygen saturation (rSO₂) is 15%.

RESULTS

Mortality was 72.1% (70/97). Survivors showed in 88.9% (24/27) good neurological outcome (Cerebral Performance Category (CPC) 1 + 2). rSO2 = 15% (11/97) prior to cannulation was only found in non-survivors. Among survivors, initial rSO₂ was not associated with neurological outcome. Non-shockable initial rhythm was associated with higher mortality (44/50). In survivors, time to ECPR was shorter (p = 0.006), and initial lactate was significantly lower, whereas initial pH and hemoglobin levels were higher (p = 0.001). Survivors and those with favorable neurological outcome showed lower maximal NSE levels in the first 72 hours (p < 0.001; p = 0.041).

CONCLUSION

In our patient cohort, rSO₂ = 15% immediately prior to cannulation for ECPR did not result in any survivors, thus might be a marker for futile cannulation in ECPR. Higher rSO₂ values were not associated with favorable neurologic outcome. Lower initial lactate and lower maximal NSE within the first 72 h after arrest were associated with favorable outcome.

Effect of arterial oxygen partial pressure inflection point on Venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for emergency cardiac support

Background

Temporary circulatory support is a bridge between acute circulatory failure and definitive treatment or recovery. Currently, venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (VA-ECMO) is considered to be one of the effective circulatory support methods, although cardiac function monitoring during the treatment still needs further investigation. Inflection point of arterial oxygen partial pressure (IPPaO2) may occur at an early stage in part of patients with a good prognosis after VA-ECMO treatment, and the relationship between time of IPPaO2 (tIPPaO2) and recovery of cardiac function or prognosis remains unclear.

Methods

To investigate this relationship, we retrospectively analyzed the clinical data of 71 patients with different conditions after treatment with VA-ECMO in the emergency center of Jiangsu Province Hospital between May 2015 and July 2020. Spearman’s correlation analysis was used for the correlation between tIPPaO₂ and quantitative data, and ROC curve for the predictive effect of tIPPaO₂ on the 28-day mortality.

Results

Thirty-five patients were admitted because of refractory cardiogenic shock (26 of 35 survived) and the remaining 36 patients due to cardiac arrest (13 of 36 survived). The overall survival rate was 54.9% (39 of 71 survived). Acute physiology and chronic health evaluation II, ECMO time, tIPPaO2, continuous renal replacement therapy time, mechanical ventilation time, and bleeding complications in the survival group were lower than those in the non-survival group, with length of stay, intensive care unit stay, and platelet levels were being higher. The tIPPaO₂ was negatively correlated with ejection fraction, and the shorter tIPPaO2 resulted in a higher 28-day survival probability, higher predictive value for acute myocardial infarction and fulminant myocarditis.

Conclusions

Therefore, tIPPaO2 could be a reliable qualitative indicator of cardiac function in patients treated with VA-ECMO, which can reveal appropriate timing for adjusting VA-ECMO flow or weaning.

Trial registration

ChiCTR1900026105.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13049-021-00902-5.

Impact of a Modified Institutional Protocol on Outcomes After Extracorporeal Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation for Refractory Out-Of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest

OBJECTIVE

To analyze the impact of the modification of the authors' institutional protocol on outcomes after extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ECPR) for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA).

DESIGN

An observational analysis. The protocol complied with national recommendations. A further eligibility criterion was added since January 2015: the presence of sustained shockable rhythm at extracorporeal life support (ECLS) implantation. To assess the impact of this change, patients were divided into two groups: (1) from January 2010 to December 2014 (group A) and (2) from January 2015 to December 2019 (group B). The primary endpoint was survival to hospital discharge with good neurologic outcome. Predictors of survival were searched with multivariate analyses.

SETTING

University hospital.

PARTICIPANTS

Adult patients supported with ECPR for refractory OHCA.

INTERVENTIONS

None.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

From January 2010 to December 2019, 85 patients had ECLS for OHCA (group A, n = 68, 80%; group B, n = 17, 20%). The mean age was 42.4 years, 78.8% were male. The rate of implantation of ECLS was significantly lower in group B (p = 0.01). Mortality during ECLS support was significantly lower (58.8 v 86.8%; p = 0.008), and the weaning rate was significantly higher (41.2 v 13.2%; p = 0.008) in group B. Survival to discharge with good neurologic outcome was significantly improved (23.5 v 4.4%; p = 0.027) in group B. A sustained shockable rhythm was the only independent predictor of survival to hospital discharge with good neurologic outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

The modification of the authors' institutional protocol throughout the further criterion of sustained shockable rhythm yielded a favorable impact on outcomes after ECPR for OHCA.

Prediction of successful weaning off ECMO support after ECPR: Is pulse pressure crucial for success?

Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ECPR) is shown to be associated with favorable outcomes. Next to the relevance of accurate patient selection, hemodynamic management and focused therapy after initiation of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) in cardiopulmonary resuscitation patients are gaining importance. Therapeutic options in patients with loss of pulse pressure during ECMO circulation should be established as early as possible to avoid additional adverse outcomes of ECPR patients.

Efficacy and knowledge of conducting CPR through online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic: A literature review

The COVID-19 pandemic has made it difficult to carry out face-to-face training activities in various higher institutions. This has led to a negative impact on the skills and abilities of nursing students in performing cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and the cessation of their clinical practice programs in hospitals. Therefore, the aim of this study is to determine the efficacy and knowledge of nursing students in performing CPR by implementing a blended learning program, through online learning platforms. The search for full-text articles was carried out in May 2020 and were reviewed to know whether they fit the theme using the ProQuest, ScienceDirect and PubMed databases with the keywords "BLS", "CPR", "Blended learning", "Knowledge" and "Self-efficacy". In addition, there were 15 articles that matched the criteria. The application of a blended learning program that integrates video and face-to-face lectures through online learning platforms in conducting effective CPR, increases the efficacy and knowledge of nursing students. The effectiveness of online learning greatly affects the efficacy and knowledge of nursing students in conducting CPR. Therefore, it was highly recommended during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Outcomes of Pediatric Extracorporeal Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

OBJECTIVE

The goal of this work is to provide insight into survival and neurologic outcomes of pediatric patients supported with extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation.

DATA SOURCES

A systematic search of Embase, PubMed, Cochrane, Scopus, Google Scholar, and Web of Science was performed from January 1990 to May 2020.

STUDY SELECTION

A comprehensive list of nonregistry studies with pediatric patients managed with extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation was included.

DATA EXTRACTION

Study characteristics and outcome estimates were extracted from each article.

DATA SYNTHESIS

Estimates were pooled using random-effects meta-analysis. Differences were estimated using subgroup meta-analysis and meta-regression. The Meta-analyses Of Observational Studies in Epidemiology guideline was followed and the certainty of evidence was assessed using Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation system. Twenty-eight studies (1,348 patients) were included. There was a steady increase in extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation occurrence rate from the 1990s until 2020. There were 32, 338, and 1,094 patients' articles published between 1990 and 2000, 2001 and 2010, and 2010 and 2020, respectively. More than 70% were cannulated for a primary cardiac arrest. Pediatric extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation patients had a 46% (CI 95% = 43-48%; p < 0.01) overall survival rate. The rate of survival with favorable neurologic outcome was 30% (CI 95% = 27-33%; p < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

The use of extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation is rapidly expanding, particularly for children with underlying cardiac disease. An overall survival of 46% and favorable neurologic outcomes add credence to this emerging therapy.

Early predictors of mortality in refractory cardiogenic shock following acute coronary syndrome treated with extracorporeal membrane oxygenator

We aimed to analyze the outcome and identify predictors of hospital mortality in patients with refractory cardiac arrest (CA) complicating acute coronary syndromes (ACS) and requiring veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (VA-ECMO) treatment. Between Jan-2005 and Dec-2019, 51 patients underwent urgent VA-ECMO implantation for CA in ACS. Patients were divided in two groups: "in-hospital" cardiac arrest (IHCA) and "out-of-hospital" cardiac arrest (OHCA). Prospectively collected data were retrospectively analyzed and compared between groups. Predictors for hospital mortality were investigated. IHCA and OHCA patients were 32 (62.7%) and 19 (37.3%), respectively. The groups differed for: male gender (72% vs 95%; p = 0.070), lactate peak level (8.5 ± 4.3vs10.7 ± 2.9; p = 0.023), total elapsed time from CA to VA-ECMO implantation in both groups (p < 0.001) and elapsed time from CA (IHCA group) or hospital arrival (OHCA group) to VA-ECMO implantation (38 min vs 80 min; p = 0.001). At logistic regression analysis, concomitant lactate level greater than 8.0 mmol/L and elapsed time from CA to VA-ECMO ≥ 30 min were predictors of increased mortality (OR 3.9; 95% CI 1.19-12.79; p = 0.025) for the entire population. In-hospital mortality was 60.8% (31/51 patients): 68.4% in OHCA group and 56.2% in IHCA group. No risk factors related to 30-day mortality resulted significant at univariable analysis. When rapidly instituted, VA-ECMO improves survival in patients with refractory cardiac arrest allowing coronary syndrome treatment. The association of an elapsed time from CA to VA-ECMO implantation longer than 30 min and a preoperative lactate peak level over 8.0 mmol/L predict a poor outcome, independently from being IHCA or OHCA.

Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: first results and outcomes of a newly established ECPR program in a large population area

OBJECTIVES

Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) is associated with excessively high mortality rates. Recent studies suggest benefits from extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ECPR) performed in selected patients. We sought to present the first results from our interdisciplinary ECPR program with a particular focus on early outcomes and potential risk factors associated with in-hospital mortality.

METHODS

Between January 2016 and December 2019, 44 patients who underwent ECPR selected according to our institutional ECPR protocol were retrospectively analyzed regarding pre-hospital, in-hospital, and early outcome parameters. Patients were divided into survivors (S) and non-survivors (NS). Statistical analysis of risk factors regarding in-hospital mortality of the patient cohort analyzed was performed.

RESULTS

The mean age of the population was 53 ± 12 years, with most patients being male (n = 40). The leading cause of cardiac arrest (CA) was myocardial infarction (n = 24, 55%). The median hospital stay was 1 (1;13) day. Twenty-three percent of patients (n = 10) were discharged from hospital including eight patients (18%) with CPC 1-2. Survivors showed a trend toward shorter pre-hospital CPR duration (60 (59;60) min (S) vs 60 (55;90) min (NS), p = 0.07).

CONCLUSION

Establishing ECPR programs in large population areas offers the option to improve survival rates for OHCA patients. Stringent compliance of institutional criteria (mainly age, witnessed arrest, and time of pre-hospital resuscitation) and providing ECPR to strictly selected patients seems to be a vital factor for such programs' success. Pre-clinical settings and therapeutic measures must be adjusted in this regard to improve outcomes for this highly demanding patient cohort.

Extracorporeal Life Support and Mechanical Circulatory Support in Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest and Refractory Cardiogenic Shock

The prevalence of extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation is increasing worldwide as more health care centers develop the necessary infrastructure, protocols, and technical expertise required to provide mobile extracorporeal life support with short notice. Strict adherence to patient selection guidelines in the setting of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest, as well as in-hospital cardiac arrest, allows for improved survival with neurologically favorable outcomes in a larger patient population. This review discusses the preferred approaches, cannulation techniques, and available support devices ideal for the various clinical situations encountered during the treatment of cardiac arrest and refractory cardiogenic shock.

Outcome in refractory out-of-hospital cardiac arrest before and after implementation of an ECPR protocol

AIM

To compare the outcomes in patients with refractory out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) fulfilling the criteria for extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ECPR) before and after implementation of an ECPR protocol, whether the patient received ECPR or not.

METHODS

We compared cardiac arrest registry data before (2014-2015) and after (2016-2019) implementation of the ECPR protocol. The ECPR criteria were presumed cardiac origin, witnessed arrest with ventricular fibrillation, bystander CPR, age 18-65, advanced life support (ALS) within 15 min and ALS > 10 min without return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC). The primary outcome was 30-day survival; the secondary outcomes were sustained ROSC, neurological outcome and the proportion of patients transported with ongoing ALS.

RESULTS

There were 1086 and 3135 patients in the pre- and post-implementation sample; 48 (4%) and 100 (3%) met the ECPR criteria, respectively. Of these, 21 (44%) vs. 37 (37%) were alive after 30 days, p = 0.4, and 30 (63%) vs. 50 (50%) achieved sustained ROSC, p = 0.2. All survivors in the pre-implementation sample had cerebral performance category 1-2 vs. 30 (81%) in the post-implementation sample, p = 0.03. Of the patients fulfilling the ECPR criteria, 7 (15%) and 26 (26%), p = 0.1, were transported with ongoing ALS in the pre- and post-implementation sample, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

There were no differences in 30-day survival or prehospital ROSC in patients with refractory OHCA before and after initiation of an ECPR protocol.

Shorter Interval from Witnessed Out-Of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest to Reaching the Target Temperature Could Improve Neurological Outcomes After Extracorporeal Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation with Target Temperature Management: A Retrospective Analysis of a Japanese Nationwide Multicenter Observational Registry

Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ECPR) with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation is a more promising treatment for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) than conventional cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CCPR). However, previous studies that compared ECPR and CCPR included mixed groups of patients with or without target temperature management (TTM). In this study, we compared the neurological outcomes of OHCA between ECPR and CCPR with TTM in all patients. We performed retrospective subanalyses of the Japanese Association for Acute Medicine OHCA registry. Witnessed adult cases of cardiogenic OHCA treated with TTM were eligible for this study. We used univariate and multivariable analyses in all eligible patients to compare the neurological outcomes after ECPR or CCPR. We also conducted propensity score analyses of all patients and according to the interval from witnessed OHCA to reaching the target temperature (IWT) of ≤600, ≤480, ≤360, ≤240, and ≤120 minutes. We analyzed 1146 cases. The propensity score analysis did not show a significant difference in favorable neurological outcomes (defined as a Glasgow-Pittsburgh Cerebral Performance Category of 1-2 at 1 month after collapse) between EPCR and CCPR (odds ratio: OR 4.683 [95% confidence interval: CI 0.859-25.535], p = 0.747). However, ECPR was associated with more favorable neurological outcomes in patients with IWT of ≤600 minutes (OR 7.089 [95% CI 1.091-46.061], p = 0.406), ≤480 minutes (OR 10.492 [95% CI 1.534-71.773], p = 0.0168), ≤360 minutes (OR 17.573 [95% CI 2.486-124.233], p = 0.0042), ≤240 minutes (OR 38.908 [95% CI 5.045-300.089], p = 0.0005), and ≤120 minutes (OR 200.390 [95% CI 23.730-1692.211], p < 0.001). This study revealed significant differences in the neurological outcomes between ECPR and CCPR in patients with TTM whose IWT was ≤600 minutes.

The 'Weekend Effect' in adult patients who receive extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation after in- and out-of-hospital cardiac arrest

Aim

This study investigates the potentially adverse association between extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ECPR) after cardiac arrest on weekends versus weekdays.

Methods

Single-centre, retrospective, stratified (weekday versus weekend) analysis of 318 patients who underwent in-hospital ECPR after out-of-hospital and in-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA/IHCA) between 01/2008 and 12/2018. Weekend was defined as the period between Friday 17:00 and Monday 06:59.

Results

Seventy-three patients (23%) received ECPR during the weekend and 245 arrests (77%) occurred during the weekday. Whereas survival to discharge did not differ between both groups, long-term survival was significantly lower in the weekend group (p = 0.002). In the multivariate analysis, independent risk factors associated with hospital mortality were no flow time (OR 1.014; 95% CI 1.004–1.023) and serum lactate prior ECPR (OR 1.011; 95% CI 1.006–1.012), whereas each unit serum haemoglobin above average had a protective effect on in-hospital mortality (OR 0.87; 95% CI 0.79–0.96). New onset kidney failure requiring renal replacement therapy occurred more often in the weekend group (30.1% versus 18.4%; p = 0.04). One third of patients experienced complications regardless ECPR was initiated at weekdays or weekends.

Conclusion

Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation at weekends adversely seems to impact long-term survival regardless timing (dayshift/nightshift). Duration of CPR and serum lactate prior ECPR were demonstrated as independent risk factors for in-hospital mortality. As ECPR at weekends could not be shown to be an independent outcome predictor a thorough analysis of clinical events subsequent to this intervention is warranted to understand long-term consequences of ECPR initiation after cardiac arrest.

Association between Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation (ECMO) and Mortality in the Patients with Cardiac Arrest: A Nation-Wide Population-Based Study with Propensity Score Matched Analysis

We attempted to determine the impact of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) on short-term and long-term outcomes and find potential resource utilization differences between the ECMO and non-ECMO groups, using the National Health Insurance Service database. We selected adult patients (≥20 years old) with non-traumatic cardiac arrest from 2007 to 2015. Data on age, sex, insurance status, hospital volume, residential area urbanization, and pre-existing diseases were extracted from the database. A total of 1.5% (n = 3859) of 253,806 patients were categorized into the ECMO group. The ECMO-supported patients were more likely to be younger, men, more covered by national health insurance, and showed, higher usage of tertiary level and large volume hospitals, and a lower rate of pre-existing comorbidities, compared to the non-ECMO group. After propensity score-matching demographic data, hospital factors, and pre-existing diseases, the odds ratio (ORs) of the ECMO group were 0.76 (confidence interval, (CI) 0.68–0.85) for 30-day mortality and 0.66 (CI 0.58–0.79) for 1-year mortality using logistic regression. The index hospitalization was longer, and the 30-day and 1-year hospital costs were greater in the matched ECMO group. Although ECMO support needed longer hospitalization days and higher hospital costs, the ECMO support reduced the risk of 30-day and 1-year mortality compared to the non-ECMO patients.

[Advanced Resuscitation Measures: Extracorporeal Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation]

An extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (eCPR) is considered as a therapy option for cardiovascular failure that is refractory to therapy. It can significantly improve the survival rate with favourable neurological results in highly selected patients. The initially defibrillatable heart rhythm and the short low-flow time < 60 minutes are of particular prognostic value. An essential prerequisite for deciding on eCPR is the existence of a reversible cause for cardiac arrest. Whether an eCPR directly at the emergency site (out-of-hospital variant) or in the clinic, e.g. in the cardiac catheterization laboratory (in-hospital variant) can be recommended must be clarified in further randomized-controlled, multicentre studies. Both variants have advantages and disadvantages. With the out-of-hospital eCPR, the "collapse-to-start-eCPR-time" can be significantly reduced under certain conditions. With the in-hospital eCPR external negative influences can be greatly minimized.

Neurological outcome after extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation for in-hospital cardiac arrest: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

In-hospital cardiac arrest (IHCA) is a major adverse event with a high mortality rate if not treated appropriately. Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ECPR), as adjunct to conventional cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CCPR), is a promising technique for IHCA treatment. Evidence pertaining to neurological outcomes after ECPR is still scarce.

METHODS

We performed a comprehensive systematic search of all studies up to December 20, 2019. Our primary outcome was neurological outcome after ECPR at any moment after hospital discharge, defined by the Cerebral Performance Category (CPC) score. A score of 1 or 2 was defined as favourable outcome. Our secondary outcome was post-discharge mortality. A fixed-effects meta-analysis was performed.

RESULTS

Our search yielded 1215 results, of which 19 studies were included in this systematic review. The average survival rate was 30% (95% CI 28-33%, I2 = 0%, p = 0.24). In the surviving patients, the pooled percentage of favourable neurological outcome was 84% (95% CI 80-88%, I2 = 24%, p = 0.90).

CONCLUSION

ECPR as treatment for in-hospital cardiac arrest is associated with a large proportion of patients with good neurological outcome. The large proportion of favourable outcome could potentially be explained by the selection of patients for treatment using ECPR. Moreover, survival is higher than described in the conventional CPR literature. As indications for ECPR might extend to older or more fragile patient populations in the future, research should focus on increasing survival, while maintaining optimal neurological outcome.

Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation without target temperature management for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest patients prolongs the therapeutic time window: a retrospective analysis of a nationwide multicentre observational study in Japan

Background

Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ECPR) with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) is a promising therapy for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) compared with conventional cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CCPR). The no and low-flow time (NLT), the interval from collapse to reperfusion to starting ECMO or to the return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC) in CCPR, is associated with the neurological outcome of OHCA. Because the effects of target temperature management (TTM) on the outcomes of ECPR are unclear, we compared the neurological outcomes of OHCA between ECPR and CCPR without TTM.

Methods

We performed retrospective subanalyses of the Japanese Association for Acute Medicine OHCA registry. Witnessed cases of adult cardiogenic OHCA without TTM were selected. We performed univariate, multivariable and propensity score analyses to compare the neurological outcomes after ECPR or CCPR in all eligible patients and in patients with NLT of > 30 min or > 45 min.

Results

We analysed 2585 cases. Propensity score analysis showed negative result in all patients (odds ratio 0.328 [95% confidence interval 0.141–0.761], P = 0.010). However, significant associated with better neurological outcome was shown in patients with NLT of > 30 min or > 45 min (odds ratio 2.977 [95% confidence interval 1.056–8.388], P = 0.039, odds ratio 5.099 [95% confidence interval 1.259–20.657], P = 0.023, respectively).

Conclusion

This study revealed significant differences in the neurological outcomes between ECPR and CCPR without TTM, in patients with NLT of > 30 min.

A systematic review of current ECPR protocols. A step towards standardisation

Aim

Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ECPR) can treat cardiac arrest refractory to conventional therapies. Our goal was to identify the best protocol for survival with good neurological outcome through the evaluation of current inclusion criteria, exclusion criteria, cannulation strategies and additional therapeutic measures.

Methods

A systematic literature search was used to identify eligible publications from PubMed, Embase, Web of Science and Cochrane for articles published from 29 June 2009 until 29 June 2019.

Results

The selection process led to a total of 24 eligible articles, considering 1723 patients in total. A good neurological outcome at hospital discharge was found in 21.3% of all patients. The most consistent criterion for inclusion was refractory cardiac arrest (RCA), used in 21/25 (84%) of the protocols. The preferred cannulation method was the percutaneous Seldinger technique (44%).

Conclusion

ECPR is a feasible option for cardiac arrest and should already be considered in an early stage of CPR. One of the key findings is that time-to-ECPR seems to be correlated with good neurological survival. An important contributing factor is the definition of RCA. Protocols defining RCA as >10 ​min had a mean good neurological survival of 26.7%. Protocols with a higher cut-off, between 15 and 30 ​min, had a mean good neurological survival of 14.5%. Another factor contributing to the time-to-ECPR is the preferred access technique. A percutaneous Seldinger technique combined with ultrasonography and fluoroscopic guidance leads to a reduced cannulation time and complication rate. Conclusive research around prehospital cannulation still needs to be conducted.

Out-of-hospital extracorporeal membrane oxygenation cannulation for refractory ventricular fibrillation: A case report

Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest survival continues to be dismal with the only recent improvement being that of extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (E-CPR) or cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), augmented by extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO). Minimizing time until initiation of E-CPR is critical to improve neurologically intact survival. Bringing E-CPR to the patient rather than requiring transport to the emergency department may increase the number of patients eligible for E-CPR and the chances for a good outcome. We developed a out-of-hospital E-CPR (P-ECMO) program that includes the novel use of a hand-crank and emergency medical services (EMS) providers as first assistants. Here, we report the first P-ECMO procedure in North America for refractory ventricular fibrillation involving a 65-year-old male patient who was cannulated in the field within the recommended 60-minute low-flow window and transported to our institution where he underwent coronary stenting. Details of program design and the procedure used may allow other systems to consider implementation of a P-ECMO program.