Degradation and removal methods of antibiotics from aqueous matrices--a review

The potential environmental risks of pharmaceuticals in Vietnamese aquatic systems: case study of antibiotics and synthetic hormones

Presently, many pharmaceuticals are listed as emerging contaminants since they are considered to be great potential threats to environmental ecosystems. These contaminants, thus, present significant research interest due to their extensive use and their physicochemical and toxicological properties. This review discusses a whole range of findings that address various aspects of the usage, occurrence, and potentially environmental risks of pharmaceuticals released from various anthropogenic sources, with emphasis on the aquatic systems in Vietnam. The published information and collected data on the usage and occurrence of antibiotics and synthetic hormone in effluents and aquatic systems of Vietnam is reported. This is followed by a potential ecological risk assessment of these pollutants. The extensive use of antibiotics and synthetic hormones in Vietnam could cause the discharge and accumulation of these contaminants in the aquatic systems and potentially poses serious risks for ecosystems. Vietnam is known to have extensively used antibiotics and synthetic hormones, so these contaminants are inevitably detected in aquatic systems. Thus, an appropriate monitoring program of these contaminants is urgently needed in order to mitigate their negative effects and protect the ecosystems.

Performance of photocatalytic oxidation of tetracycline in aqueous solution by TiO2 nanofibers

The presence of pharmaceutical compounds in water and soil has become an environmental concern. The aim of this study was to evaluate the performance of TiO₂ nanofiber in the oxidation of the antibiotic tetracycline. TiO₂ nanofiber was fabricated by electro-spinning method, and then was calcined at 560°C for 2 h. Central composite design (CCD) statistic model was used to optimize tetracycline concentration, time and pH for TiO₂ catalyst. A tubular Pyrex glass reactor with diameter of 15 cm and height of 30 cm was designed and a 125W Philips HPLN lamp (UV, λ > 254 nm) was used as light source. Samples were measured by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Equation of model suggests a direct relationship between pH and time with efficiency of tetracycline removal. The observations indicated that time is the most significant (scaled estimate = + 28.04) parameter in efficiency of tetracycline removal. The application of response surface methodology yielded the equation of Y = 65.82 + 5.74 pH + 28.04 time + (−3.07)(pH)² + (−6.6)(time)², with R² = 0.986 which represents good reliability of model. Based on the response surface plots optimum conditions for degradation of tetracycline with maximum efficiency of around 95% was attained. These conditions are as follow; concentration: 50 mg/l, pH= 8.3, time= 15 min.

Simultaneous monitoring of photocatalysis of three pharmaceuticals by immobilized TiO2 nanoparticles: chemometric assessment, intermediates identification and ecotoxicological evaluation

In this study, the photocatalytic degradation of a mixture of three pharmaceuticals, Metronidazole (MET), Atenolol (ATL) and Chlorpromazine (CPR), was quantified simultaneously during the UV/TiO2 process. The investigated TiO2 was Millennium PC-500 immobilized on ceramic plates by sol-gel based method. The partial least squares modeling was successfully applied for the multivariate calibration of the spectrophotometric data. The central composite design was applied to model and optimize the UV/TiO2 process. Predicted values of removal efficiency were found to be in good agreement with experimental values for MET, ATL and CPR (R(2)=0.947 and Adj-R(2)=0.906, R(2)=0.977 and Adj-R(2)=0.960 and R(2)=0.982 and Adj-R(2)=0.969, respectively). The optimum initial concentration of pharmaceuticals, reaction time and UV light intensity was found to be 10 mg L(-1), 150 min and 38.45 W m(-2), respectively. The main degradation intermediates of pharmaceuticals produced in this process were identified by GC-MS technique. The chronic ecotoxicity of pharmaceuticals was evaluated using aquatic species Spirodela polyrrhiza prior to and after photocatalysis. The TOC results (90% removal after 16 h) and ecotoxicological experiments revealed that the photocatalysis process could effectively mineralize and reduce the ecotoxicity of the pharmaceuticals from their aqueous solutions.

Xenobiotics removal by adsorption in the context of tertiary treatment: a mini review

Many xenobiotics, including several pharmaceuticals and pesticides, are poorly treated in domestic wastewater treatment plants. Adsorption processes, such as with activated carbons, could be a solution to curb their discharge into the aquatic environment. As adsorbent-like activated carbon is known to be expensive, identifying promising alternative adsorbent materials is a key challenge for efficient yet affordable xenobiotic removal from wastewaters. As part of the effort to address this challenge, we surveyed the literature on pharmaceutical and pesticide xenobiotics and built a database compiling data from 38 scientific publications covering 65 xenobiotics and 58 materials. Special focus was given to the relevance and comparability of the data to the characteristics of the adsorbent materials used and to the operating conditions of the batch tests inventoried. This paper gives an in-depth overview of the adsorption capacities of various adsorbents. The little data on alternative adsorbent materials, especially for the adsorption of pharmaceuticals, makes it difficult to single out any one activated carbon alternative capable of adsorbing pesticides and pharmaceuticals at the tertiary stage of treatment. There is a pressing need for further lab-scale experiments to investigate the tertiary treatment of discharged effluents. We conclude with recommendations on how future data should best be used and interpreted.

Different removal behaviours of multiple trace antibiotics in municipal wastewater chlorination

The chlorination behaviours of 12 antibiotics belonging to six classes at environmentally relevant concentrations were systematically examined under typical conditions relevant to municipal wastewater chlorination. Cefotaxime, cefalexin, ampicillin and tetracycline were completely removed under all three initial free chlorine dosages (5 mg/L, 10 mg/L, and 15 mg/L). The removal efficiencies of sulphamethoxazole, sulphadiazine, roxithromycin, anhydro-erythromycin, ofloxacin, and trimethoprim were closely correlated to the residual free chlorine concentration, and no further significant mass removal was observed after the residual free chlorine concentration decreased to less than ≈ 0.75 mg/L. Ammonia plays a critical role during chlorination because of its competition with antibiotics for free chlorine to form combined chlorine, which reacts slowly with these antibiotics. Except for norfloxacin and ciprofloxacin, the removal behaviours of the 10 other target antibiotics under ammonia nitrogen concentrations ranging from 2 to 15 mg/L were characterised by a rapid initial removal rate upon contact with free chlorine during the first 5 s-1 min (depending on the specific antibiotic and ammonia nitrogen concentration) and then a much slower removal rate. Free chlorine was responsible for the reaction with antibiotics during the rapid stage (first 5 s-1 min), whereas combined chlorine reacted with antibiotics in the subsequent slow stage. Combined chlorine can remove norfloxacin and ciprofloxacin at a relatively faster rate. The presence of suspended solids at 30 mg/L slightly decreased the antibiotic removal rate. The kinetic rate constants decreased by 2.1-13.9%, while the half-lives increased by 2.0-15.0% compared to those of a 0 mg/L suspended solid for the target antibiotics.

Effects of environmental factors on sulfamethoxazole photodegradation under simulated sunlight irradiation: kinetics and mechanism

To advance the knowledge of the environmental fate of sulfamethoxazole (SMX), we systematically investigated the effects of natural water constituents and synthetic substances (i.e., TiO2 nanoparticles (nTiO2) and Ti-doped beta-Bi2O3 (NTB)) on the photodegradation kinetics of SMX under xenon lamp irradiation. The photolysis of SMX in aqueous solution followed first-order kinetics. Our results showed that higher concentrations of SMX, fulvic acid, suspended sediments, NTB and higher pH value decreased the photodegradation rates of SMX, whereas H2O2 improved the SMX photodegradation. TiO2 nanoparticles had a dual effect on photodegradation due to their photocatalytic activity and photoabsorption of photons. No intermediates more toxic toward Vibrio fischeri than SMX were produced after direct photolysis and photocatalytic degradation for 3 hr. The photolysis of SMX involved three pathways: hydroxylation, cleavage of the sulfonamide bond, and fragmentation of the isoxazole ring. This study lays the groundwork for a better understanding of the environmental fate of SMX.

Ozonation of metoprolol in aqueous solution: ozonation by-products and mechanisms of degradation

This study investigated the degradation pathway of metoprolol, a widely used β-blocker, in the ozonation via the identification of generated ozonation by-products (OPs). Structure elucidation of OPs was performed using HPLC coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight high-resolution mass spectrometry. Seven OPs were identified, and four of these have not been reported elsewhere. Identified OPs of metoprolol included aromatic ring breakdown by-products; aliphatic chain degraded by-products and aromatic ring mono-, di-, and tetrahydroxylated derivatives. Based on the detected OPs, metoprolol could be degraded through aromatic ring opening reaction via reaction with ozone (O3) and degradation of aliphatic chain and aromatic ring via reaction with hydroxyl radical (•OH).

Photodegradation of nalidixic acid assisted by TiO(2) nanorods/Ag nanoparticles based catalyst

Two different nanosized TiO2-based catalysts supported onto glass with tailored photocatalytic properties upon irradiation by UV light were successfully employed for the degradation of nalidixid acid, a widely diffused antibacterial agent of environmental relevance known to be non-biodegradable. Anatase rod-like TiO2 nanocrystals (TiO2NRs) and a semiconductor oxide-noble metal nanocomposite TiO2 NRs/Ag nanoparticles (NPs), synthesized by colloidal chemistry routes, were cast onto glass slide and employed as photocatalysts. A commercially available catalyst (TiO2 P25), also immobilized onto a glass slide, was used as a reference material. It was found that both TiO2 NRs/Ag NPs composite and TiO2 NRs demonstrated a photocatalytic efficiency significantly higher than the reference TiO2 P25. Specifically, TiO2 NRs/Ag NPs showed a photoactivity in nalidixic acid degradation 14 times higher than TiO2 P25 and 4 times higher than bare TiO2 NRs in the first 60min of reaction. Several by-products were identified by HPLC-MS along the nalidixic acid degradation, thus getting useful insight on the degradation pathway. All the identified by-products resulted completely removed after 6h of reaction.

Mineralization of sulfanilamide by electro-Fenton and solar photoelectro-Fenton in a pre-pilot plant with a Pt/air-diffusion cell

The mineralization of sulfanilamide solutions at pH 3.0 was comparatively studied by electro-Fenton (EF) and solar photoelectro-Fenton (SPEF) using a 2.5 L pre-pilot plant containing a Pt/air-diffusion cell coupled with a solar photoreactor. Organics were primordially oxidized by hydroxyl radical (OH) formed from Fenton's reaction between H₂O₂ generated at the cathode and added Fe(2+) and/or under the action of sunlight. A mineralization up to 94% was achieved using SPEF, whereas EF yielded much poorer degradation. The effect of current density and Fe(2+) and drug concentrations on the degradation rate, mineralization current efficiency and energy cost per unit DOC mass of EF and/or SPEF was examined. The sulfanilamide decay always followed a pseudo first-order kinetics, being more rapid in SPEF due to the additional generation of OH induced by sunlight on Fe(III) species. Catechol, resorcinol, hydroquinone and p-benzoquinone were identified as aromatic intermediates. The final solutions treated by EF contained Fe(III) complexes of maleic, fumaric, oxamic and mainly oxalic acids, which are hardly destroyed by OH. The quick photolysis of Fe(III)-oxalate complexes by sunlight explains the higher oxidation ability of SPEF. The N content of sulfanilamide was mainly mineralized as NH₄⁺ ion and in much lesser extent as NO₃⁻ ion, whereas most of its initial S was converted into SO₄²⁻ ion.

Degradation of sulfamethazine by gamma irradiation in the presence of hydrogen peroxide

The gamma irradiation-induced degradation of sulfamethazine (SMT) in aqueous solution in the presence of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) was investigated. The initial SMT concentration was 20mg/L and it was irradiated in the presence of extra H2O2 with initial concentration of 0, 10 and 30 mg/L. The results showed that gamma irradiation was effective for removing SMT in aqueous solution and its degradation conformed to the pseudo first-order kinetics under the applied conditions. When initial H2O2 concentration was in the range of 0-30 mg/L, higher concentration of H2O2 was more effective for the decomposition and mineralization of SMT. However, the removal of total organic carbon (TOC) was not as effective as that of SMT. Total nitrogen (TN) was not removed even at absorbed dose of 5 kGy, which was highest dose applied in this study. Major decomposition products of SMT, including degradation intermediates, organic acids and some inorganic ions were detected by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and ion chromatography (IC). Sulfate (SO4(2-)), formic acid (HCOOH), acetic acid (CH3COOH), 4-aminophenol, 4-nitrophenol were identified in the irradiated solutions. Possible pathways for SMT decomposition by gamma irradiation in aqueous solution were proposed.

Electrochemical incineration of omeprazole in neutral aqueous medium using a platinum or boron-doped diamond anode: degradation kinetics and oxidation products

The electrochemical incineration of omeprazole, a widely prescribed gastrointestinal drug which is detected in natural waters, has been studied in a phosphate buffer of pH 7.0 by anodic oxidation with electrogenerated H(2)O(2) (AO-H(2)O(2)) operating at constant current density (j). The experiments were carried out in a cell equipped with either a Pt or a boron-doped diamond (BDD) anode and an air-diffusion cathode to continuously produce H(2)O(2). In these systems, organics are mainly oxidized by hydroxyl radicals formed at the Pt or BDD surface from water oxidation. A partial total organic carbon (TOC) abatement close to 78% for omeprazole was achieved by AO-H(2)O(2) with a BDD anode after consumption of 18 Ah L(-1) at 100 mA cm(-2), whereas the alternative use of Pt did not allow mineralizing the drug. However, the drug was totally removed using both anodes, although it decayed more rapidly using BDD. In this latter system, increasing j accelerated the degradation process, but lowering the mineralization current efficiency. Greater drug content also enhanced the degradation rate with higher mineralization degree and current efficiency. The kinetics for omeprazole decay always followed a pseudo-first-order reaction and its rate constant increased with increasing j and with decreasing its concentration. Seven heteroaromatic intermediates and four hydroxylated derivatives were detected by LC-MS, while nine short-linear carboxylic acids were identified and quantified by ion-exclusion HPLC. These acids were largely accumulated using Pt and rapidly removed using BDD, thus explaining the partial mineralization of omeprazole achieved by AO-H(2)O(2) with the latter anode. The release of inorganic ions such as NO(3)(-), NH(4)(+) and SO(4)(2-) was followed by ionic chromatography. A plausible reaction sequence for omeprazole mineralization involving all intermediates detected is proposed.

Application of electrolysis to inactivation of antibacterials in clinical use

Contamination of surface water by antibacterial pharmaceuticals (antibacterials) from clinical settings may affect aquatic organisms, plants growth, and environmental floral bacteria. One of the methods to decrease the contamination is inactivation of antibacterials before being discharged to the sewage system. Recently, we reported the novel method based on electrolysis for detoxifying wastewater containing antineoplastics. In the present study, to clarify whether the electrolysis method is applicable to the inactivation of antibacterials, we electrolyzed solutions of 10 groups of individual antibacterials including amikacin sulfate (AMK) and a mixture (MIX) of some commercial antibacterials commonly prescribed at hospitals, and measured their antibacterial activities. AMK was inactivated in its antibacterial activities and its concentration decreased by electrolysis in a time-dependent manner. Eighty to ninety-nine percent of almost all antibacterials and MIX were inactivated within 6h of electrolysis. Additionally, cytotoxicity was not detected in any of the electrolyzed solutions of antibacterials and MIX by the Molt-4-based cytotoxicity test.

Urban wastewater treatment plants as hotspots for the release of antibiotics in the environment: a review

Urban wastewater treatment plants (UWTPs) are among the main sources of antibiotics' release into various compartments of the environment worldwide. The aim of the present paper is to critically review the fate and removal of various antibiotics in wastewater treatment, focusing on different processes (i.e. biological processes, advanced treatment technologies and disinfection) in view of the current concerns related to the induction of toxic effects in aquatic and terrestrial organisms, and the occurrence of antibiotics that may promote the selection of antibiotic resistance genes and bacteria, as reported in the literature. Where available, estimations of the removal of antibiotics are provided along with the main treatment steps. The removal efficiency during wastewater treatment processes varies and is mainly dependent on a combination of antibiotics' physicochemical properties and the operating conditions of the treatment systems. As a result, the application of alternative techniques including membrane processes, activated carbon adsorption, advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), and combinations of them, which may lead to higher removals, may be necessary before the final disposal of the effluents or their reuse for irrigation or groundwater recharge.

Removal of quinolone antibiotics from wastewaters by sorption and biological degradation in laboratory-scale membrane bioreactors

Laboratory-scale batch experiments were developed to investigate the main removal routes for 6 commonly found quinolones (ciprofloxacin, moxifloxacin, norfloxacin, ofloxacin, pipemidic acid, and piromidic acid), in wastewaters from a wastewater treatment plant, at μg L(-1) levels in an aerobic sludge system from a membrane bioreactor (MBR) pilot plant. It was demonstrated that sorption and biotransformation were the main removal routes for the target antibiotics over other possible pathways, as volatilization or hydrolysis, under the experimental conditions. Mass balances indicated that sorption on sludge played a dominant role in the elimination of antibiotics from waters. The sorption coefficient K(d) depended strongly on temperature and on the quinolone type and were higher at lower temperatures and for piperazinylic quinolones. K(d) values were between 516 and 3746 L kg(-1) in the temperature range of 9-38°C. Higher mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) increased quinolone removal efficiency mainly by sorption. Quinolone biodegradation constituted a secondary pathway, and could be described by first-order kinetics with degradation-rate constants ranging from 8.0 × 10(-4)h(-1) to 1.4 × 10(-2)h(-1) within the same temperature range and MLSS from 7000 to 15,000 mg L(-1). Biodegradation depended on the MLSS and temperature, but also on the initial chemical oxygen demand (COD). Higher biodegradation rates were observed at higher MLSS and temperature, as well as at low initial COD. Ciprofloxacin and moxifloxacin registered the highest biodegradation percentages (52.8% and 47.2%, respectively, at 38°C and 15,000 mg L(-1) MLSS), which is evidence that, despite the known persistence of this group of antibiotics and removal from waters mainly by sorption, it was possible to improve their removal by biodegradation, with an appropriate selection of conditions and control of process variables, as a preliminary step towards the elimination of these antibiotics from the environment. Further research is needed on the possibilities of removing sorbed antibiotics from sludge.

Chemical and toxicological evaluation of an emerging pollutant (enrofloxacin) by catalytic wet air oxidation and ozonation in aqueous solution

This study evaluates the degradation efficiency of enrofloxacin (ENR) by catalytic wet air oxidation (CWAO) and ozonation. Results obtained by CWAO experiments show that 99.5% degradation, 37.0% chemical oxidation demand (COD) removal and 51.0% total organic carbon (TOC) conversion were obtained when 100 mol% FeCl(3) and 25 mol% NaNO(2) at 150 °C under 0.5 MPa oxygen pressure after 120 min are used. The degradation products are identified by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and ion chromatography (IC). The oxidation end products, F(-), NO(3)(-) and NH(4)(+) were determined by IC. The BOD(5)/COD ratio as a measure of the biodegradability of the parent compound increased from 0.01 to 0.12 after 120 min of reaction time, indicating an improved biodegradability of the parent compound. The inhibition of bioluminescence of the marine bacteria V. fischeri decreased from 43% to 12% demonstrating a loss in toxicity of ENR during CWAO. Ozonation of 0.2 mM ENR was carried out with an ozone concentration of 7.3 g m(-3) at pH 7. ENR decomposition with a degradation rate of 87% was obtained corresponding to the reaction time. Moderate changes in COD (18%) and TOC (17%) removal has been observed. The bioluminescence inhibition increased from 8% to 50%, due to the generation of toxic degradation products during ozonation. In comparison to the widely use of well developed method of ozonation CWAO exhibits better performance in terms of COD, TOC removals and generates less toxic products.

Removal of sulfamethoxazole from solution by raw and chemically treated walnut shells

PURPOSE

The sorption of sulfamethoxazole, a frequently detected pharmaceutical compound in the environment, onto walnut shells was evaluated.

METHODS

The sorption proprieties of the raw sorbent were chemically modified and two additional samples were obtained, respectively HCl and NaOH treated. Scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and thermogravimetric (TG/DTG) techniques were applied to investigate the effect of the chemical treatments on the shell surface morphology and chemistry. Sorption experiments to investigate the pH effect on the process were carried out between pH 2 and 8.

RESULTS

The chemical treatment did not substantially alter the structure of the sorbent (physical and textural characteristics) but modified the surface chemistry of the sorbent (acid-base properties, point of zero charge-pH(pzc)). The solution pH influences both the sorbent's surface charge and sulfamethoxazole speciation. The best removal efficiencies were obtained for lower pH values where the neutral and cationic sulfamethoxazole forms are present in the solution. Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms were applied to the experimental adsorption data for sulfamethoxazole sorption at pH 2, 4, and 7 onto raw walnut shell. No statistical difference was found between the two models except for the pH 2 experimental data to which the Freundlich model fitted better.

CONCLUSION

Sorption of sulfamethoxazole was found to be highly pH dependent in the entire pH range studied and for both raw and treated sorbent.

Hydrolysis of sulphonamides in aqueous solutions

Hydrolysis is one of the most common reactions controlling abiotic degradation and is one of the main paths by which substances are degraded in the environment. Nevertheless, the available information on this process for many compounds, including sulphonamides (a group of antibiotic drugs widely used in veterinary medicine), is very limited. This is the first study investigating the hydrolytic stabilities of 12 sulphonamides, which were determined according to OECD guideline 111 (1st category reliability data on the basis of regulatory demands on data quality for the environmental risk assessment of pharmaceuticals). Hydrolysis behaviour was examined at pH values normally found in the environment. This was prefaced by a discussion of the acid-base properties of sulphonamides. All the sulphonamides tested were hydrolytically stable at pH 9.0, nine (apart from sulphadiazine, sulphachloropyridazine and sulphamethoxypyridazine) were stable in this respect at pH 7.0 and two (sulphadiazine and sulphaguanidine) at pH 4.0 (hydrolysis rate≤10%; t(0.5 (25°C))>1 year). The degradation products were identified, indicating two independent mechanisms of this process. Our results show that under typical environmental conditions (pH and temperature) sulphonamides are hydrolytically stable with a long half-life; they thus contribute to the on-going assessment of their environmental fate.

Phytoplankton toxicity of the antibiotic chlortetracycline and its UV light degradation products

Two common freshwater phytoplankton species Microcystis aeruginosa and Scenedesmus obliquus were employed as test organisms to investigate the toxic effects of chlortetracycline widely used in human medicine and veterinary as antibiotic. Toxicity assays were performed into two parts: antibiotic toxicity test and antibiotic degraded products toxicity test. In general, chlortetracycline had significantly toxic effect on population growth and chlorophyll-a accumulation of two phytoplankton. Although M. aeruginosa had ability to grow after exposed to chlortetracycline at 0.5 mg L(-1), its photosynthesis function was also disrupted. Compared with the data in two phytoplankton species, the chlorophyceae was more sensitive than the cyanophyceae. The adverse effect on S. obliquus was stronger than that on M. aeruginosa with increasing concentrations. In addition, for M. aeruginosa, regardless of the UV light degradation time, the treated chlortetracycline also had adverse effect on population growth and chlorophyll-a accumulated. The degraded chlortetracycline under any treatment time was more toxic for S. obliquus than chlortetracycline itself excluding under 24 h. However, the correlation between the toxicity and degradation time was not clear and toxicity enhanced in fact did not follow the increase or decrease in degradation time. Our study showed that the antibiotic chlortetracycline and its degraded products had adverse effect on freshwater phytoplankton, the former has not been reported before and the latter has been overlooked in other research in the past.

Fast and comprehensive multi-residue analysis of a broad range of human and veterinary pharmaceuticals and some of their metabolites in surface and treated waters by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to quadrupole-linear ion trap tandem mass spectrometry

The present work describes the development of an analytical method, based on automated off-line solid phase extraction (SPE) followed by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to quadrupole linear ion trap tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-QqLIT) for the determination of 81 pharmaceutical residues, covering various therapeutic groups, and some of their main metabolites, in surface and treated waters (influent and effluent wastewaters, river, reservoir, sea and drinking water). For unequivocal identification and confirmation, two selected reaction monitoring (SRM) transitions per compound are monitored. Quantification is performed by the internal standard approach, indispensable to correct matrix effects. Moreover, to obtain an extra tool for confirmation of positive findings, an information dependent acquisition (IDA) experiment was performed, with SRM as survey scan and an enhanced product ion (EPI) scan as dependent scan. Compound identification was carried out by library search, matching the EPI spectra achieved at one fixed collision energy with those present in a library. The main advantages of the method are automation and speed-up of sample preparation by the reduction of extraction volumes for some matrices, the fast separation of a big number of pharmaceuticals, its high sensitivity (limits of detection in the low ng/L range), selectivity, due to the use of tandem mass spectrometry, reliability since a significant number of isotopically labeled compounds are used as internal standards for quantification and finally, the analysis of tap, reservoir and sea waters, since information about occurrence of pharmaceuticals in these matrices is still sparse. As part of the validation procedure, the method developed was applied to the analysis of pharmaceutical residues in waste and surface waters from different sites in Catalonia (North East of Spain).

Mineralization of flumequine in acidic medium by electro-Fenton and photoelectro-Fenton processes

The mineralization of flumequine, an antimicrobial agent belonging to the first generation of synthetic fluoroquinolones which is detected in natural waters, has been studied by electrochemical advanced oxidation processes (EAOPs) like electro-Fenton (EF) and photoelectro-Fenton (PEF) with UVA light. The experiments were performed in a cell containing a boron-doped diamond (BDD) anode and an air-diffusion cathode to generate H(2)O(2) at constant current. The Fe(2+) ion added to the medium increased the solubility of the drug by the formation of a complex of intense orange colour and also reacted with electrogenerated H(2)O(2) to form hydroxyl radical from Fenton reaction. Oxidant hydroxyl radicals at the BDD surface were produced from water oxidation. A partial mineralization of flumequine in a solution near to saturation with optimum 2.0mM Fe(2+) at pH 3.0 was achieved by EF. The PEF process was more powerful, giving an almost total mineralization with 94-96% total organic carbon removal. Increasing current accelerated both treatments, but with decreasing mineralization current efficiency. Comparative treatments using a real wastewater matrix led to similar degradation degrees. The kinetics for flumequine decay always followed a pseudo-first-order reaction and its rate constant, similar for both EAOPs, raised with increasing current. Generated carboxylic acids like malonic, formic, oxalic and oxamic acids were quantified by ion-exclusion HPLC. Fe(III)-oxalate and Fe(III)-oxamate complexes were the most persistent by-products under EF conditions and their quicker photolysis by UVA light explains the higher oxidation power of PEF. The release of inorganic ions such as F(-), NO(3)(-) and in lesser extent NH(4)(+) was followed by ionic chromatography.