Mitochondrial protein import

The mitochondrial precursor protein apocytochrome c strongly influences the order of the headgroup and acyl chains of phosphatidylserine dispersions. A 2H and 31P NMR study

Deuterium and phosphorus nuclear magnetic resonance techniques were used to study the interaction of the mitochondrial precursor protein apocytochrome c with headgroup-deuterated (dioleoylphosphatidyl-L-[2-2H1]serine) and acyl chain deuterated (1,2-[11,11-2H2]dioleoylphosphatidylserine) dispersions. Binding of the protein to dioleoylphosphatidylserine liposomes results in phosphorus nuclear magnetic resonance spectra typical of phospholipids undergoing fast axial rotation in extended liquid-crystalline bilayers with a reduced residual chemical shift anisotropy and an increased line width. 2H NMR spectra on headgroup-deuterated dioleoylphosphatidylserine dispersions showed a decrease in quadrupolar splitting and a broadening of the signal on interaction with apocytochrome c. Addition of increasing amounts of apocytochrome c to the acyl chain deuterated dioleoylphosphatidylserine dispersions results in the gradual appearance of a second component in the spectra with a 44% reduced quadrupolar splitting. Such large reduction of the quadrupolar splitting has never been observed for any protein studied yet. The lipid structures corresponding to these two components could be separated by sucrose gradient centrifugation, demonstrating the existence of two macroscopic phases. In mixtures of phosphatidylserine and phosphatidylcholine similar effects are observed. The induction of a new spectral component with a well-defined reduced quadrupolar splitting seems to be confined to the N-terminus since addition of a small hydrophilic amino-terminal peptide (residues 1-38) also induces a second component with a strongly reduced quadrupolar splitting. A chemically synthesized peptide corresponding to amino acid residues 2-17 of the presequence of the mitochondrial protein cytochrome oxidase subunit IV also has a large perturbing effect on the order of the acyl chains, indicating that the observed effects may be a property shared by many mitochondrial precursor proteins. In contrast, binding of the mature protein, cytochrome c, to acyl chain deuterated phosphatidylserine dispersions has no effect on the deuterium and phosphorus nuclear magnetic resonance spectra, thereby demonstrating precursor-specific perturbation of the phospholipid order. The inability of holocytochrome c to perturb the phospholipid order is due to folding of this protein, since unfolding of cytochrome c by heat or urea treatment results in similar effects on dioleoylphosphatidylserine bilayers, as observed for the unfolded precursor. Implications of these data for the import of apocytochrome c into mitochondria will be discussed.

A novel pathway for secretory proteins?

In eukaryotes, most proteins which are transported to the extracellular space, into mitochondria or into chloroplasts are synthesized as precursor polypeptides containing cleavable N-terminal signal or targeting sequences. We have searched the literature for proteins that are exported from the cytosol without being proteolytically processed. Some of these proteins contain uncleaved signal or targeting sequences. However, among secretory proteins there is a class that does not possess hydrophobic signal sequences and appears to leave the cell by a secretory pathway clearly distinct from the classical route through the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus.

Specialized functions of MHC class I molecules. I. An N-formyl peptide receptor is required for construction of the class I antigen Mta

Maternally transmitted factor (Mtf) is a mitochondrial gene that controls the antigenic polymorphism of the MHC class I maternally transmitted antigen (Mta). Synthetic peptides from the NH2 terminus of the mitochondrially encoded NADH dehydrogenase subunit 1 (ND1) mimic Mtf peptide activity in an allele-specific manner. We show that the minimal ND1-alpha peptide length recognized by Mtaa-specific polyclonal CTLs was between 8 and 12 amino acids, while some Mtaa-specific CTL clones recognized a six amino acid peptide. The N-formyl group at the NH2 terminus of ND1 was essential for Mta activity. Competition experiments using N-substituted ND1-alpha peptides showed that an N-formyl peptide receptor on the target cell, which differs from the chemotactic peptide receptor, was required for Mta expression. The specificity of this receptor can account for the distinct immune restriction of Mta in which Mtf peptides are uniquely restricted by Hmt. It is possible that the Hmt gene product is the N-formyl peptide receptor itself and that it represents a class I antigen presentation molecule specialized for binding, transport, and immune presentation of N-formyl-peptide antigens of mitochondrial and prokaryotic origin.

Uptake of aspartate aminotransferase into mitochondria in vitro causes efflux of malate dehydrogenase and vice versa

Incubation of intact mitochondria with aspartate aminotransferase results in efflux of malate dehydrogenase and vice versa. The export process is specific and rapid. It shows saturation kinetics with respect to the effector enzyme consistent with involvement of a receptor for the effector in the mitochondrial membrane system. Export is inhibited by both beta-mercaptoethanol and by the metal chelating agent bathophenanthroline; both substances inhibit release of malate dehydrogenase by aspartate aminotransferase competitively whereas for release of aspartate aminotransferase by malate dehydrogenase inhibition is non-competitive. The efflux process is dependent on a trans-membrane pH gradient. Exported enzymes differ from the native forms in their dependence of activity on pH. Export of both aspartate aminotransferase and malate dehydrogenase is effected by incubation of mitochondria with the newly-synthesised precursor of aspartate aminotransferase; this observation provides supporting evidence for the physiological significance of the other results reported here. It is speculated that exported enzymes are on a pathway to degradation, and that coupled uptake and export is involved in the co-ordination of synthesis and breakdown of mitochondrial proteins.

Biogenesis of mitochondrial porin: the import pathway

We review here the present knowledge about the pathway of import and assembly of porin into mitochondria and compare it to those of other mitochondrial proteins. Porin, like all outer mitochondrial membrane proteins studied so far is made as a precursor without a cleavable 'signal' sequence; thus targeting information must reside in the mature sequence. At least part of this information appears to be located at the amino-terminal end of the molecule. Transport into mitochondria can occur post-translationally. In a first step, the porin precursor is specifically recognized on the mitochondrial surface by a protease sensitive receptor. In a second step, porin precursor inserts partially into the outer membrane. This step is mediated by a component of the import machinery common to the import pathways of precursor proteins destined for other mitochondrial subcompartments. Finally, porin is assembled to produce the functional oligomeric form of an integral membrane protein which is characterized by its extreme protease resistance.

Phenethyl alcohol disorders phospholipid acyl chains and promotes translocation of the mitochondrial precursor protein apocytochrome c across a lipid bilayer

The interaction of phenethyl alcohol with model membranes and its effect on translocation of the chemically prepared mitochondrial precursor protein apocytochrome c across a lipid bilayer was studied. Phenethyl alcohol efficiently penetrates into monolayers and causes acyl chain disordering judged from deuterium nuclear magnetic resonance measurements with specific acyl chain-deuterated phospholipids. Translocation of apocytochrome c across a phospholipid bilayer was stimulated on addition of phenethyl alcohol indicating that the efficiency of translocation of this precursor protein is enhanced due to a disorder of the acyl chain region of the bilayer.

Carboxylic ester hydrolases in mitochondria from rat skeletal muscle

A mitochondrial pellet, prepared from rat skeletal muscle, contained a number of carboxylic ester hydrolase isoenzymes. The esterases which split alpha-naphthyl acetate were organophosphate sensitive, whereas two out of three indoxyl acetate hydrolysing enzymes were resistant to both organophosphate and organomercury. The activity of the indoxyl acetate esterases was enhanced by the non-ionic detergents Tween-40 and Lubrol. After freezing, thawing and high speed centrifugation most of the alpha-naphthyl acetate splitting enzymes were found in the supernatant, indicating that the enzymes are loosely bound to mitochondrial membranes.

Protein transport into and within chloroplasts

The chloroplast is a complex organelle which carries out a wide range of metabolic processes such as light capture and the biosynthesis of carbohydrates, fatty acid and amino acids. This organelle consists of three separate membrane systems which enclose three distinct soluble phases. Most of the chloroplast proteins are imported from the cytosol and directed into the six different compartments. This import and intraorganellar sorting process makes the chloroplast an interesting and promising system for the analysis of how proteins interact with and are translocated across biological membranes.

Primary structure, in vitro expression and import into mitochondria of a 29/21-kDa subunit of complex I from Neurospora crassa

A full-length cDNA clone coding for a cytoplasmically-synthesized subunit of complex I from Neurospora crassa (apparent molecular mass of 29 kDa) was isolated. DNA sequencing revealed an open reading frame coding for a protein containing 201 amino acids. A molecular mass of 21323 Da was calculated. The precursor polypeptide was efficiently expressed in vitro and imported into isolated mitochondria. It is synthesized without a cleavable signal sequence and needs a membrane potential in order to bind to the mitochondrial membranes.

Early steps in mitochondrial protein import: receptor functions can be substituted by the membrane insertion activity of apocytochrome c

The process of insertion of precursor proteins into mitochondrial membranes was investigated using a hybrid protein (pSc1-c) that contains dual targeting information and, at the same time, membrane insertion activity. pSc1-c is composed of the matrix-targeting domain of the cytochrome c1 presequence joined to the amino terminus of apocytochrome c. It can be selectively imported along either a cytochrome c1 route into the mitochondrial matrix or via the cytochrome c route into the intermembrane space. In contrast to cytochrome c1, pSc1-c does not require the receptor system/GIP for entry into the matrix. The apocytochrome c in the pSc1-c fusion protein appears to exert its membrane insertion activity in such a manner that the matrix-targeting sequence gains direct access to the membrane potential-dependent step. These results attribute an essential function to the receptor system in facilitating the initial insertion of precursors into the mitochondrial membranes.

Regulation of mitochondrial ATP synthesis in mammalian cells by transcriptional control

1. Mitochondrial ATP synthesis (oxidative phosphorylation) is mainly regulated by the membrane potential (respiratory control) and protein synthesis (transcriptional control). 2. According to the current view, genes for enzymes of oxidative phosphorylation are classified as housekeeping genes that are transcribed constitutively. These genes have been sequenced. 3. Four complexes of oxidative phosphorylation (complexes I, III and IV, and ATP synthase) are exceptional oligomers that contain subunits encoded by mitochondrial DNA. The remaining subunits of these complexes, as well as thousands of other mammalian enzymes are encoded by nuclear DNA. 4. It is proposed that ATP synthase (F0F1) and these oligomers supplying energy to F0F1, though they are housekeeping, are under some coordinated transcriptional control. Not transcription, but translation of mitochondrial DNA is mainly regulated. 5. Recently, studies on cloned human genes for the FoF1 beta subunit and 7 enzymes related to ATP synthesis revealed coordinated transcription. Moreover, a novel common cis-element (enhancer) was discovered in the 5'-upstream region of genes for the F1 beta subunit, cytochrome c1 and pyruvate dehydrogenase E1 alpha subunit. 6. In contrast to heme control and catabolite repression of yeast via trans-acting elements such as HAP and GP, signal transduction and coordinated transcription of human oxidative phosphorylation is not directed by CP1 (a HAP homolog), but may be closely related to cell differentiation.

Microbial stress proteins

There is general agreement that a function, perhaps the major function, of stress proteins under normal physiological conditions is to help assembly and disassembly of protein complexes and to catalyse protein-translocation processes. It remains unclear, however, as to what role these processes play in stressed cells. It could be that cells under stress produce abnormal, misfolded or otherwise damaged proteins and that increased synthesis of stress proteins is required to counter protein modifications. A role for stress proteins in recovery of cells from stress, as opposed to a role in helping cells to withstand a lethal stress, is thus suggested. The intracellular location of stress proteins, in the unstressed and stressed cell, is worthy of further studies. Members of the hsp70 family are associated with the cytosol, mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum. There is evidence, particularly from studies on mammalian cells (Tanguay, 1985; Welch and Mizzen, 1988; Arrigo et al., 1988), that following stress hsps migrate to various cellular compartments and subsequently delocalize after stress. However, there is little comparable data from microbial systems for this phenomenon (e.g. Rossi and Lindquist, 1989). The question as to the role of stress proteins in the transient acquisition of thermotolerance remains to be answered. It is insufficient to equate the kinetics of stress-protein synthesis with acquisition of thermotolerance. Quantitative data on the amount of stress protein present at various times, including the recovery period, is required. The demonstration that microbial stress proteins are important antigenic determinants of micro-organisms causing major debilitating diseases in the world is an exciting observation. Studies on the interplay of pathogen and host, both carrying similar antigenic hsp determinants, will be a challenging area for future research. It is likely that E. coli and Sacch. cerevisiae, with their well-established biochemical and genetic properties, will continue to be the experimental systems of choice for studies on stress proteins. On the other hand, it is encouraging that studies on other micro-organisms have expanded in the past few years and have made substantial contributions towards our understanding of the stress response. The ubiquitous nature of the stress response and the remarkable evolutionary conservation of the stress proteins continue to be attractive areas for research.

Molecular analysis of the mitochondrial transcription factor mtf2 of Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The nuclear gene for a new mitochondrial transcription factor (mtf2) was isolated by transformation of mutant pet-ts3504. It was localized on a 6.4 kb fragment of yeast genomic DNA by subcloning and complementation tests. Sequencing of a 1.7 kb DNA fragment revealed an open reading frame of 1320 bp. A transcript of 1400 nucleotides can be assigned to this region. Gene disruption of this reading frame in a wild-type yeast strain created a stable pet phenotype. Further analysis of this insertion mutation showed that it is allelic to the mutated gene of pet-ts3504. Comparison of the 5' upstream regions of MTF2 and a previously characterized mitochondrial transcription factor (MTF1) revealed common sequence motifs which may be important for coordinated regulation of gene expression.

The inner mitochondrial membrane contains ion-conducting channels similar to those found in bacteria

Patch-clamp experiments were performed on rat liver mitochondria inner membranes. Application of voltage gradients of either polarity revealed the presence of several different conductances, ranging up to 1.3 nS in symmetrical 150 mM KCl. Evidence is presented that at least those higher than 0.3 nS are substates of the highest conductance channel. Increasing matrix-side-positive (unphysiological) transmembrane voltage gradients favored the switch of the 1.3 nS channel to operation in lower conductance states. The size of these conductances, the presence of substates and the channel behavior are strongly reminiscent on one hand of the observations on the membrane of protoplasts from the gram-positive bacterium Streptococcus faecalis, [Zoratti, M. and Petronilli, V. (1988) FEBS Lett. 240, 105-109], and on the other of some properties of previously described channels of mitochondrial origin.

Blockade of a mitochondrial cationic channel by an addressing peptide: an electrophysiological study

A voltage-dependent cationic channel of large conductance is observed in phospholipid bilayers formed at the tip of microelectrodes from proteoliposomes derived from mitochondrial membranes. This channel was blocked by a 13-residue peptide with the sequence of the amino terminal extremity of the nuclear-coded subunit IV of cytochrome c oxidase. The blockade was reversible, voltage- and dose-dependent. The peptide did not affect the activity of a Torpedo chloride channel observed under the same conditions. From experiments with phospholipid monolayers, it is unlikely that the peptide inserts into bilayers under the experimental conditions used. The blockade was observed from both sides of the membrane, being characterized by more frequent transitions to the lower conductance states, and a maximum effect was observed around 0 mV. Channels, the gating mechanism of which had been eliminated by exposure to trypsin, were also blocked by the peptide. For trypsinized channels, the duration of the closure decreased and the blockade saturated at potentials below -30 mV. These observations are consistent with a translocation of the peptide through the channel. Dynorphin B, which has the same length and charge as the peptide, had some blocking activity. Introduction of negative charges in the peptide by succinylation suppressed the activity.

Phosphatidylserine translocation to the mitochondrion is an ATP-dependent process in permeabilized animal cells

Chinese hamster ovary (CHO-K1) cells were pulse labeled with [3H]serine, and the synthesis of phosphatidyl[3H]ethanolamine from phosphatidyl[3H]serine during the subsequent chase was used as a measure of lipid translocation to the mitochondria. When the CHO-K1 cells were pulse labeled and subsequently permeabilized with 50 micrograms of saponin per ml, there was no significant turnover of nascent phosphatidyl[3H]serine to form phosphatidyl[3H]ethanolamine during an ensuing chase. Saponin treatment rendered greater than 99% of the cells permeable as judged by trypan blue exclusion and depleted them of 85% of their complement of cytosolic proteins as determined by residual lactic acid dehydrogenase activity. Supplementation of the permeabilized cells with 2 mM ATP resulted in significant phosphatidyl[3H]ethanolamine synthesis (83% of that found in intact cells) from phosphatidyl[3H]serine during a subsequent 2-hr chase. Phosphatidyl[3H]ethanolamine synthesis essentially ceased after 2 hr in the permeabilized cells. The translocation-dependent synthesis of phosphatidyl[3H]ethanolamine was a saturable process with respect to ATP concentration in permeabilized cells. The conversion of phosphatidyl[3H]serine to phosphatidyl[3H]ethanolamine did not occur in saponin-treated cultures supplemented with 2 mM AMP, 2 mM 5'-adenylyl imidodiphosphate, or apyrase (2.5 units/ml) plus 2 mM ATP. ATP was the most effective nucleotide, but the addition of GTP, CTP, UTP, and ADP also supported the translocation-dependent synthesis of phosphatidyl[3H]ethanolamine albeit to a lesser extent. These data provide evidence that the interorganelle translocation of phosphatidylserine requires ATP and is largely independent of soluble cytosolic proteins.

Translocation of proteins across the mitochondrial inner membrane, but not into the outer membrane, requires nucleoside triphosphates in the matrix

Work in several laboratories has established that import of proteins across the mitochondrial inner membrane requires an electrochemical potential across that membrane and cleavage of nucleoside triphosphate. We now show that nucleoside triphosphate must be present inside the inner membrane. In contrast, the potential-independent insertion of porin into the outer membrane requires ATP only outside the inner membrane.

Translocation arrest by reversible folding of a precursor protein imported into mitochondria. A means to quantitate translocation contact sites

Passage of precursor proteins through translocation contact sites of mitochondria was investigated by studying the import of a fusion protein consisting of the NH2-terminal 167 amino acids of yeast cytochrome b2 precursor and the complete mouse dihydrofolate reductase. Isolated mitochondria of Neurospora crassa readily imported the fusion protein. In the presence of methotrexate import was halted and a stable intermediate spanning both mitochondrial membranes at translocation contact sites accumulated. The complete dihydrofolate reductase moiety in this intermediate was external to the outer membrane, and the 136 amino acid residues of the cytochrome b2 moiety remaining after cleavage by the matrix processing peptidase spanned both outer and inner membranes. Removal of methotrexate led to import of the intermediate retained at the contact site into the matrix. Thus unfolding at the surface of the outer mitochondrial membrane is a prerequisite for passage through translocation contact sites. The membrane-spanning intermediate was used to estimate the number of translocation sites. Saturation was reached at 70 pmol intermediate per milligram of mitochondrial protein. This amount of translocation intermediates was calculated to occupy approximately 1% of the total surface of the outer membrane. The morphometrically determined area of close contact between outer and inner membranes corresponded to approximately 7% of the total outer membrane surface. Accumulation of the intermediate inhibited the import of other precursor proteins suggesting that different precursor proteins are using common translocation contact sites. We conclude that the machinery for protein translocation into mitochondria is present at contact sites in limited number.

Multiple defects of the respiratory chain including complex II in a family with myopathy and encephalopathy

We report severe deficiency of complex II of the mitochondrial respiratory chain and low activities of complex I and II in skeletal muscle mitochondria from a young woman with progressive muscle weakness and encephalopathy. Defects of complex II have only very rarely been described and this is the first report of decreased immunoreactive subunits associated with severe deficiency of this enzyme.

Protein folding in mitochondria requires complex formation with hsp60 and ATP hydrolysis

Mitochondrial heat-shock protein hsp60 functions in the folding of proteins imported into mitochondria. Folding occurs at the surface of hsp60 in an ATP-mediated reaction, followed by release of the bound polypeptides. We propose that hsp60 catalyses protein folding.

Further investigation on the high-conductance ion channel of the inner membrane of mitochondria

By use of the patch-clamp technique, the inner membrane of mouse liver and heart mitochondria is shown to contain a highly conductive (around 100 pS in symmetrical 150 mM KCl) and voltage-dependent ion channel. This channel closely resembles that previously found in cuprizone-treated mouse liver inner mitochondrial membrane. The paper discusses the electrical properties of the channel and its possible physiological function. The reconstitution in giant liposomes of a partially purified ox heart inner membrane fraction containing the channel and the use of various inhibitors are also presented.

Release of mitochondrial matrix proteins through a Ca2+-requiring, cyclosporin-sensitive pathway

Induction of the inner membrane permeability transition, normally associated with the release of small molecules and ions from the mitochondrial matrix, also causes the release of matrix proteins. The release is linear with time and slow when compared to the time course of mitochondrial swelling. Transient induction of the high permeability state is reflected in transient release of proteins. Cyclosporin A (0.5 nmol/mg protein) or chelation of free Ca2+, which reverses the permeability transition, also block the subsequent release of protein even when added after extended preincubation. Possible mechanisms of protein release are discussed.

Import of cytochrome c into mitochondria: reduction of heme, mediated by NADH and flavin nucleotides, is obligatory for its covalent linkage to apocytochrome c

The covalent attachment of heme to apocytochrome c, and therefore the import of cytochrome c into mitochondria, is dependent on both NADH plus a cytosolic cofactor that has been identified to be FMN or FAD. NADH in concert with flavin nucleotides mediates the reduction of heme. Heme in the reduced state is a prerequisite for its covalent attachment to apocytochrome c by the enzyme cytochrome c heme lyase and thus for subsequent translocation of cytochrome c across the outer mitochondrial membrane during import.

Mitochondrial heat-shock protein hsp60 is essential for assembly of proteins imported into yeast mitochondria

A nuclear encoded mitochondrial heat-shock protein hsp60 is required for the assembly into oligomeric complexes of proteins imported into the mitochondrial matrix. hsp60 is a member of the 'chaperonin' class of protein factors, which include the Escherichia coli groEL protein and the Rubisco subunit-binding protein of chloroplasts.