Targeting brain cancer: advances in the molecular pathology of malignant glioma and medulloblastoma

Current Progress on Understanding MicroRNAs in Glioblastoma Multiforme

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is an aggressive grade IV astrocytoma with a 1-year median survival rate despite current treatment modalities. A thorough understanding of the vast genetic aberrations and signaling pathways involved in gliomagenesis as well as heterogeneous clinicopathological presentation remains elusive. The recent discovery of microRNAs (miRs) and their capability of simultaneously regulating multiple downstream genes may play a key role in explaining the complex mechanisms underlying GBM formation. miRs are 19 to 25 nucleotide non-protein-coding small RNA molecules involved in the suppression of mRNA translation. This review will summarize and discuss the most recent findings regarding miRs in GBM including downstream targets, functional effects, and therapeutic potentials. Specifically discussed miRs include miR-7, miR-9/miR-9*, miR-10a/miR-10a*/miR-10b, miR-15b, miR-17-92, miR-21, miR-26a, miR-34a, miR-93, miR-101, miR-124, miR-125a, miR-125b, miR-128, miR-137, miR-146b-5p, miR-153, miR-181a/miR-181b, miR-196a/miR-196b, miR-218, miR-221/miR-222, miR-296, miR-302-367, miR-326, miR-381, miR-451, and let-7a. In addition to gene regulatory roles, miRs have demonstrated significant diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic potential. These small molecules may both help in the understanding of GBM and in developing new therapeutic options.

Gene therapy for brain tumors: basic developments and clinical implementation

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common and deadliest of adult primary brain tumors. Due to its invasive nature and sensitive location, complete resection remains virtually impossible. The resistance of GBM against chemotherapy and radiotherapy necessitate the development of novel therapies. Gene therapy is proposed for the treatment of brain tumors and has demonstrated pre-clinical efficacy in animal models. Here we review the various experimental therapies that have been developed for GBM including both cytotoxic and immune stimulatory approaches. We also review the combined conditional cytotoxic immune stimulatory therapy that our lab has developed which is dependent on the adenovirus mediated expression of the conditional cytotoxic gene, Herpes Simplex Type 1 Thymidine Kinase (TK) and the powerful DC growth factor Fms-like tyrosine kinase 3 ligand (Flt3L). Combined delivery of these vectors elicits tumor cell death and an anti-tumor adaptive immune response that requires TLR2 activation. The implications of our studies indicate that the combined cytotoxic and immunotherapeutic strategies are effective strategies to combat deadly brain tumors and warrant their implementation in human Phase I clinical trials for GBM.

Real-time imaging of the dynamics of death receptors and therapeutics that overcome TRAIL resistance in tumors

Tumor necrosis factor related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) induces apoptosis specifically in tumor cells and its efficacy has been tested in pre-clinical models by delivering it systemically as a purified ligand or via engineered stem cells (SC). However, about 50% of tumor lines are resistant to TRAIL and overcoming TRAIL resistance in aggressive tumors, such as glioblastoma-multiforme (GBM), and understanding the molecular dynamics of TRAIL-based combination therapies are critical to broadly use TRAIL as a therapeutic agent. In this study, we developed death receptor (DR)4/5-reporters that offer an imaging-based platform to identify agents that act in concert with a potent, secretable variant of TRAIL (S-TRAIL) by monitoring changes in DR4/5 expression. Utilizing these reporters, we show a differential regulation of DR4/5 when exposed to a panel of clinically relevant agents. A histone deacetylase inhibitor, MS-275, resulted in upregulation of DR4/5 in all GBM cell lines, and these changes could be followed in real time both in vitro and in vivo in mice bearing tumors and they correlated with increased TRAIL sensitivity. To further assess the dynamics of combinatorial strategies that overcome resistance of tumors to SC released S-TRAIL, we also engineered tumor cells to express live-cell caspase-reporters and SCs to express S-TRAIL. Utilizing DR4/5 and caspase reporters in parallel, we show that MS-275 sensitizes TRAIL-resistant GBM cells to stem cell (SC) delivered S-TRAIL by changing the time-to-death in vitro and in vivo. This study demonstrates the effectiveness of a combination of real-time reporters of TRAIL-induced apoptosis pathway in evaluating the efficacy of SC-TRAIL-based therapeutics and may have implications in targeting a broad range of cancers.

Stem cells in brain tumour development and therapy- two-sides of the same coin

Primary brain tumours are difficult to manage clinically due to their abilities to invade adjacent tissue and infiltrate distant neuropil. These contribute to challenges in surgical management and also limit the effectiveness of radiotherapy. Despite initial responses to chemotherapy, most tumours become chemo-resistant, leading to relapse. Recent identification and isolation of brain cancer stem cells (BCSCs) have broadened our understanding of the molecular pathogenesis and potential Achilles' heel of brain tumours. BCSCs are thought to drive and propagate the tumour and therefore present an important target for further investigations. This review explores the history of the discovery of BCSCs and the evolving concept of "cancer stem cells" in neuro-oncology. We attempt to present a balanced view on the subject and also to update the readers on the molecular biology of BCSCs. Lastly, we outline the potential strategies to target BCSCs which will translate into specific and effective therapies for brain tumours.

Comparison of spheroids formed by rat glioma stem cells and neural stem cells reveals differences in glucose metabolism and promising therapeutic applications

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are thought to be partially responsible for cancer resistance to current therapies and tumor recurrence. Dichloroacetate (DCA), a compound capable of shifting metabolism from glycolysis to glucose oxidation, via an inhibition of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase was used. We show that DCA is able to shift the pyruvate metabolism in rat glioma CSCs but has no effect in rat neural stem cells. DCA forces CSCs into oxidative phosphorylation but does not trigger the production of reactive oxygen species and consecutive anti-cancer apoptosis. However, DCA, associated with etoposide or irradiation, induced a Bax-dependent apoptosis in CSCs in vitro and decreased their proliferation in vivo. The former phenomenon is related to DCA-induced Foxo3 and p53 expression, resulting in the overexpression of BH3-only proteins (Bad, Noxa, and Puma), which in turn facilitates Bax-dependent apoptosis. Our results demonstrate that a small drug available for clinical studies potentiates the induction of apoptosis in glioma CSCs.

MicroRNA-21 expression is regulated by β-catenin/STAT3 pathway and promotes glioma cell invasion by direct targeting RECK

AIMS

MicroRNA-21 (miR-21) expression is increased in many types of human malignancy, including glioma. Recent studies report that miR-21 regulates cell invasion by targeting RECK, however, the underlying transcriptional regulation of miR-21 in glioma cells remains elusive.

RESULTS

Here, we identify a positive correlation between miR-21 expression and pathological grade in glioma tissues. We demonstrate that β-catenin pathway regulates miR-21 expression in human umbilical vein endothelial cell and glioma cells, and that this regulation is signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3)-dependent. Further, chromatin immunoprecipitation and luciferase reporter analysis demonstrate that miR-21 is controlled by an upstream promoter containing a conserved STAT3 binding site. Notably, knockdown of miR-21-inhibited cell invasion by increasing RECK expression and decreased tumor growth in a xenograft model.

CONCLUSION

These data provide compelling evidence that β-catenin regulation of miR-21 via STAT3 plays a role in glioma cell invasion and proliferation and indicate that STAT3 is a potential therapeutic target for glioma intervention.

GBM secretome induces transient transformation of human neural precursor cells

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most aggressive primary brain tumor in humans, with a uniformly poor prognosis. The tumor microenvironment is composed of both supportive cellular substrates and exogenous factors. We hypothesize that exogenous factors secreted by brain tumor initiating cells (BTICs) could predispose normal neural precursor cells (NPCs) to transformation. When NPCs are grown in GBM-conditioned media, and designated as "tumor-conditioned NPCs" (tcNPCs), they become highly proliferative and exhibit increased stem cell self-renewal, or the unique ability of stem cells to asymmetrically generate another stem cell and a daughter cell. tcNPCs also show an increased transcript level of stem cell markers such as CD133 and ALDH and growth factor receptors such as VEGFR1, VEGFR2, EGFR and PDGFRα. Media analysis by ELISA of GBM-conditioned media reveals an elevated secretion of growth factors such as EGF, VEGF and PDGF-AA when compared to normal neural stem cell-conditioned media. We also demonstrate that tcNPCs require prolonged or continuous exposure to the GBM secretome in vitro to retain GBM BTIC characteristics. Our in vivo studies reveal that tcNPCs are unable to form tumors, confirming that irreversible transformation events may require sustained or prolonged presence of the GBM secretome. Analysis of GBM-conditioned media by mass spectrometry reveals the presence of secreted proteins Chitinase-3-like 1 (CHI3L1) and H2A histone family member H2AX. Collectively, our data suggest that GBM-secreted factors are capable of transiently altering normal NPCs, although for retention of the transformed phenotype, sustained or prolonged secretome exposure or additional transformation events are likely necessary.

Prognostic significance of sirtuin 2 protein nuclear localization in glioma: an immunohistochemical study

The sirtuin 2 (SIRT2) protein is a member of the sirtuin family and homologous to Sir2 (silent information regulator 2) of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. To assess the pathobiological significance of SIRT2 protein expression and/or subcellular localization in human glioma, we examined SIRT2 protein expression in human gliomas using a polyclonal anti-SIRT2 antibody and immunohistochemistry. In this study, samples from 23 patients with glioblastoma (GB, grade IV), 8 patients with diffuse astrocytoma (DA, grade II) and 5 healthy individuals were examined. We established a SIRT2 labeling index (SIRT2-LI) that represents the percentage of cells with SIRT2 localized to the nucleus. The mean SIRT2-LI was 65.8±18.6 in GB samples, 41.2±22.8 in DA samples, and 28.6±12.3 in normal control samples. The SIRT2-LI of GB samples was significantly higher than that of normal control samples (P<0.01, Mann-Whitney's U-test) and that of DA samples (P<0.05). Moreover, the SIRT2-LI was positively correlated with malignant progression. Specifically, samples from patients with GB were divided into two groups, low SIRT2-LI (<60%) and high SIRT2-LI (≥60%), and the patients with low SIRT2-LI samples survived significantly longer than patients with high SIRT2-LI samples (P<0.05, Kaplan-Meier method and log-rank test). In conclusion, SIRT2-LI was indicative of glioma malignancy, and it may be predictive of GB patient survival.

REST regulates oncogenic properties of glioblastoma stem cells

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) tumors are the most common malignant primary brain tumors in adults. Although many GBM tumors are believed to be caused by self-renewing, glioblastoma-derived stem-like cells (GSCs), the mechanisms that regulate self-renewal and other oncogenic properties of GSCs are only now being unraveled. Here we showed that GSCs derived from GBM patient specimens express varying levels of the transcriptional repressor repressor element 1 silencing transcription factor (REST), suggesting heterogeneity across different GSC lines. Loss- and gain-of-function experiments indicated that REST maintains self-renewal of GSCs. High REST-expressing GSCs (HR-GSCs) produced tumors histopathologically distinct from those generated by low REST-expressing GSCs (LR-GSCs) in orthotopic mouse brain tumor models. Knockdown of REST in HR-GSCs resulted in increased survival in GSC-transplanted mice and produced tumors with higher apoptotic and lower invasive properties. Conversely, forced expression of exogenous REST in LR-GSCs produced decreased survival in mice and produced tumors with lower apoptotic and higher invasive properties, similar to HR-GSCs. Thus, based on our results, we propose that a novel function of REST is to maintain self-renewal and other oncogenic properties of GSCs and that REST can play a major role in mediating tumorigenicity in GBM.

In vivo generation of neural tumors from neoplastic pluripotent stem cells models early human pediatric brain tumor formation

Recent studies have identified gene signatures in malignant tumors that are associated with human embryonic stem cells, suggesting a molecular relationship between aggressive cancers and pluripotency. Here, we characterize neural precursors (NPs) derived from transformed human embryonic stem cells (N-t-hESCs) that exhibit neoplastic features of human brain tumors. NPs derived from t-hESCs have enhanced cell proliferation and an inability to mature toward the astrocytic lineage, compared with progeny derived from normal human embryonic stem cells (N-hESCs) independent of adherent or neurosphere outgrowth. Intracranial transplantation of NPs derived from N-t-hESCs and N-hESCs into NOD SCID mice revealed development of neuroectoderm tumors exclusively from the N-t-hESCs NPs and not from normal N-hESCs. These tumors infiltrated the ventricles and the cerebellum of recipient mice and displayed morphological, phenotypic, and molecular features associated with classic medulloblastoma including retention of a pluripotent signature. Importantly, N-t-hESCs did not exhibit cytogenetic changes associated with medulloblastoma, suggesting that aberrant cellular and molecular properties precede the acquisition of karyotypic changes thus underscoring the value of this model system of human medulloblastoma. Our study demonstrates that NPs from a starting population of neoplastic human pluripotent parent cells possess brain tumor-initiating cell capacity, thereby providing a model system to investigate initiation and progression of primitive human neural cancers that are difficult to assess using somatic sources.

EZH2-regulated DAB2IP is a medulloblastoma tumor suppressor and a positive marker for survival

PURPOSE

Medulloblastoma is the most common malignant brain tumor in children. Despite recent improvements, the molecular mechanisms driving medulloblastoma are not fully understood and further elucidation could provide cues to improve outcome prediction and therapeutic approaches.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Here, we conducted a meta-analysis of mouse and human medulloblastoma gene expression data sets, to identify potential medulloblastoma tumor suppressor genes.

RESULTS

We identified DAB2IP, a member of the RAS-GTPase-activating protein family (RAS GAP), and showed that DAB2IP expression is repressed in medulloblastoma by EZH2-induced trimethylation. Moreover, we observed that reduced DAB2IP expression correlates significantly with a poor overall survival of patients with medulloblastoma, independent of metastatic stage. Finally, we showed that ectopic DAB2IP expression enhances stress-induced apoptosis in medulloblastoma cells and that reduced expression of DAB2IP in medulloblastoma cells conveys resistance to irradiation-induced cell death.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that repression of DAB2IP may at least partly protect medulloblastoma cells from apoptotic cell death. Moreover, DAB2IP may represent a molecular marker to distinguish patients with medulloblastoma at high risk from those with a longer survival prognosis.

In vivo models of primary brain tumors: pitfalls and perspectives

Animal modeling for primary brain tumors has undergone constant development over the last 60 years, and significant improvements have been made recently with the establishment of highly invasive glioblastoma models. In this review we discuss the advantages and pitfalls of model development, focusing on chemically induced models, various xenogeneic grafts of human cell lines, including stem cell–like cell lines and biopsy spheroids. We then discuss the development of numerous genetically engineered models available to study mechanisms of tumor initiation and progression. At present it is clear that none of the current animal models fully reflects human gliomas. Yet, the various model systems have provided important insight into specific mechanisms of tumor development. In particular, it is anticipated that a combined comprehensive knowledge of the various models currently available will provide important new knowledge on target identification and the validation and development of new therapeutic strategies.

Studying a complex tumor: potential and pitfalls

Glioblastoma multiforme is a histopathologically heterogeneous disease with few treatment options. Therapy based on genomic alterations is rapidly gaining popularity because of the high response rate and high specificity. DNA copy number and exon-sequencing studies of glioblastoma multiforme samples have revealed recurrent genomic alterations in genes such as TP53, EGFR, and IDH1, but to date, this has not resulted in novel glioblastoma multiforme therapies. Identification of expression subtypes has resulted in new insights such as the association between genomic abnormalities and expression signatures. This review describes the types of genomic studies that have been performed and that are underway, the most prominent results, and the implications of genomic research for the development of clinical treatment modalities.

The autophagy-associated factors DRAM1 and p62 regulate cell migration and invasion in glioblastoma stem cells

The aggressiveness of glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is defined by local invasion and resistance to therapy. Within established GBM, a subpopulation of tumor-initiating cells with stem-like properties (GBM stem cells, GSCs) is believed to underlie resistance to therapy. The metabolic pathway autophagy has been implicated in the regulation of survival in GBM. However, the status of autophagy in GBM and its role in the cancer stem cell fraction is currently unclear. We found that a number of autophagy regulators are highly expressed in GBM tumors carrying a mesenchymal signature, which defines aggressiveness and invasion, and are associated with components of the MAPK pathway. This autophagy signature included the autophagy-associated genes DRAM1 and SQSTM1, which encode a key regulator of selective autophagy, p62. High levels of DRAM1 were associated with shorter overall survival in GBM patients. In GSCs, DRAM1 and SQSTM1 expression correlated with activation of MAPK and expression of the mesenchymal marker c-MET. DRAM1 knockdown decreased p62 localization to autophagosomes and its autophagy-mediated degradation, thus suggesting a role for DRAM1 in p62-mediated autophagy. In contrast, autophagy induced by starvation or inhibition of mTOR/PI-3K was not affected by either DRAM1 or p62 downregulation. Functionally, DRAM1 and p62 regulate cell motility and invasion in GSCs. This was associated with alterations of energy metabolism, in particular reduced ATP and lactate levels. Taken together, these findings shed new light on the role of autophagy in GBM and reveal a novel function of the autophagy regulators DRAM1 and p62 in control of migration/invasion in cancer stem cells.

IDH mutation and neuroglial developmental features define clinically distinct subclasses of lower grade diffuse astrocytic glioma

PURPOSE

Diffuse gliomas represent the most prevalent class of primary brain tumor. Despite significant recent advances in the understanding of glioblastoma [World Health Organization (WHO) IV], its most malignant subtype, lower grade (WHO II and III) glioma variants remain comparatively understudied, especially in light of their notable clinical heterogeneity. Accordingly, we sought to identify and characterize clinically relevant molecular subclasses of lower grade diffuse astrocytic gliomas.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

We conducted multidimensional molecular profiling, including global transcriptional analysis, on 101 lower grade diffuse astrocytic gliomas collected at our own institution and validated our findings using publically available gene expression and copy number data from large independent patient cohorts.

RESULTS

We found that IDH mutational status delineated molecularly and clinically distinct glioma subsets, with IDH mutant (IDH mt) tumors exhibiting TP53 mutations, platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR)A overexpression, and prolonged survival, and IDH wild-type (IDH wt) tumors exhibiting EGFR amplification, PTEN loss, and unfavorable disease outcome. Furthermore, global expression profiling revealed three robust molecular subclasses within lower grade diffuse astrocytic gliomas, two of which were predominantly IDH mt and one almost entirely IDH wt. IDH mt subclasses were distinguished from each other on the basis of TP53 mutations, DNA copy number abnormalities, and links to distinct stages of neurogenesis in the subventricular zone. This latter finding implicates discrete pools of neuroglial progenitors as cells of origin for the different subclasses of IDH mt tumors.

CONCLUSION

We have elucidated molecularly distinct subclasses of lower grade diffuse astrocytic glioma that dictate clinical behavior and show fundamental associations with both IDH mutational status and neuroglial developmental stage.

The micro-RNA 199b-5p regulatory circuit involves Hes1, CD15, and epigenetic modifications in medulloblastoma

Micro-RNA (miR) 199b-5p targets Hes1 in medulloblastoma, one of the downstream effectors of both the canonical Notch and noncanonical Sonic Hedgehog pathways. In medulloblastoma patients, expression of miR-199b-5p is significantly decreased in metastatic cases, thus suggesting a downregulation mechanism. We studied this mechanism, which is mediated mostly by Hes1 and epigenetic promoter modifications. The miR-199b-5p promoter region was characterized, which identified a Hes1 binding site, thus demonstrating a negative feedback loop of regulation. MiR-199b-5p was shown to be downregulated in several medulloblastoma cell lines and in tumors by epigenetic methylation of a cytosine-phosphate-guanine island upstream of the miR-199b-5p promoter. Furthermore, the cluster of differention (CD) carbohydrate antigen CD15, a marker of medulloblastoma tumor-propagating cells, is an additional direct target of miR-199b-5p. Most importantly, regulation of miR-199b-5p expression in these CD15+/CD133+ tumor-propagating cells was influenced by only Hes1 expression and not by any epigenetic mechanism of regulation. Moreover, reverse-phase protein array analysis showed both the Akt and extracellular-signal-regulated kinase pathways as being mainly negatively regulated by miR-199b-5p expression in several medulloblastoma cell lines and in primary cell cultures. We present here the finely tuned regulation of miR-199b-5p in medulloblastoma, underlining its crucial role by its additional targeting of CD15.

Deregulated signaling pathways in glioblastoma multiforme: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic targets

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most malignant and aggressive type of brain tumor with an average life expectancy of less than 15 months. This is mostly due to the highly mutated genome of GBM, which is characterized by the deregulation of many key signaling pathways involving growth, proliferation, survival, and apoptosis. It is critical to explore novel diagnostic and therapeutic strategies that target these pathways to improve the treatment of malignant glioma in the future. This review summarizes the most common and important pathways that are highly mutated or deregulated in GBM and discusses potential therapeutic strategies targeting these pathways.

Invasion precedes tumor mass formation in a malignant brain tumor model of genetically modified neural stem cells

Invasiveness, cellular atypia, and proliferation are hallmarks of malignant gliomas. To effectively target each of these characteristics, it is important to understand their sequence during tumorigenesis. However, because most gliomas are diagnosed at an advanced stage, the chronology of gliomagenesis milestones is not well understood. The aim of the present study was to determine the onset of these characteristics during tumor development. Brain tumor-initiating cells (BTICs) were established by overexpressing H-Ras(V12) in normal neural stem/progenitor cells isolated from the subventricular zone of adult mice harboring a homozygous deletion of the Ink4a/Arf locus. High-grade malignant brain tumors were then created by orthotopic implantation of 10(5) BTICs into the forebrain of 6-week-old wild-type mice. Micewere killed every week for 5 weeks, and tumors were assessed for cellular atypia, proliferation, hemorrhage, necrosis, and invasion. All mice developed highly invasive, hypervascular glioblastoma-like tumors. A 100% penetrance rate and a 4-week median survival were achieved. Tumor cell migration along fiber tracts started within days after implantation and was followed by perivascular infiltration of tumor cells with marked recruitment of reactive host cells. Next, cellular atypia became prominent. Finally, mass proliferation and necrosis were observed in the last stage of the disease. Video monitoring of BTICs in live brain slices confirmed the early onset of migration, as well as the main cell migration patterns. Our results showed that perivascular and intraparenchymal tumor cell migration precede tumor mass formation in the adult brain, suggesting the need for an early and sustained anti-invasion therapy.

Intratumoral heterogeneity of receptor tyrosine kinases EGFR and PDGFRA amplification in glioblastoma defines subpopulations with distinct growth factor response

Glioblastoma (GBM) is distinguished by a high degree of intratumoral heterogeneity, which extends to the pattern of expression and amplification of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs). Although most GBMs harbor RTK amplifications, clinical trials of small-molecule inhibitors targeting individual RTKs have been disappointing to date. Activation of multiple RTKs within individual GBMs provides a theoretical mechanism of resistance; however, the spectrum of functional RTK dependence among tumor cell subpopulations in actual tumors is unknown. We investigated the pattern of heterogeneity of RTK amplification and functional RTK dependence in GBM tumor cell subpopulations. Analysis of The Cancer Genome Atlas GBM dataset identified 34 of 463 cases showing independent focal amplification of two or more RTKs, most commonly platelet-derived growth factor receptor α (PDGFRA) and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Dual-color fluorescence in situ hybridization was performed on eight samples with EGFR and PDGFRA amplification, revealing distinct tumor cell subpopulations amplified for only one RTK; in all cases these predominated over cells amplified for both. Cell lines derived from coamplified tumors exhibited genotype selection under RTK-targeted ligand stimulation or pharmacologic inhibition in vitro. Simultaneous inhibition of both EGFR and PDGFR was necessary for abrogation of PI3 kinase pathway activity in the mixed population. DNA sequencing of isolated subpopulations establishes a common clonal origin consistent with late or ongoing divergence of RTK genotype. This phenomenon is especially common among tumors with PDGFRA amplification: overall, 43% of PDGFRA-amplified GBM were found to have amplification of EGFR or the hepatocyte growth factor receptor gene (MET) as well.

The transcriptional coactivator TAZ regulates mesenchymal differentiation in malignant glioma

Recent molecular classification of glioblastoma (GBM) has shown that patients with a mesenchymal (MES) gene expression signature exhibit poor overall survival and treatment resistance. Using regulatory network analysis of available expression microarray data sets of GBM, including The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), we identified the transcriptional coactivator with PDZ-binding motif (TAZ), to be highly associated with the MES network. TAZ expression was lower in proneural (PN) GBMs and lower-grade gliomas, which correlated with CpG island hypermethylation of the TAZ promoter compared with MES GBMs. Silencing of TAZ in MES glioma stem cells (GSCs) decreased expression of MES markers, invasion, self-renewal, and tumor formation. Conversely, overexpression of TAZ in PN GSCs as well as murine neural stem cells (NSCs) induced MES marker expression and aberrant osteoblastic and chondrocytic differentiation in a TEAD-dependent fashion. Using chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP), we show that TAZ is directly recruited to a majority of MES gene promoters in a complex with TEAD2. The coexpression of TAZ, but not a mutated form of TAZ that lacks TEAD binding, with platelet-derived growth factor-B (PDGF-B) resulted in high-grade tumors with MES features in a murine model of glioma. Our studies uncover a direct role for TAZ and TEAD in driving the MES differentiation of malignant glioma.

Two-order targeted brain tumor imaging by using an optical/paramagnetic nanoprobe across the blood brain barrier

Surgical resection is a mainstay of brain tumor treatments. However, the completed excision of malignant brain tumor is challenged by its infiltrative nature. Contrast enhanced magnetic resonance imaging is widely used for defining brain tumor in clinic. However its ability in tumor visualization is hindered by the transient circulation lifetime, nontargeting specificity, and poor blood brain barrier (BBB) permeability of the commercially available MR contrast agents. In this work, we developed a two-order targeted nanoprobe in which MR/optical imaging reporters, tumor vasculature targeted cyclic [RGDyK] peptides, and BBB-permeable Angiopep-2 peptides are labeled on the PAMAM-G5 dendrimer. This nanoprobe is supposed to first target the α(V)β(3) integrin on tumor vasculatures. Increased local concentration of nanoprobe facilitates the association between BBB-permeable peptides and the low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein (LRP) receptors on the vascular endothelial cells, which further accelerates BBB transverse of the nanoprobe via LRP receptor-mediated endocytosis. The nanoprobes that have penetrated the BBB secondly target the brain tumor because both α(V)β(3) integrin and LRP receptor are highly expressed on the tumor cells. In vivo imaging studies demonstrated that this nanoprobe not only efficiently crossed intact BBB in normal mice, but also precisely delineated the boundary of the orthotropic U87MG human glioblastoma xenograft with high target to background signal ratio. Overall, this two-order targeted nanoprobe holds the promise to noninvasively visualize brain tumors with uncompromised BBB and provides the possibility for real-time optical-image-guided brain tumor resection during surgery.

Downregulation of RKIP is associated with poor outcome and malignant progression in gliomas

Malignant gliomas are highly infiltrative and invasive tumors, which precludes the few treatment options available. Therefore, there is an urgent need to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying gliomas aggressive phenotype and poor prognosis. The Raf Kinase Inhibitory protein (RKIP), besides regulating important intracellular signaling cascades, was described to be associated with progression, metastasis and prognosis in several human neoplasms. Its role in the prognosis and tumourigenesis of gliomas remains unclear.

In the present study, we found that RKIP protein is absent in a low frequency (10%, 20/193) of glioma tumors. Nevertheless, the absence of RKIP expression was an independent prognostic marker in glioma. Additionally, by in vitro downregulation of RKIP, we found that RKIP inhibition induces a higher viability and migration of the cells, having no effect on cellular proliferation and angiogenesis, as assessed by in vivo CAM assay.

In conclusion, this is the largest series studied so far evaluating the expression levels of this important cancer suppressor protein in glioma tumors. Our results suggest that in a subset of tumors, the absence of RKIP associates with highly malignant behavior and poor survival of patients, which may be a useful biomarker for tailored treatment of glioma patients.

Notch signaling and brain tumors

Human brain tumors are a heterogenous group of neoplasms occurring inside the cranium and the central spinal cord. In adults and children, astrocytic glioma and medulloblastoma are the most common subtypes of primary brain tumors. These tumor types are thought to arise from cells in which Notch signaling plays a fundamental role during development. Recent findings have shown that Notch signaling is dysregulated and contributes to the malignant potential of these tumors. Growing evidence point towards an important role for cancer stem cells in the initiation and maintenance of glioma and medulloblastoma. In this chapter we will cover the present findings of Notch signaling in human glioma and medulloblastoma and try to create an overall picture of its relevance in the pathogenesis of these tumors.

Characterization and criteria of embryonic stem and induced pluripotent stem cells for a dopamine replacement therapy

Human pluripotent stem cells provide new choices for sources of A9-type dopaminergic (DA) neurons in clinical trials of neural transplantation for patients with Parkinson's disease (PD). For example, "self" and HLA-matched A9 DA neurons may improve the patient-to-patient variability observed in previous clinical trials using fetal DA neurons and obviate the need for long-term immunosuppression in the patient. Normal chromosomal structure and minimal somatic mutations in pluripotent stem cells are necessary criteria for assuring the safe and reproducible transplantation of differentiated DA neurons into patients with PD in clinical trials. However, with these new choices of cell source, the application of pluripotency assays as criteria to ensure pluripotent stem cell quality becomes less relevant. New more relevant standards of quality control, assurance, and function are required. We suggest that quality assurance measures for pluripotent stem cells need to focus upon readouts for authentic midbrain DA neurons, their integration and growth using in vivo assays, and their long-term functional stability.

A dialog between glioma and microglia that promotes tumor invasiveness through the CCL2/CCR2/interleukin-6 axis

Glioma cells in situ are surrounded by microglia, suggesting the potential of glioma-microglia interactions to produce various outcomes. As chemokines are important mediators of cell-cell communication, we sought first to identify commonly expressed chemokines in 16 human glioma lines. We found CCL2 (macrophage chemoattractant protein-1) messenger RNA to be expressed by the majority of glioma lines. However, these lines did not express the CCL2 receptor, CCR2, which was found on microglia. Next, we overexpressed CCL2 in the U87 glioma line, which has low basal level of CCL2, to investigate the hypothesis that glioma-secreted CCL2 interacts with microglia to affect glioma growth. Stable clones with 10- to 12-fold elevation of CCL2 have similar growth rate and invasive capacity as vector controls when cultured in isolation. However, in coculture with microglia in a three-dimensional collagen gel matrix, the invasiveness of CCL2-overexpressing clones was increased. Gene array analyses were then undertaken and they revealed that interleukin (IL)-6 was consistently increased in the coculture. Recombinant IL-6 enhanced the invasiveness of glioma cells when these were cultured alone, whereas a neutralizing antibody to IL-6 attenuated the microglia-stimulated glioma invasiveness. Finally, we found that human glioma specimens in situ contained IL-6 immunoreactivity that was expressed on CD68+ cells. This study has uncovered a mechanism by which glioma cells exploit microglia for increased invasiveness. Specifically, glioma-derived CCL2 acts upon CCR2-bearing microglia, which then produces IL-6 to stimulate gliomas. The CCL2/CCR2/IL-6 loop is a potential therapeutic target for the currently incurable malignant gliomas.

Emerging roles of glycogen synthase kinase 3 in the treatment of brain tumors

The constitutively active protein glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3), a serine/threonine kinase, acts paradoxically as a tumor suppressor in some cancers while potentiates growth in others. Deciphering what governs its actions is vital for understanding many pathological conditions, including brain cancer. What are seemingly disparate roles of GSK3 stems from the complex regulation of many cellular functions by GSK3. This review focuses on the regulation of GSK3, its role in survival, apoptosis and DNA damage, and finally its potential therapeutic impact in brain cancer. A thorough understanding of this versatile protein is critical for improving the outcome of various diseases, especially cancer.

Prognostic classification of pediatric medulloblastoma based on chromosome 17p loss, expression of MYCC and MYCN, and Wnt pathway activation

Pediatric medulloblastoma is considered a highly heterogeneous disease and a new strategy of risk stratification to optimize therapeutic outcomes is required. We aimed to investigate a new risk-stratification approach based on expression profiles of medulloblastoma cohorts. We analyzed gene expression profiles of 30 primary medulloblastomas and detected strong evidence that poor survival outcome was significantly associated with mRNA expression profiles of 17p loss. However, it was not supported in independent cohorts from previously published data (n = 100). We speculated that this discrepancy might come from complex conditions of two important prognostic determinants: loss of tumor suppressors (chromosome 17p) and high expression of oncogenes c-myc (MYCC) or N-myc (MYCN). When patients were stratified into 5 or 7 subgroups based on simultaneous consideration of these 2 factors while defining the Wnt group as independent, obviously different survival expectancies were detected between the subgroups. For instance, predicted 5-year survival probabilities ranged from 19% to 81% in the 5 subgroups. We also found that age became a significant prognostic marker after adjusting for 17p, MYCC, and MYCN status. Diminished survival in age <3 years was more substantial in subgroups with high expression of MYCC, MYCN, or 17p loss but not in other subgroups, indicating that poor survival outcome might be synergistically affected by these 3 factors. Here we suggest a more tailored subgrouping system based on expression profiles of chromosome 17p, MYCC, and MYCN, which could provide the basis for a novel risk-stratification strategy in pediatric medulloblastoma.

Inhibition of cathepsin L lowers the apoptotic threshold of glioblastoma cells by up-regulating p53 and transcription of caspases 3 and 7

Despite all the progress in cancer treatment, glioblastoma, the most malignant tumor of the central nervous system, remains a terminal disease and new therapeutic approaches are urgently needed. A combination of chemotherapy with modifications that lower the apoptotic threshold of cancer cells could be effective. Cathepsin L inhibition was suggested as one of such modifications but the mechanism of cathepsin L anti-apoptotic activity is largely unknown. In the present study we show that, in U87 glioblastoma cells, cathepsin L is present in the nucleus and regulates the transcription of effector caspases 3 and 7. In cells with low cathepsin L expression, p53 and prohibitin--transcription factors that regulate caspase 7 expression--accumulate in the nuclei. The importance of p53 in this process is highlighted by the fact that in U87 cells with inhibited p53 transcriptional activity or in p53-negative cells U251, cathepsin L inhibition did not influence caspase 7 expression and had minimal effect on the level of apoptosis. Since p53 pathways are often mutated in glioblastoma, the findings of our study need to be considered before using cathepsin L inhibition for glioblastoma therapy and suggest that such adjuvant therapy may be effective only for a subpopulation of p53 wild type glioblastoma patients.

Animal models for glioma drug discovery

INTRODUCTION

High-grade gliomas are among the most deadly of all cancer types and are also the most common malignant primary tumors of the CNS. Large-scale studies that have analyzed the transcriptional and translational expression patterns of glioma have found that the majority of these tumors can be categorized based on specific genomic anomalies. Genetically engineered mouse models (GEMMs) that represent the molecular subgroups of the human disease harbor a variety of molecular alterations that have been proven to drive gliomagenesis. These models provide an opportunity to assess the effects of novel therapies in the presence of specific molecular defects. Research using GEMMs, which are associated with these subclasses, allow researchers to assess drug efficacy by subclass.

AREAS COVERED

In this review, the authors discuss the histological and molecular characteristics of malignant gliomas, the therapies used to treat them and the animal models that closely recapitulate them.

EXPERT OPINION

It is likely that GEMMs that recapitulate the molecular character of human tumors will provide a more accurate prediction of individuals who may be more or less likely to benefit from specific therapies. This knowledge can be then used to drive clinical trial design and this, in turn, could lead to better therapeutic outcomes.

mGlu Receptors and Cancerous Growth

G-protein coupled receptors (GPCR) represent a class of therapeutic targets that have been widely exploited for drug designs and development. Metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) belong to Class C GPCRs and are predominantly involved in maintaining cellular homeostasis in the central nervous system (CNS). The surprising accumulating evidence suggesting other functional roles of mGluRs in human malignancies in addition to synaptic transmission has presented intriguing possibilities to make mGluRs putative novel targets for human cancers. Since our group first described the aberrant expression of mGluR1 as the driving force in melanomagenesis in transgenic mouse models, other subtypes of mGluRs have been implicated in the pathogenesis of various cancer types such as malignant gliomas and medulloblastomas. As such, increased efforts have been generated to elucidate the mechanisms by which mGluRs confer oncogenic potentials. Current knowledge on the participation of various mGluRs in several human cancers suggests that mGluRs are "druggable" members of the GPCR superfamily and their oncogenic implications in cancer, so further understanding on anti-mGluR strategies will be beneficial.

The tumor biology and molecular characteristics of medulloblastoma identifying prognostic factors associated with survival outcomes and prognosis

Medulloblastomas (MB) are highly aggressive primitive neuroectodermal tumors (PNET) usually located in the posterior fossa. Current treatment for MBs, which includes a combination of surgery, chemotherapy and radiation, remain challenging especially in younger patients. However, advances in the understanding of regulatory pathways in cerebellar development have elucidated possible areas of dysfunction involved in tumorigenesis. Multiple studies have demonstrated the importance of the sonic hedgehog, Wnt, and Notch pathways in MB pathogenesis at the molecular level. While staging and prognosis are often based on the Chang classification system, future algorithms will involve identifying molecular markers in order to allow for more specific risk stratifications of various MB subtypes and provide improved correlation with staging and prognosis. Future development of novel therapies that target the heterogeneity of MB and are tailored to the tumor's unique molecular profile may yield improved outcomes for these patients.

Concurrent blood-brain barrier opening and local drug delivery using drug-carrying microbubbles and focused ultrasound for brain glioma treatment

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is a highly malignant brain tumor. The blood-brain barrier (BBB) provides a major obstacle to chemotherapy since therapeutic doses cannot be achieved by traditional drug delivery without severe systemic cytotoxic effects. Recently, microbubble (MB)-enhanced focused ultrasound (FUS) was shown to temporally and locally disrupt the BBB thereby enhancing drug delivery into brain tumors. Here we propose the concept of smart, multifunctional MBs capable of facilitating FUS-induced BBB disruption while serving as drug-carrying vehicles and protecting drugs from rapid degradation. The designed MBs had a high loading capacity (efficiency of 68.01 ± 4.35%) for 1,3-bis(2-chloroethyl)-1- nitrosourea (BCNU). When combined with FUS (1-MHz), these BCNU-MBs facilitated local BBB disruption and simultaneously released BCNU at the target site, thus increasing local BCNU deposition. Encapsulation of BCNU in MBs prolonged its circulatory half-life by 5-fold, and accumulation of BCNU in the liver was reduced 5-fold due to the slow reticuloendothelial system uptake of BCNU-MBs. In tumor-bearing animals, BCNU-MBs with FUS controlled tumor progression (915.3%-39.6%) and improved median survival (29 days-32.5 days). This study provides a new approach for designing multifunctional MBs to facilitate FUS-mediated chemotherapy for brain tumor treatment.

Dishevelled 2 signaling promotes self-renewal and tumorigenicity in human gliomas

Glioblastoma multiforme is the most common glioma variant in adults and is highly malignant. Tumors are thought to harbor a subpopulation of stem-like cancer cells, with the bulk resembling neural progenitor-like cells that are unable to fully differentiate. Although multiple pathways are known to be involved in glioma tumorigenesis, the role of Wnt signaling has been poorly described. Here, we show that Dishevelled 2 (Dvl2), a key component of the Wnt signaling pathway, is overexpressed in human gliomas. RNA interference-mediated depletion of Dvl2 blocked proliferation and promoted the differentiation of cultured human glioma cell lines and primary, patient-derived glioma cells. In addition, Dvl2 depletion inhibited tumor formation after intracranial injection of glioblastoma cells in immunodeficient mice. Inhibition of canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling also blocked proliferation, but unlike Dvl2 depletion, did not induce differentiation. Finally, Wnt5a, a noncanonical Wnt ligand, was also required for glioma cell proliferation. The data therefore suggest that both canonical and noncanonical Wnt signaling pathways downstream of Dvl2 cooperate to maintain the proliferative capacity of human glioblastomas.

Deficiency of mDia, an actin nucleator, disrupts integrity of neuroepithelium and causes periventricular dysplasia

During development of the central nervous system, the apical-basal polarity of neuroepithelial cells is critical for homeostasis of proliferation and differentiation of neural stem cells. While adherens junctions at the apical surface of neuroepithelial cells are important for maintaining the polarity, the molecular mechanism regulating integrity of these adherens junctions remains largely unknown. Given the importance of actin cytoskeleton in adherens junctions, we have analyzed the role of mDia, an actin nucleator and a Rho effector, in the integrity of the apical adherens junction. Here we show that mDia1 and mDia3 are expressed in the developing brain, and that mDia3 is concentrated in the apical surface of neuroepithelium. Mice deficient in both mDia1 and mDia3 develop periventricular dysplastic mass widespread throughout the developing brain, where neuroepithelial cell polarity is impaired with attenuated apical actin belts and loss of apical adherens junctions. In addition, electron microscopic analysis revealed abnormal shrinkage and apical membrane bulging of neuroepithelial cells in the remaining areas. Furthermore, perturbation of Rho, but not that of ROCK, causes loss of the apical actin belt and adherens junctions similarly to mDia-deficient mice. These results suggest that actin cytoskeleton regulated by Rho-mDia pathway is critical for the integrity of the adherens junctions and the polarity of neuroepithelial cells, and that loss of this signaling induces aberrant, ectopic proliferation and differentiation of neural stem cells.

DNA damage response and growth factor signaling pathways in gliomagenesis and therapeutic resistance

The dismal prognosis of glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is mainly due to the poor response of GBM patients to any therapeutic modalities, which include ionizing radiation and DNA-alkylating agents. In the last few years, the important role of the DNA damage response (DDR) pathway in tumor formation and modulation of therapeutic response has been appreciated. Interestingly, several of the genetic alterations commonly found in GBMs (such as epidermal growth factor receptor amplification and PTEN inactivation) have also recently been shown to regulate the activity of the DNA repair machinery and, consequently, the response to DNA-damaging agents used routinely in the clinic. In this review, we focus on some of these findings that suggest that at least some of the pathways driving GBM formation could be directly responsible for the therapy resistance of this tumor type. Possible therapeutic approaches exist that may either overcome or take advantage of these GBM genetic alterations to improve the response of these tumors to DNA-damaging therapy.

Standard of care therapy for malignant glioma and its effect on tumor and stromal cells

Glioblastoma is the most common and deadly of the primary central nervous system tumors. Recent advances in molecular characterization have subdivided these tumors into at least three main groups. In addition, these tumors are cellularly complex with multiple stromal cell types contributing to the biology of the tumor and treatment response. Because essentially all glioma patients are treated with radiation, various chemotherapies and steroids, the tumor that finally kills them has been modified by these treatments. Most of the investigation of the effects of therapy on these tumors has focused on the glioma cells per se. However, despite the importance of the stromal cells in these tumors, little has been done to understand the effects of treatment on stromal cells and their contribution to disease. Understanding how current standard therapy affects the biology of the tumor and the tumor stroma may provide insight into the mechanisms that are important to the inhibition of tumor growth as well as the biology of recurrent tumors.

Differential regulation of N-Myc and c-Myc synthesis, degradation, and transcriptional activity by the Ras/mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway

Myc transcription factors are important regulators of proliferation and can promote oncogenesis when deregulated. Deregulated Myc expression in cancers can result from MYC gene amplification and translocation but also from alterations in mitogenic signaling pathways that affect Myc levels through both transcriptional and post-transcription mechanisms. For example, mutations in Ras family GTPase proteins that cause their constitutive activation can increase cellular levels of c-Myc by interfering with its rapid proteasomal degradation. Although enhanced protein stability is generally thought to be applicable to other Myc family members, here we show that c-Myc and its paralog N-Myc respond to oncogenic H-Ras (H-Ras(G12V)) in very different ways. H-Ras(G12V) promotes accumulation of both c-Myc and N-Myc, but although c-Myc accumulation is achieved by enhanced protein stability, N-Myc accumulation is associated with an accelerated rate of translation that overcomes a surprising H-Ras(G12V)-mediated destabilization of N-Myc. We show that H-Ras(G12V)-mediated degradation of N-Myc functions independently of key phosphorylation sites in the highly conserved Myc homology box I region that controls c-Myc protein stability by oncogenic Ras. Finally, we found that N-Myc and c-Myc transcriptional activity is associated with their proteasomal degradation but that N-Myc may be uniquely dependent on Ras-stimulated proteolysis for target gene expression. Taken together, these studies provide mechanistic insight into how oncogenic Ras augments N-Myc levels in cells and suggest that enhanced N-Myc translation and degradation-coupled transactivation may contribute to oncogenesis.

Effects of electrode surface modification with chlorotoxin on patterning single glioma cells

A microchip patterned with arrays of single cancer cells can be an effective platform for the study of tumor biology, medical diagnostics, and drug screening. However, patterning and retaining viable single cancer cells on defined sites of the microarray can be challenging. In this study we used a tumor cell-specific peptide, chlorotoxin (CTX), to mediate glioma cell adhesion on arrays of gold microelectrodes and investigated the effects of three surface modification schemes for conjugation of CTX to the microelectrodes on single cell patterning, which include physical adsorption, covalent bonding mediated by N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS), and covalent bonding via crosslinking succinimidyl iodoacetate and Traut's (SIA-Traut) reagents. The CTX immobilization to microelectrodes was confirmed by high-resolution X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Physically adsorbed CTX showed better support for cell adhesion and is more effective in confining adhered cells on the electrodes than covalently-bound CTX. Furthermore, cell adhesion and spreading on microelectrodes were quantified in real-time by impedance measurements, which revealed an impedance signal from physically adsorbed CTX electrodes four times greater than the signal from covalently-bound CTX electrodes.

Addressing brain tumors with targeted gold nanoparticles: a new gold standard for hydrophobic drug delivery?

EGF-modified Au NP-Pc 4 conjugates showed 10-fold improved selectivity to the brain tumor compared to untargeted conjugates. The hydrophobic photodynamic therapy drug Pc 4 can be delivered efficiently into glioma brain tumors by EGF peptide-targeted Au NPs. Compared to the untargeted conjugates, EGF-Au NP-Pc 4 conjugates showed 10-fold improved selectivity to the brain tumor. This delivery system holds promise for future delivery of a wider range of hydrophobic therapeutic drugs for the treatment of hard-to-reach cancers.

Genomic profiles of glioma

Recent large-scale genomic profiling studies of glioma have yielded a proliferation of candidate subclasses, biomarkers and therapeutic targets for investigation. Some findings, such as that of IDH mutation in low-grade gliomas and secondary glioblastoma (GBM), fit well into established notions of different routes of gliomagenesis. Other results, such as the division of primary GBM based on signaling pathway alterations, suggest new pathogenetic routes with implications for treatment. The analysis of this data is still in the early stage. Nonetheless, several preliminary findings merit consideration in the development and interpretation of current clinical trials.

The neurobiology of gliomas: from cell biology to the development of therapeutic approaches

Gliomas are the most common type of primary brain tumour and are often fast growing with a poor prognosis for the patient. Their complex cellular composition, diffuse invasiveness and capacity to escape therapies has challenged researchers for decades and hampered progress towards an effective treatment. Recent molecular characterization of tumour cells combined with new insights into cellular diversification that occurs during development, and the modelling of these processes in transgenic animals have enabled a more detailed understanding of the events that underlie gliomagenesis. Combining this enhanced understanding of the relationship between neural stem cell biology and the cell lineage relationships of tumour cells with model systems offers new opportunities to develop specific and effective therapies.

Bright solitary waves in malignant gliomas

We put forward a nonlinear wave model describing the fundamental dynamical features of an aggressive type of brain tumors. Our model accounts for the invasion of normal tissue by a proliferating and propagating rim of active glioma cancer cells in the tumor boundary and the subsequent formation of a necrotic core. By resorting to numerical simulations, phase space analysis, and exact solutions we prove that bright solitary tumor waves develop in such systems. Possible implications of our model as a tool to extract relevant patient specific tumor parameters in combination with standard preoperative clinical imaging are also discussed.

miR-221/222 overexpession in human glioblastoma increases invasiveness by targeting the protein phosphate PTPμ

Glioblastoma is the most frequent brain tumor in adults and is the most lethal form of human cancer. Despite the improvements in treatments, survival of patients remains poor. In order to identify microRNAs (miRs) involved in glioma tumorigenesis, we evaluated, by a miRarray, differential expression of miRs in the tumorigenic glioma LN-18, LN-229 and U87MG cells compared with the non-tumorigenic T98G cells. Among different miRs we focused our attention on miR-221 and -222. We demonstrated the presence of a binding site for these two miRs in the 3' untranslated region of the protein tyrosine phosphatase μ (PTPμ). Previous studies indicated that PTPμ suppresses cell migration and is downregulated in glioblastoma. Significantly, we found that miR-221 and -222 overexpression induced a downregulation of PTPμ as analyzed by both western blot and real-time PCR. Furthermore, miR-222 and -221 induced an increase in cell migration and growth in soft agar in glioma cells. Interestingly, the re-expression of PTPμ gene was able to revert the miR-222 and -221 effects on cell migration. Furthermore, we found an inverse correlation between miR-221 and -222 and PTPμ in human glioma cancer samples. In conclusion, our results suggest that miR-221 and -222 regulate glioma tumorigenesis at least in part through the control of PTPμ protein expression.

Certain imidazotetrazines escape O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase and mismatch repair

Resistance to temozolomide (TMZ), conferred by O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase (MGMT) or mismatch repair (MMR) deficiency, presents obstacles to successful glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) treatment. Activities of novel TMZ analogs, designed to overcome resistance, were tested against isogenic SNB19 and U373 GBM cell lines (V = vector control, low MGMT; M = MGMT overexpression). TMZ and triazene MTIC demonstrated >9-fold resistance in SNB19M cells (cf SNB19V). N-3 methyl ester analog 11 and corresponding triazene 12 inhibited growth of TMZ-sensitive (V) and TMZ-resistant (M) cells (GI(50) <50 μM). Ethyl ester 13 and triazene 14 gave similar profiles. MMR-deficient colorectal carcinoma cells, resistant to TMZ (GI(50) >500 μM), responded to analog 11 and 13 treatment. Cross-resistance to these agents was not observed in cell lines possessing acquired TMZ resistance (SNB19VR; U373VR). Methyl ester 11 blocked SNB19V, SNB19M and SNB19VR cells in S and G(2)/M, causing dose- and time-dependent apoptosis. DNA damage, recruiting excision repair was detected by alkaline comet assay; H2AX phosphorylation indicated a lethal DNA double-strand break formation following analog 11 exposure. Compounds 11 and 13 demonstrated 3.7- and 5.1-fold enhanced activity in base excision repair-deficient Chinese hamster ovary cells; furthermore, poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 inhibition potentiated HCT-116 cells' sensitivity to analog 11. In conclusion, analogs 11 and 13 exert anticancer activity irrespective of MGMT and MMR.

Old proteins - new locations: myoglobin, haemoglobin, neuroglobin and cytoglobin in solid tumours and cancer cells

AIM

The unexpected identification of myoglobin (MB) in breast cancer prompted us to evaluate the clinico-pathological value of MB, haemoglobin (HB) and cytoglobin (CYGB) in human breast carcinoma cases. We further screened for the presence of neuroglobin (NGB) and CYGB in tumours of diverse origin, and assessed the O(2) -response of HB, MB and CYGB mRNAs in cancer cell lines, to better elicit the links between this ectopic globin expression and tumour hypoxia.

METHODS

Breast tumours were analysed by immunohistochemistry for HB, MB and CYGB and correlated with clinico-pathological parameters. Screening for CYGB and NGB mRNA expression in tumour entities was performed by hybridization, quantitative PCR (qPCR) and bioinformatics. Hypoxic or anoxic responses of HB, MB and CYGB mRNAs was analysed by qPCR in human Hep3B, MCF7, HeLa and RCC4 cancer cell lines.

RESULTS

78.8% of breast cancer cases were positive for MB, 77.9% were positive for HB and 55.4% expressed CYGB. The closest correlation with markers of hypoxia was observed for CYGB. Compared to the weakly positive status of MB in healthy breast tissues, invasive tumours either lost or up-regulated MB. Breast carcinomas showed the tendency to silence CYGB. HB was not seen in normal tissues and up-regulated in tumours. Beyond breast malignancies, expression levels of NGB and CYGB mRNAs were extremely low in brain tumours (glioblastoma, astrocytoma). NGB was not observed in non-brain tumours. CYGB mRNA, readily detectable in breast cancer and other tumours, is down-regulated in lung adenocarcinomas. Alpha1 globin (α1 globin) and Mb were co-expressed in MCF7 and HeLa cells; CYGB transcription was anoxia-inducible in Hep3B and RCC4 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first time that HB and CYGB are reported in breast cancer. Neither NGB nor CYGB are systematically up-regulated in tumours. The down-regulated CYGB expression in breast and lung tumours is in line with a tumour-suppressor role. Each of the screened cancer cells expresses at least one globin (i.e. main globin species: CYGB in Hep3B; α1 globin + MB in MCF7 and HeLa). Thus, globins exist in a wide variety of solid tumours. However, the generally weak expression of the endogenous proteins in the cancer argues against a significant contribution to tumour oxygenation. Future studies should consider that cancer-expressed globins might function in ways not directly linked to the binding and transport of oxygen.