451
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Hong S, Dissing-Olesen L, Stevens B. New insights on the role of microglia in synaptic pruning in health and disease. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2015; 36:128-34. [PMID: 26745839 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2015.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 388] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2015] [Revised: 12/09/2015] [Accepted: 12/10/2015] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Recent genome-wide association studies implicate microglia in Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis; however, their biological significance remains poorly understood. Synapse loss is a significant correlate of cognitive decline that serves as a critical hallmark of AD and other neurodegenerative diseases; however, mechanisms underlying synaptic vulnerability remain elusive. Emerging research on microglia function in the healthy brain is providing new insight into fundamental roles of microglia and immune molecules in brain wiring. Among their many roles, microglia prune developing synapses and regulate synaptic plasticity and function. Here, we review and discuss how this emerging work may provide new insight into how disruptions in microglia-synapse interactions could contribute to synapse loss and dysfunction, and consequently cognitive impairment, in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soyon Hong
- Department of Neurology, F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Lasse Dissing-Olesen
- Department of Neurology, F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Beth Stevens
- Department of Neurology, F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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452
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Lorea-Hernández JJ, Morales T, Rivera-Angulo AJ, Alcantara-Gonzalez D, Peña-Ortega F. Microglia modulate respiratory rhythm generation and autoresuscitation. Glia 2015; 64:603-19. [DOI: 10.1002/glia.22951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2014] [Revised: 11/18/2015] [Accepted: 11/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan-Julio Lorea-Hernández
- Departamento de Neurobiología del Desarrollo y Neurofisiología; Instituto De Neurobiología, UNAM Campus Juriquilla; Querétaro México
| | - Teresa Morales
- Departamento de Neurobiología del Desarrollo y Neurofisiología; Instituto De Neurobiología, UNAM Campus Juriquilla; Querétaro México
| | - Ana-Julia Rivera-Angulo
- Departamento de Neurobiología del Desarrollo y Neurofisiología; Instituto De Neurobiología, UNAM Campus Juriquilla; Querétaro México
| | - David Alcantara-Gonzalez
- Departamento de Neurobiología del Desarrollo y Neurofisiología; Instituto De Neurobiología, UNAM Campus Juriquilla; Querétaro México
| | - Fernando Peña-Ortega
- Departamento de Neurobiología del Desarrollo y Neurofisiología; Instituto De Neurobiología, UNAM Campus Juriquilla; Querétaro México
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453
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Wieghofer P, Prinz M. Genetic manipulation of microglia during brain development and disease. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2015; 1862:299-309. [PMID: 26432479 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2015.09.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2015] [Revised: 09/24/2015] [Accepted: 09/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Peter Wieghofer
- Institute of Neuropathology, University of Freiburg, Germany; Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Marco Prinz
- Institute of Neuropathology, University of Freiburg, Germany; BIOSS Centre for Biological Signaling Studies, University of Freiburg, Germany.
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454
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Shemer A, Erny D, Jung S, Prinz M. Microglia Plasticity During Health and Disease: An Immunological Perspective. Trends Immunol 2015; 36:614-624. [DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2015.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2015] [Revised: 08/02/2015] [Accepted: 08/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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455
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Homeostasis of Microglia in the Adult Brain: Review of Novel Microglia Depletion Systems. Trends Immunol 2015; 36:625-636. [DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2015.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2015] [Revised: 08/11/2015] [Accepted: 08/12/2015] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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456
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Hoeffel G, Ginhoux F. Ontogeny of Tissue-Resident Macrophages. Front Immunol 2015; 6:486. [PMID: 26441990 PMCID: PMC4585135 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2015.00486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 229] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2015] [Accepted: 09/07/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The origin of tissue-resident macrophages, crucial for homeostasis and immunity, has remained controversial until recently. Originally described as part of the mononuclear phagocyte system, macrophages were long thought to derive solely from adult blood circulating monocytes. However, accumulating evidence now shows that certain macrophage populations are in fact independent from monocyte and even from adult bone marrow hematopoiesis. These tissue-resident macrophages derive from sequential seeding of tissues by two precursors during embryonic development. Primitive macrophages generated in the yolk sac (YS) from early erythro-myeloid progenitors (EMPs), independently of the transcription factor c-Myb and bypassing monocytic intermediates, first give rise to microglia. Later, fetal monocytes, generated from c-Myb+ EMPs that initially seed the fetal liver (FL), then give rise to the majority of other adult macrophages. Thus, hematopoietic stem cell-independent embryonic precursors transiently present in the YS and the FL give rise to long-lasting self-renewing macrophage populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillaume Hoeffel
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (ASTAR) , Singapore , Singapore
| | - Florent Ginhoux
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (ASTAR) , Singapore , Singapore
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457
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Smolders S, Smolders SMT, Swinnen N, Gärtner A, Rigo JM, Legendre P, Brône B. Maternal immune activation evoked by polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid does not evoke microglial cell activation in the embryo. Front Cell Neurosci 2015; 9:301. [PMID: 26300736 PMCID: PMC4525016 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2015.00301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2015] [Accepted: 07/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Several studies have indicated that inflammation during pregnancy increases the risk for the development of neuropsychiatric disorders in the offspring. Morphological brain abnormalities combined with deviations in the inflammatory status of the brain can be observed in patients of both autism and schizophrenia. It was shown that acute infection can induce changes in maternal cytokine levels which in turn are suggested to affect fetal brain development and increase the risk on the development of neuropsychiatric disorders in the offspring. Animal models of maternal immune activation reproduce the etiology of neurodevelopmental disorders such as schizophrenia and autism. In this study the poly (I:C) model was used to mimic viral immune activation in pregnant mice in order to assess the activation status of fetal microglia in these developmental disorders. Because microglia are the resident immune cells of the brain they were expected to be activated due to the inflammatory stimulus. Microglial cell density and activation level in the fetal cortex and hippocampus were determined. Despite the presence of a systemic inflammation in the pregnant mice, there was no significant difference in fetal microglial cell density or immunohistochemically determined activation level between the control and inflammation group. These data indicate that activation of the fetal microglial cells is not likely to be responsible for the inflammation induced deficits in the offspring in this model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silke Smolders
- BIOMED - Hasselt University Hasselt, Belgium ; Laboratory of Neuronal Differentiation, VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, Leuven and Center for Human Genetics, KU Leuven Leuven, Belgium
| | - Sophie M T Smolders
- BIOMED - Hasselt University Hasselt, Belgium ; INSERM, UMR S 1130, Université Pierre et Marie Curie Paris, France ; CNRS, UMR 8246, Université Pierre et Marie Curie Paris, France ; UM 119 NPS, Université Pierre et Marie Curie Paris, France
| | | | - Annette Gärtner
- Laboratory of Neuronal Differentiation, VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, Leuven and Center for Human Genetics, KU Leuven Leuven, Belgium
| | | | - Pascal Legendre
- INSERM, UMR S 1130, Université Pierre et Marie Curie Paris, France ; CNRS, UMR 8246, Université Pierre et Marie Curie Paris, France ; UM 119 NPS, Université Pierre et Marie Curie Paris, France
| | - Bert Brône
- BIOMED - Hasselt University Hasselt, Belgium
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458
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Fractalkine Signaling and Microglia Functions in the Developing Brain. Neural Plast 2015; 2015:689404. [PMID: 26347402 PMCID: PMC4539507 DOI: 10.1155/2015/689404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2015] [Accepted: 04/29/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Microglial cells are the resident macrophages of the central nervous system (CNS). Besides their classical roles in pathological conditions, these immune cells also dynamically interact with neurons and influence their structure and function in physiological conditions. The neuronal chemokine fractalkine and its microglial receptor CX3CR1 are one important signaling pathway involved in these reciprocal interactions. In the present review, we will discuss recent evidence indicating that fractalkine signaling also determines several functions of microglial cells during normal CNS development. It has been known for a decade that microglial cells influence the neuronal death that normally occurs during CNS development. Surprisingly, recent evidence indicates that they can also support survival of developing neurons, control axon outgrowth, and laminar positioning of subsets of interneurons in the forebrain. Moreover, microglial cells influence the maturation of synaptic circuits at early postnatal stages: their phagocytic activity allows them to eliminate inappropriate synapses and they can also influence the functional expression of synaptic proteins by releasing mediators. Fractalkine signaling controls these functions of microglial cells in part by regulating their timely recruitment at sites of developing synapses. Finally, on-going research suggests that this signaling pathway is also a key player in neurodevelopmental disorders.
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459
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Squarzoni P, Thion MS, Garel S. Neuronal and microglial regulators of cortical wiring: usual and novel guideposts. Front Neurosci 2015; 9:248. [PMID: 26236185 PMCID: PMC4505395 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2015.00248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2015] [Accepted: 06/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Neocortex functioning relies on the formation of complex networks that begin to be assembled during embryogenesis by highly stereotyped processes of cell migration and axonal navigation. The guidance of cells and axons is driven by extracellular cues, released along by final targets or intermediate targets located along specific pathways. In particular, guidepost cells, originally described in the grasshopper, are considered discrete, specialized cell populations located at crucial decision points along axonal trajectories that regulate tract formation. These cells are usually early-born, transient and act at short-range or via cell-cell contact. The vast majority of guidepost cells initially identified were glial cells, which play a role in the formation of important axonal tracts in the forebrain, such as the corpus callosum, anterior, and post-optic commissures as well as optic chiasm. In the last decades, tangential migrating neurons have also been found to participate in the guidance of principal axonal tracts in the forebrain. This is the case for several examples such as guideposts for the lateral olfactory tract (LOT), corridor cells, which open an internal path for thalamo-cortical axons and Cajal-Retzius cells that have been involved in the formation of the entorhino-hippocampal connections. More recently, microglia, the resident macrophages of the brain, were specifically observed at the crossroads of important neuronal migratory routes and axonal tract pathways during forebrain development. We furthermore found that microglia participate to the shaping of prenatal forebrain circuits, thereby opening novel perspectives on forebrain development and wiring. Here we will review the last findings on already known guidepost cell populations and will discuss the role of microglia as a potentially new class of atypical guidepost cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Squarzoni
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR8197, Ecole Normale Supérieure, Institut de Biologie, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U1024 Paris, France
| | - Morgane S Thion
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR8197, Ecole Normale Supérieure, Institut de Biologie, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U1024 Paris, France
| | - Sonia Garel
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR8197, Ecole Normale Supérieure, Institut de Biologie, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U1024 Paris, France
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460
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Kolodziejczak M, Béchade C, Gervasi N, Irinopoulou T, Banas SM, Cordier C, Rebsam A, Roumier A, Maroteaux L. Serotonin Modulates Developmental Microglia via 5-HT2B Receptors: Potential Implication during Synaptic Refinement of Retinogeniculate Projections. ACS Chem Neurosci 2015; 6:1219-30. [PMID: 25857335 DOI: 10.1021/cn5003489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Maturation of functional neuronal circuits during central nervous system development relies on sophisticated mechanisms. First, axonal and dendritic growth should reach appropriate targets for correct synapse elaboration. Second, pruning and neuronal death are required to eliminate redundant or inappropriate neuronal connections. Serotonin, in addition to its role as a neurotransmitter, actively participates in postnatal establishment and refinement of brain wiring in mammals. Brain resident macrophages, that is, microglia, also play an important role in developmentally regulated neuronal death as well as in synaptic maturation and elimination. Here, we tested the hypothesis of cross-regulation between microglia and serotonin during postnatal brain development in a mouse model of synaptic refinement. We found expression of the serotonin 5-HT2B receptor on postnatal microglia, suggesting that serotonin could participate in temporal and spatial synchronization of microglial functions. Using two-photon microscopy, acute brain slices, and local delivery of serotonin, we observed that microglial processes moved rapidly toward the source of serotonin in Htr2B(+/+) mice, but not in Htr2B(-/-) mice lacking the 5-HT2B receptor. We then investigated whether some developmental steps known to be controlled by serotonin could potentially result from microglia sensitivity to serotonin. Using an in vivo model of synaptic refinement during early brain development, we investigated the maturation of the retinal projections to the thalamus and observed that Htr2B(-/-) mice present anatomical alterations of the ipsilateral projecting area of retinal axons into the thalamus. In addition, activation markers were upregulated in microglia from Htr2B(-/-) compared to control neonates, in the absence of apparent morphological modifications. These results support the hypothesis that serotonin interacts with microglial cells and these interactions participate in brain maturation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Kolodziejczak
- INSERM UMR-S 839, F75005, Paris, France
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, F75005, Paris, France
- Institut du Fer à Moulin, 17 rue du Fer à Moulin, F75005, Paris, France
| | - Catherine Béchade
- INSERM UMR-S 839, F75005, Paris, France
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, F75005, Paris, France
- Institut du Fer à Moulin, 17 rue du Fer à Moulin, F75005, Paris, France
| | - Nicolas Gervasi
- INSERM UMR-S 839, F75005, Paris, France
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, F75005, Paris, France
- Institut du Fer à Moulin, 17 rue du Fer à Moulin, F75005, Paris, France
| | - Theano Irinopoulou
- INSERM UMR-S 839, F75005, Paris, France
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, F75005, Paris, France
- Institut du Fer à Moulin, 17 rue du Fer à Moulin, F75005, Paris, France
| | - Sophie M. Banas
- INSERM UMR-S 839, F75005, Paris, France
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, F75005, Paris, France
- Institut du Fer à Moulin, 17 rue du Fer à Moulin, F75005, Paris, France
| | - Corinne Cordier
- Cytometry Facility, INSERM US24, F75005, Paris, France
- CNRS UMS 3633, Paris Descartes University, F75005, Paris, France
| | - Alexandra Rebsam
- INSERM UMR-S 839, F75005, Paris, France
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, F75005, Paris, France
- Institut du Fer à Moulin, 17 rue du Fer à Moulin, F75005, Paris, France
| | - Anne Roumier
- INSERM UMR-S 839, F75005, Paris, France
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, F75005, Paris, France
- Institut du Fer à Moulin, 17 rue du Fer à Moulin, F75005, Paris, France
| | - Luc Maroteaux
- INSERM UMR-S 839, F75005, Paris, France
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, F75005, Paris, France
- Institut du Fer à Moulin, 17 rue du Fer à Moulin, F75005, Paris, France
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461
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Ginhoux F, Prinz M. Origin of microglia: current concepts and past controversies. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2015; 7:a020537. [PMID: 26134003 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a020537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 270] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Microglia are the resident macrophages of the central nervous system (CNS), which sit in close proximity to neural structures and are intimately involved in brain homeostasis. The microglial population also plays fundamental roles during neuronal expansion and differentiation, as well as in the perinatal establishment of synaptic circuits. Any change in the normal brain environment results in microglial activation, which can be detrimental if not appropriately regulated. Aberrant microglial function has been linked to the development of several neurological and psychiatric diseases. However, microglia also possess potent immunoregulatory and regenerative capacities, making them attractive targets for therapeutic manipulation. Such rationale manipulations will, however, require in-depth knowledge of their origins and the molecular mechanisms underlying their homeostasis. Here, we discuss the latest advances in our understanding of the origin, differentiation, and homeostasis of microglial cells and their myelomonocytic relatives in the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florent Ginhoux
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore 138648
| | - Marco Prinz
- Institute of Neuropathology, University of Freiburg, 79106 Freiburg, Germany BIOSS Centre for Biological Signalling Studies, University of Freiburg, 79106 Freiburg, Germany
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462
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Hoeffel G, Chen J, Lavin Y, Low D, Almeida FF, See P, Beaudin AE, Lum J, Low I, Forsberg EC, Poidinger M, Zolezzi F, Larbi A, Ng LG, Chan JKY, Greter M, Becher B, Samokhvalov IM, Merad M, Ginhoux F. C-Myb(+) erythro-myeloid progenitor-derived fetal monocytes give rise to adult tissue-resident macrophages. Immunity 2015; 42:665-78. [PMID: 25902481 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2015.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 810] [Impact Index Per Article: 90.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2014] [Revised: 02/17/2015] [Accepted: 03/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Although classified as hematopoietic cells, tissue-resident macrophages (MFs) arise from embryonic precursors that seed the tissues prior to birth to generate a self-renewing population, which is maintained independently of adult hematopoiesis. Here we reveal the identity of these embryonic precursors using an in utero MF-depletion strategy and fate-mapping of yolk sac (YS) and fetal liver (FL) hematopoiesis. We show that YS MFs are the main precursors of microglia, while most other MFs derive from fetal monocytes (MOs). Both YS MFs and fetal MOs arise from erythro-myeloid progenitors (EMPs) generated in the YS. In the YS, EMPs gave rise to MFs without monocytic intermediates, while EMP seeding the FL upon the establishment of blood circulation acquired c-Myb expression and gave rise to fetal MOs that then seeded embryonic tissues and differentiated into MFs. Thus, adult tissue-resident MFs established from hematopoietic stem cell-independent embryonic precursors arise from two distinct developmental programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillaume Hoeffel
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A(∗)STAR), 8A Biomedical Grove, IMMUNOS Building #3-4, BIOPOLIS, 138648 Singapore
| | - Jinmiao Chen
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A(∗)STAR), 8A Biomedical Grove, IMMUNOS Building #3-4, BIOPOLIS, 138648 Singapore
| | - Yonit Lavin
- Department of Oncological Sciences, The Tisch Cancer Institute, 1425 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10029, USA; The Immunology Institute, Icahn school of Medicine at Mount Sinai, 1425 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Donovan Low
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A(∗)STAR), 8A Biomedical Grove, IMMUNOS Building #3-4, BIOPOLIS, 138648 Singapore
| | - Francisca F Almeida
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A(∗)STAR), 8A Biomedical Grove, IMMUNOS Building #3-4, BIOPOLIS, 138648 Singapore
| | - Peter See
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A(∗)STAR), 8A Biomedical Grove, IMMUNOS Building #3-4, BIOPOLIS, 138648 Singapore
| | - Anna E Beaudin
- Institute for the Biology of Stem Cells, Department of Biomolecular Engineering, University of California-Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
| | - Josephine Lum
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A(∗)STAR), 8A Biomedical Grove, IMMUNOS Building #3-4, BIOPOLIS, 138648 Singapore
| | - Ivy Low
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A(∗)STAR), 8A Biomedical Grove, IMMUNOS Building #3-4, BIOPOLIS, 138648 Singapore
| | - E Camilla Forsberg
- Institute for the Biology of Stem Cells, Department of Biomolecular Engineering, University of California-Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
| | - Michael Poidinger
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A(∗)STAR), 8A Biomedical Grove, IMMUNOS Building #3-4, BIOPOLIS, 138648 Singapore
| | - Francesca Zolezzi
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A(∗)STAR), 8A Biomedical Grove, IMMUNOS Building #3-4, BIOPOLIS, 138648 Singapore
| | - Anis Larbi
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A(∗)STAR), 8A Biomedical Grove, IMMUNOS Building #3-4, BIOPOLIS, 138648 Singapore
| | - Lai Guan Ng
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A(∗)STAR), 8A Biomedical Grove, IMMUNOS Building #3-4, BIOPOLIS, 138648 Singapore
| | - Jerry K Y Chan
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A(∗)STAR), 8A Biomedical Grove, IMMUNOS Building #3-4, BIOPOLIS, 138648 Singapore; Experimental Fetal Medicine Group, NUHS Tower Block level 12, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 1E Kent Ridge Road, 119228 Singapore; Reproductive Medicine, KK Women's and Children's Hospital, 100 Bukit Timah Road, 229899 Singapore; Singapore and Cancer and Stem Cell Biology Program, Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School, 8 College Road, 169857 Singapore
| | - Melanie Greter
- Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Burkhard Becher
- Institute of Experimental Immunology, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Igor M Samokhvalov
- Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Science, 190 Kai Yuan Avenue, Science Park, Guangzhou, 510530 China
| | - Miriam Merad
- Department of Oncological Sciences, The Tisch Cancer Institute, 1425 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10029, USA; The Immunology Institute, Icahn school of Medicine at Mount Sinai, 1425 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Florent Ginhoux
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A(∗)STAR), 8A Biomedical Grove, IMMUNOS Building #3-4, BIOPOLIS, 138648 Singapore.
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463
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Abstract
This review summarizes and organizes the literature concerning the effects of microglia on neurogenesis, particularly focusing on the subgranular zone (SGZ) of the hippocampus and subventricular zone (SVZ) of the lateral ventricles, in which the neurogenic potential is progressively restricted during the life of the organism. A comparison of microglial roles in neurogenesis in these two regions indicates that microglia regulate neurogenesis in a temporally and spatially specific manner. Microglia may also sense signals from the surrounding environment and have regulatory effects on neurogenesis. We speculate microglia function as a hub for the information obtained from the inner and outer brain regions for regulating neurogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaoru Sato
- Division of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Neuropharmacology, National Institute of Health Sciences, 1-18-1 Kamiyoga, Setagaya-Ku, Tokyo, 158-8501, Japan
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464
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Takata K, Ginhoux F. Poised for action: USP18 restrains microglial activation in the white matter. EMBO J 2015; 34:1603-5. [PMID: 25971776 DOI: 10.15252/embj.201591899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Kazuyuki Takata
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore Department of Clinical and Translational Physiology, Kyoto Pharmaceutical University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Florent Ginhoux
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore
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465
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Harris J, Tomassy GS, Arlotta P. Building blocks of the cerebral cortex: from development to the dish. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 2015; 4:529-44. [PMID: 25926310 DOI: 10.1002/wdev.192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2014] [Revised: 03/23/2015] [Accepted: 03/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Since Ramon y Cajal's examination of the cellular makeup of the cerebral cortex, it has been appreciated that this tissue exhibits some of the greatest degrees of cellular heterogeneity in the entire nervous system. This intricate structure emerges during a well-choreographed developmental process. Here, we review current classifications of the cellular constituents of the cerebral cortex and examine how these building blocks are forged during development. We also look at how basic developmental features underlying cortex formation in vivo have been applied to protocols aimed at generating cortical tissue in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Harris
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Giulio Srubek Tomassy
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Paola Arlotta
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
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466
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Abstract
Microglia are macrophages that colonize the brain during development to establish a resident population of professional phagocytes that protect against invading pathogens and contribute to brain development and homeostasis. As such, these cells sit at the interface between immunology and neurobiology. In addition to their key roles in brain physiology, microglia offer a great opportunity to address central questions in biology relating to how migrating cells find their positions in the embryo, adopt a behavior that is appropriate for that position, and interact with their local environment. We aim, in this review, to survey key recent advances in microglial research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Maria Casano
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Developmental Biology Unit, Meyerhofstrasse 1, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Francesca Peri
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Developmental Biology Unit, Meyerhofstrasse 1, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany.
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467
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Ma L, Piirainen S, Kulesskaya N, Rauvala H, Tian L. Association of brain immune genes with social behavior of inbred mouse strains. J Neuroinflammation 2015; 12:75. [PMID: 25895500 PMCID: PMC4404243 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-015-0297-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2015] [Accepted: 04/07/2015] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Social deficit is one of the core symptoms of neuropsychiatric diseases, in which immune genes play an important role. Although a few immune genes have been shown to regulate social and emotional behaviors, how immune gene network(s) may jointly regulate sociability has not been investigated so far. Methods To decipher the potential immune-mediated mechanisms underlying social behavior, we first studied the brain microarray data of eight inbred mouse strains with known variations in social behavior and retrieved the differentially expressed immune genes. We then made a protein-protein interaction analysis of them to find the major networks and explored the potential association of these genes with the behavior and brain morphology in the mouse phenome database. To validate the expression and function of the candidate immune genes, we selected the C57BL/6 J and DBA/2 J strains among the eight inbred strains, compared their social behaviors in resident-intruder and 3-chambered social tests and the mRNA levels of these genes, and analyzed the correlations of these genes with the social behaviors. Results A group of immune genes were differentially expressed in the brains of these mouse strains. The representative C57BL/6 J and DBA/2 J strains displayed significant differences in social behaviors, DBA/2 J mice being less active in social dominance and social interaction than C57BL/6 J mice. The mRNA levels of H2-d1 in the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, and hypothalamus and C1qb in the hippocampus of the DBA/2 J strain were significantly down-regulated as compared to those in the C57BL/6 J strain. In contrast, Polr3b in the hippocampus and Tnfsf13b in the prefrontal cortex of the DBA/2 J strain were up-regulated. Furthermore, C1qb, Cx3cl1, H2-d1, H2-k1, Polr3b, and Tnfsf13b were predicted to be associated with various behavioral and brain morphological features across the eight inbred strains. Importantly, the C1qb mRNA level was confirmed to be significantly correlated with the sociability in DBA/2 J but not in C57BL/6 J mice. Conclusions Our study provided evidence on the association of immune gene network(s) with the brain development and behavior in animals and revealed neurobiological functions of novel brain immune genes that may contribute to social deficiency in animal models of neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Ma
- Neuroscience Center, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 4, FIN-00014, Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Sami Piirainen
- Neuroscience Center, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 4, FIN-00014, Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Natalia Kulesskaya
- Neuroscience Center, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 4, FIN-00014, Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Heikki Rauvala
- Neuroscience Center, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 4, FIN-00014, Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Li Tian
- Neuroscience Center, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 4, FIN-00014, Helsinki, Finland. .,Psychiatry Research Center, Beijing Huilongguan Hospital, Zhengfu Road, 100096, Beijing, Changping, China.
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468
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Chen Z, Trapp BD. Microglia and neuroprotection. J Neurochem 2015; 136 Suppl 1:10-7. [PMID: 25693054 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.13062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 274] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2014] [Revised: 01/29/2015] [Accepted: 02/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Microglia were first identified over a century ago, but our knowledge about their ontogeny and functions has significantly expanded only recently. Microglia colonize the central nervous system (CNS) in utero and play essential roles in brain development. Once neural development is completed, microglia function as the resident innate immune cells of the CNS by surveying their microenvironment and becoming activated when the CNS is challenged by infection, injury, or disease. Despite the traditional view of microglia as being destructive in neurological diseases, recent studies have shown that microglia maintain CNS homeostasis and protect the CNS under various pathological conditions. Microglia can be prophylactically activated by modeling infection with systemic lipopolysaccharide injections and these activated microglia can protect the brain from traumatic injury through modulation of neuronal synapses. Microglia can also protect the CNS by promoting neurogenesis, clearing debris, and suppressing inflammation in diseases such as stroke, autism, and Alzheimer's. Microglia are the resident innate immune cells of the CNS. Despite the traditional view of microglia as being destructive in neurological diseases, recent studies have shown that they maintain tissue homeostasis and protect the CNS under various pathological conditions. They achieve so by clearing debris, promoting neurogenesis, suppressing inflammation and stripping inhibitory synapses. This review summarizes recent advances of our understanding on the multi-dimensional neuroprotective roles of microglia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhihong Chen
- Department of Neurosciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Bruce D Trapp
- Department of Neurosciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
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469
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Kabouridis PS, Pachnis V. Emerging roles of gut microbiota and the immune system in the development of the enteric nervous system. J Clin Invest 2015; 125:956-64. [PMID: 25729852 DOI: 10.1172/jci76308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The enteric nervous system (ENS) consists of neurons and glial cells that differentiate from neural crest progenitors. During embryogenesis, development of the ENS is controlled by the interplay of neural crest cell-intrinsic factors and instructive cues from the surrounding gut mesenchyme. However, postnatal ENS development occurs in a different context, which is characterized by the presence of microbiota and an extensive immune system, suggesting an important role of these factors on enteric neural circuit formation and function. Initial reports confirm this idea while further studies in this area promise new insights into ENS physiology and pathophysiology.
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