Construction of magnetic azo-linked porous polymer for highly-efficient enrichment and separation of phenolic endocrine disruptors from environmental water and fish

Developing effective methods for highly sensitive detection of phenolic endocrine disruptors (EDCs) is especially urgent. Herein, a magnetic hydroxyl-functional porous organic polymer (M-FH-POP) was facilely synthesized by green diazo-couple reaction using basic fuchsin and hesperetin as monomer for the first time. M-FH-POP delivered superior adsorption performance for phenolic EDCs. The adsorption mechanism was hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interaction and π-π interplay. With M-FH-POP as adsorbent, a magnetic solid phase extraction method was established for extracting trace phenolic EDCs (bisphenol A, 4-tert-butylphenol, bisphenol F and bisphenol B) in water and fish before ultra-high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry analysis. The method displayed low detection limit (S/N = 3) of 0.05-0.15 ng mL-1 for water and 0.08-0.3 ng g-1 for fish. The spiked recoveries were 88.3 %-109.8 % with the relative standard deviations of 2.4 %-6.4 %. The method offers a new strategy for sensitive determination of phenolic EDCs in water and fish samples.

Occurrence and spatiotemporal distribution of natural and synthetic steroid hormones in soil, water, and sediment systems in suburban agricultural area of Guangzhou City, China

Steroid hormones are highly potent compounds that can disrupt the endocrine systems of aquatic organisms. This study explored the spatiotemporal distribution of 49 steroid hormones in agricultural soils, ditch water, and sediment from suburban areas of Guangzhou City, China. The average concentrations of Σsteroid hormones in the water, soils, and sediment were 97.7 ng/L, 4460 ng/kg, and 9140 ng/kg, respectively. Elevated hormone concentrations were notable in water during the flood season compared to the dry season, whereas an inverse trend was observed in soils and sediment. These observations were attributed to illegal wastewater discharge during the flood season, and sediment partitioning of hormones and manure fertilization during the dry season. Correlation analysis further showed that population, precipitation, and number of slaughtered animals significantly influenced the spatial distribution of steroid hormones across various districts. Moreover, there was substantial mass transfer among the three media, with steroid hormones predominantly distributed in the sediment (60.8 %) and soils (34.4 %). Risk quotients, calculated as the measured concentration and predicted no-effect concentration, exceeded 1 at certain sites for some hormones, indicating high risks. This study reveals that the risk assessment of steroid hormones requires consideration of their spatiotemporal variability and inter-media mass transfer dynamics in agroecosystems.

Fast and sustainable planar yeast-based bioassay for endocrine disruptors in complex mixtures: Start of cell cultivation to result within one day

High-performance thin-layer chromatography hyphenated with planar multiplex bioassays and high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry contributes to the non-target detection or even identification of active compounds in complex mixtures such as food, feed, cosmetics, commodities, and environmental samples. It can be used to discover previously unknown harmful or active substances in complex samples and to tentatively assign molecular formulas. This method is already faster than the commonly used in vitro assays along with liquid chromatographic separations, but overnight cell cultivation still prevents a planar bioassay from being performed within one day. There is also still potential for optimization in terms of sustainability. To achieve this, the planar bioassay protocols for the detection of androgen-like and estrogen-like compounds were harmonized. The successful minimization of the cell culture volume enabled accelerated cell cultivation, which allowed the bioassay to be performed within one day. This was considered a milestone achieved, as up to 23 samples per plate can now be analyzed from the start of cultivation to the biological endpoint on the same day. Doubling the substrate amount and increasing the pH of the silica gel layer led to a more sensitive and selective bioassay due to the enhanced fluorescence of the formed end-product. The faster and more sustainable bioassay protocol was applied to complex samples such as sunscreen and red wine to detect estrogen-like compounds. The developed method was validated by comparison with a standard method.

A review of endocrine disrupting chemicals migration from food contact materials into beverages

A significant and pressing issue revolves around the potential human exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), which pose a substantial risk primarily through contaminated beverages. However, a comprehensive review for comparison of the migration rates of EDCs into these matrixes is currently lacking. This study reviews the beverages contamination with EDCs, including phthalates (PAEs), bisphenol A (BPA), hormone-like compounds, elements, and other organic EDCs. Also, the EDCs migration into milk and other dairy products, coffee, tea, and cold beverages related to their release from contact materials, preparation components, and storage conditions are briefly summarized. The data illustrates that besides the contamination of raw materials, the presence of EDCs associated with the type of food contact materials (FCMs)and their migration rate is increased with acidity, temperature, and storage time. The highest concentration of PAEs was detected from plastic and synthetic polymer films, while BPA strongly leaches from epoxy resins and canned metal. Furthermore, the presence of elements with endocrine disrupting characteristics was confirmed in cold beverages, soft drinks, hot drink and milk. Moreover, hormone-like compounds have been found to be released from coffee preparation components. Despite the few data about the migration rate of other EDCs including UV-stabilizers, surfactants, and antibacterial compounds into beverages, their presence was reported into milk, coffee, and different beverages, especially in packed samples. Studies on the EDCs leaching have primarily focused on PAEs and BPA, while other compounds require further investigation. Regardless, the possible risk that EDCs pose to humans through beverage consumption cannot be overlooked.

Microcarrier-based fluorescent yeast estrogen screen assay for fast determination of endocrine disrupting compounds

The presence of endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) in water poses a significant threat to human and animal health, as recognized by regulatory agencies throughout the world. The Yeast Estrogen Screen (YES) assay is an excellent method to evaluate the presence of these compounds in water due to its simplicity and capacity to assess the bioaccessible forms/fractions of these compounds. In the presence of a compound with estrogenic activity, Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells, containing a lacZ reporter gene encoding the enzyme β-galactosidase, are induced, the enzyme is synthesised, and released to the extracellular medium. In this work, a YES-based approach encompassing the use of a lacZ reporter gene modified strain of S. cerevisiae, microcarriers as solid support, and a fluorescent substrate, fluorescein di-β-d-galactopyranoside, is proposed, allowing for the assessment of EDCs' presence after only 2 h of incubation. The proposed method provided an EC50 of 0.17 ± 0.03 nM and an LLOQ of 0.03 nM, expressed as 17β-estradiol. The assessment of different EDCs provided EC50 values between 0.16 and 1.2 × 103 nM. After application to wastewaters, similar results were obtained for EDCs screening, much faster, compared to the conventional 45 h spectrophotometric procedure using a commercial kit, showing potential for onsite high-throughput screening of environmental contamination.

A functionalized glass fiber as the adsorbent for efficient analysis of endocrine disruptors in aqueous environments

Estrogens and bisphenols are typical endocrine disruptors (EDs) that pose a potential hazard to the human body due to their widespread presence in aqueous environments. In this study, a β-cyclodextrin porous crosslinked polymer (β-CD-PCP) was prepared in-situ on a glass fiber surface by a nucleophilic substitution reaction. An effective and sensitive solid phase microextraction method using functionalized glass fiber with β-CD-PCP coating as the adsorbent was established for the detection of 11 EDs in a water environment. The β-CD-PCP was in-situ prepared on a glass fiber surface by a nucleophilic substitution reaction. The β-CD-PCP successfully separated five estrogens (ESTs) and six bisphenols (BPs) through hydrophobic and π-π interactions. The conditions affecting extraction were optimized. Under the optimized conditions, the ESTs obtained a high enrichment effect (1795-2328), low limits of detection (0.047 µg L-1) and a good linearity range (0.2-15.0 µg L-1). Furthermore, the spiked recoveries of analyte ESTs in aqueous environments were between 82.9-115.7 %. The results indicated that the prepared functionalized glass fibers exhibited good adsorption properties, and the established analytical method was reliable for monitoring trace ESTs and BPs in aqueous environments.

Chemical-toxicological insights and process comparison for estrogenic activity mitigation in municipal wastewater treatment plants

Efforts in water ecosystem conservation require an understanding of causative factors and removal efficacies associated with mixture toxicity during wastewater treatment. This study conducts a comprehensive investigation into the interplay between wastewater estrogenic activity and 30 estrogen-like endocrine disrupting chemicals (EEDCs) across 12 municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) spanning four seasons in China. Results reveal substantial estrogenic activity in all WWTPs and potential endocrine-disrupting risks in over 37.5 % of final effluent samples, with heightened effects during colder seasons. While phthalates are the predominant EEDCs (concentrations ranging from 86.39 %) for both estrogenic activity and major EEDCs (phthalates and estrogens), with the secondary and tertiary treatment segments contributing 88.59 ± 8.12 % and 11.41 ± 8.12 %, respectively. Among various secondary treatment processes, the anaerobic/anoxic/oxic-membrane bioreactor (A/A/O-MBR) excels in removing both estrogenic activity and EEDCs. In tertiary treatment, removal efficiencies increase with the inclusion of components involving physical, chemical, and biological removal principles. Furthermore, correlation and multiple liner regression analysis establish a significant (p < 0.05) positive association between solid retention time (SRT) and removal efficiencies of estrogenic activity and EEDCs within WWTPs. This study provides valuable insights from the perspective of prioritizing key pollutants, the necessity of integrating more efficient secondary and tertiary treatment processes, along with adjustments to operational parameters like SRT, to mitigate estrogenic activity in municipal WWTPs. This contribution aids in managing endocrine-disrupting risks in wastewater as part of ecological conservation efforts.

Analytical methods and biomonitoring results in hair for the assessment of exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals: A literature review

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDC) are compounds that alter functions of the endocrine system due to their ability to mimic or antagonize endogenous hormones, or that alter their synthesis and metabolism, causing adverse health effects. Human biomonitoring (HBM) is a reliable method to assess human exposure to chemicals through measurement in human body fluids and tissues. It identifies new sources of exposure and determines their distribution, thereby enabling detection of the most exposed populations. Blood and urine are commonly used for HBM of EDC, but their interest is limited for compounds presenting short half-lives. Hair appears as an interesting alternative insofar as it provides a large exposure window. For the present study, we evaluated the relevance of hair in determining EDC exposure. With this in mind, we undertook a literature review focusing on the bioanalytical aspects and performances of methods developed to determine EDC in hair. The literature review was performed through methodical bibliographical research. Relevant articles were identified using two scientific databases: PubMed and Web of Science, with search equations built from a combination of keywords, MeSH terms and Boolean operators. The search strategy identified 2949 articles. After duplicates were removed, and following title, abstract, and full-text screenings, only 31 were included for qualitative synthesis. Hair collection was mainly performed in the back of the head and preparation involved two processes: cutting into small pieces or grounding to powder. The off-line LC-MS/MS method remains the main technique used to assess EDC through hair. Differences regarding the validation of analytical methods and interpretation of HBM results were highlighted, suggesting a need for international harmonisation to obtain reliable and comparable results. External contamination of hair was identified as a main limitation in the interpretation of results, highlighting the need to better understand EDC transfers through hair and to develop relevant hair decontamination processes.

Ongoing exposure to endocrine disrupting phthalates and alternative plasticizers in neonatal intensive care unit patients

Due to endocrine disrupting effects, di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), a plasticizer used to soften plastic medical devices, was restricted in the EU Medical Devices Regulation (EU MDR 2017/745) and gradually replaced by alternative plasticizers. Neonates hospitalized in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) are vulnerable to toxic effects of plasticizers. From June 2020 to August 2022, urine samples (n = 1070) were repeatedly collected from premature neonates (n = 132, 4-10 samples per patient) born at <31 weeks gestational age and/or <1500 g birth weight in the Antwerp University Hospital, Belgium. Term control neonates (n = 21, 1 sample per patient) were included from the maternity ward. Phthalate and alternative plasticizers' metabolites were analyzed using liquid-chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. Phthalate metabolites were detected in almost all urine samples. Metabolites of alternative plasticizers, di-(2-ethylhexyl)-adipate (DEHA), di-(2-ethylhexyl)-terephthalate (DEHT) and cyclohexane-1,2-dicarboxylic-di-isononyl-ester (DINCH), had detection frequencies ranging 30-95 %. Urinary phthalate metabolite concentrations were significantly higher in premature compared to control neonates (p = 0.023). NICU exposure to respiratory support devices and blood products showed increased phthalate metabolite concentrations (p < 0.001). Phthalate exposure increased from birth until four weeks postnatally. The estimated phthalate intake exceeded animal-derived no-effect-levels (DNEL) in 10 % of samples, with maximum values reaching 24 times the DNEL. 29 % of premature neonates had at least once an estimated phthalate intake above the DNEL. Preterm neonates are still exposed to phthalates during NICU stay, despite the EU Medical Devices Regulation. NICU exposure to alternative plasticizers is increasing, though currently not regulated, with insufficient knowledge on their hazard profile.

Simultaneous determination of environmental endocrine disruptors bisphenol A and 4-nitrophenol bleached from food-contacting materials using the spin-ladder compound La2Cu2O5 modified glassy carbon electrode

Environmental endocrine-disrupting chemicals, Bisphenol A (BPA) and 4-Nitrophenol (4-NP), pose significant risks to reproductive health in both animals and humans. Here, we introduce the first utilization of the 4-leg spin ladder compound La2Cu2O5 as an electrode material for electrochemical sensor. Nanostructured La2Cu2O5 was synthesized via a straightforward Sol-Gel method and thoroughly characterized using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, high-resolution transmission electron microscopy, and powder X-ray diffraction. La2Cu2O5 nanoparticles modified glassy carbon electrode (GCE) exhibited a significant electrocatalytic activity towards the oxidation of BPA and 4-NP in phosphate buffer saline (pH 7.0). Square wave voltammetry studies revealed lowest detection limits of 3 nM for BPA and 2.6 nM for 4-NP over a wider concentration range of 0.01-500 μM. Notably, this study marks the first utilization of La2Cu2O5 for simultaneous electrochemical detection of BPA and 4-NP, demonstrating its potential in this field. Furthermore, the sensor exhibited good sensitivity, reproducibility, and selectivity towards BPA and 4-NP, even in the presence of similar potential organic and inorganic interferents. Additionally, the newly developed sensor enabled simultaneous quantification of BPA and 4-NP in real samples such as packaged milk, river water, and plastic bottles, achieving recovery rates above 95%. Importantly, our results underscore the leaching of BPA into water from thin and thick plastics at elevated temperatures (40 °C-80 °C), emphasizing the utility of the proposed sensor for rapid and simultaneous detection of BPA and 4-NP in environmental and food matrices.

A fast method for the determination of personal care product chemicals in human urine using dispersive liquid-liquid extraction and ultra high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

RATIONALE

Personal care product chemicals (PCPCs) are the chemicals used in personal care products. Many of them are endocrine disruptors and have potential adverse effects on humans. The concentrations of PCPCs in urine are the main biomarker for assessing human exposure.

METHODS

A method was developed for the simultaneous determination of 14 PCPCs in human urine using dispersive liquid-liquid extraction combined with ultra high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS).

RESULTS

Compared with liquid-liquid extraction, this method had the advantages of time efficiency, sensitivity, and limited organic solvent consumption. It produced good linearity (0.9965-0.9996), limits of detection (2.82-36.36 pg mL-1 ), limits of quantitation (9.39-121.08 pg mL-1 ), matrix effect (-0.90%-2.55%), intra-day precision (relative standard deviations [RSDs] <15%), and inter-day precision (RSDs <19.9%). The method had satisfactory relative recovery at three concentration levels.

CONCLUSIONS

A rapid method was developed for the simultaneous quantification of 14 PCPCs in human urine. The practicability of the method was verified with 21 urine from university students. It is expected that this method will provide a powerful reference for the assessment of exposure to PCPCs in large populations.

Hydroxyl and carboxyl group functionalized conjugated microporous nanomaterial as adsorbent for the solid-phase extraction of phenolic endocrine disrupting chemicals from freshwater fish samples

Endocrine disruption chemicals (EDCs) in food can seriously harm human health. In this study, a hydroxyl and carboxyl group functionalized conjugated microporous nanomaterial (CMP) was prepared by Friedel-Crafts reaction and used as solid-phase extraction (SPE) adsorbent. A functionalized CMP based SPE combined with high performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection was built for the determination of phenolic EDCs from nine fish samples. The extraction conditions were optimized by both single factor and response surface methodology (Box-Behnken Design). The established method performed well in terms of the response linearity (in the range of 0.50-100 ng g-1 with coefficient of determination larger than 0.9942), limits of detection (0.15-0.30 ng g-1, S/N of 3), limits of quantification (0.50-1.00 ng g-1, S/N = 10), method recoveries (78.4-121 %) and repeatability (relative standard deviation < 11 %). It can be used as an efficient method to detect trace phenolic EDCs in real fish samples.

Potential application of 2D nano-layered MXene in analysing and remediating endocrine disruptor compounds and heavy metals in water

With the advancement of technologies and growth of the economy, it is inevitable that more complex processes are deployed, producing more heterogeneous wastewater that comes from biomedical, biochemical and various biotechnological industries. While the conventional way of wastewater treatment could effectively reduce the chemical oxygen demand, pH and turbidity of wastewater, trace pollutants, specifically the endocrine disruptor compounds (EDCs) that exist in µg L-1 or ng L-1 have further hardened the detection and removal of these biochemical pollutants. Even in small amounts, EDC could interfere human's hormone, causing severe implications on human body. Hence, this review elucidates the recent insights regarding the effectiveness of an advanced 2D material based on titanium carbide (Ti3C2Tx), also known as MXene, in detecting and removing EDCs. MXene's highly tunable feature also allows its surface chemistry to be adjusted by adding chemicals with different functional groups to adsorb different kinds of EDCs for biochemical pollution mitigation. At the same time, the incorporation of MXene into sample matrices also further eases the analysis of trace pollutants down to ng L-1 levels, thereby making way for a more cleaner and comprehensive wastewater treatment. In that sense, this review also highlights the progress in synthesizing MXene from the conventional method to the more modern approaches, together with their respective key parameters. To further understand and attest to the efficacy of MXene, the limitations and current gaps of this potential agent are also accentuated, targeting to seek resolutions for a more sustainable application.

Association of serum bisphenols, parabens, and triclosan concentrations with Sjögren Syndrome in the Hangzhou, China population

Exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) has been linked to various immune deficiency disorders, including autoimmune diseases like Sjögren Syndrome (SjS). However, the detrimental effects of exposure to EDCs, including bisphenols, parabens, and triclosan (TCS), on SjS have been inadequately documented. Thus, we conducted a cross-sectional study that included both healthy individuals (controls) and patients with SjS (cases). We assessed serum concentrations of bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenol S (BPS), methyl parabens (MeP), ethyl parabens (EtP), and TCS. The relationship between the five EDCs levels and the risk of SjS was also explored. Additionally, we conducted an in-depth analysis of the collective influence of these EDCs mixtures on SjS, employing a weighted quantile sum regression model. Out of the five EDCs analyzed, EtP displayed the highest mean concentration (2.80 ng/mL), followed by BPA (2.66 ng/mL) and MeP (1.99 ng/mL), with TCS registering the lowest level (0.36 ng/mL). Notably, BPS exposure was significantly positively associated with the risk of being diagnosed with SjS (with an odds ratio [OR] of 1.17, p = 0.042). No statistically significant associations with SjS were observed for BPA, MeP, EtP, and TCS (p > 0.05). And we did not observe any significant effects of the EDCs mixture on SjS. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to suggest that BPS may potentially increase the risk of SjS. Although no significant effects were observed between other EDCs and SjS risk, we cannot disregard the potential harm of EDCs due to their non-monotonic dose response.

Green construction of magnetic azo porous organic polymer for highly efficient enrichment and detection of phenolic endocrine disruptors

Porous organic polymers (POPs) are prominent sorbents for effective extraction of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs). However, green and sustainable construction of functional POPs is still challenging. Herein, we developed a magnetic azo POP (Mazo-POP) for the first time using hydroxy-rich natural kaempferol and low-toxic basic fuchsin as monomers through a diazo coupling reaction. The Mazo-POP exhibited excellent extraction capabilities for EDCs with a phenolic structure. Consequently, it was used as a magnetic sorbent for extracting phenolic EDCs from water and fish samples, followed by ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric detection. The Mazo-POP based analytical method afforded a good linearity of 0.06-100 ng mL-1 and 0.3-500 ng g-1 for water and fish samples respectively, with detection limits (S/N = 3) of 0.02-0.5 ng mL-1 and 0.1-1.5 ng g-1, respectively. The method recovery was from 85.2% to 109% and relative standard deviation was less 5.3%. Moreover, the effective adsorption was mainly contributed by hydrogen bond, π-π interaction, pore filling and hydrophobic interaction. This work not only provides an efficient method for sensitive determination of phenolic EDCs, but also highlights the significance of green preparation of environmentally friendly sorbents for enriching/adsorbing pollutants.

Estrogenic activity in wastewater treatment plants through in vitro effect-based assays: Insights into extraction phase

Effluents of wastewater treatment plants can abundantly spread endocrine disrupting chemicals in the environment. To improve water quality monitoring, the use of effect-based tools that measure estrogenic activity has been suggested, however their results could be influenced by different factors. This study compared the estrogenic activity of wastewater samples extracted with two stationary phases and tested with two in vitro effect-based assays to investigate whether and how stationary phases and assays could influence biomonitoring data. During four seasonal periods, the effluents of six WWTPs located in northern Italy were sampled. After the extraction using two different stationary phases (HLB, C18), the samples (n = 72) were tested using two effect-based assays: a gene reporter luciferase assay on mammalian cells (MELN) and yeast estrogen screen assay (YES). The results showed that estrogenic activity of HLB extracts was significantly different from the activity of C18 extracts, suggesting that extraction phase can influence biomonitoring data. Moreover, the estrogenic activity was overall higher using gene reporter MELN assay than using YES assay, suggesting that, due to difference in cell membrane permeability and metabolic activation, the applied cell model can affect the biomonitoring results. Finally, from the comparison between the activity of the final effluent and the environmentally safe estrogenic levels in surface waters, MELN data suggested that the activity of this effluent may pose an environmental risk, while YES data showed that it should not be considered a threat to the receiving surface waters. This study pointed out that a standardized approach is needed to assess the estrogenic activity of waters; it reported important data to select the most suitable stationary phase for samples extraction (samples extracted with C18 sorbent showed higher estradiol equivalent concentration values) and the most appropriate bioassay (gene reporter luciferase MELN assay was more sensitive than YES assay) to assess the environmental risk, thus protecting human health.

Food packaging and endocrine disruptors

OBJECTIVES

Narrative review evaluating food contamination by endocrine disruptors present in food packaging.

DATA SOURCE

The terms "endocrine disruptors" and "food packaging" were used in combination in the PubMed, MEDLINE and SciELO databases, evaluating studies, in humans, published in Portuguese, English, French and Spanish between 1990 and 2023.

DATA SYNTHESIS

Packaging, especially those made from plastic or recycled material, is an important source of food contamination by endocrine disruptors. Bisphenols and phthalates are the endocrine disruptors most frequently associated with food contamination from packaging. However, many unknown substances and even those legally authorized can cause harm to health when exposure is prolonged or when substances with additive effects are mixed. Furthermore, the discarding of packaging can cause contamination to continue into the environment.

CONCLUSION

Although packaging materials are essential for the transport and storage of food, many of them are associated with chemical contamination. As it is not possible to exclude them from our routine, it is important to develop research aimed at identifying the endocrine disruptors present in them, including the effects of chronic exposure; and that regulatory agencies and industry come together to reduce or prevent this risk. Additionally, consumers must be instructed on how to purchase products, handle them and prepare them to reduce the migration of chemical substances into food.

Unveiling the presence of endocrine disrupting chemicals in northern French soils: Land cover variability and implications

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are chemicals that can be found in the environment and have adverse effects on human health by mimicking, perturbing and blocking the function of hormones. They are commonly studied in water surfaces, rarely in soils, although it can be an important source of their presence in the environment. Their detection in soils is analytically challenging to quantify, hence the lack of known background concentrations found in the literature. This scientific research aimed to detect EDCs in soils by analyzing 240 soil samples using an optimized protocol of double extraction and analysis using liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. The optimized protocol allowed for very sensitive detection of the targeted compounds. The results showed a high concentration of 29.391 ng/g of 17β-estradiol in soils and 47.16 ng/g for 17α-ethinylestradiol. Testosterone and Progesterone were detected at a highest of 1.02 and 6.58 ng/g, respectively. The ∑EDCs which included estrogens, progesterone, testosterone and Bisphenol A was found at an average of 22.72 ± 35.46 ng/g in the study area. The results of this campaign showed a heterogeneous geographic distribution of the EDCs compounds in the different zones of study. Additionally, the study conducted a comparison of the concentration of EDCs in different land covers including urban areas, agricultural lands, grasslands and forests. We observed a significant difference between forests and other land covers (p < 0.0001) for 17α-ethinylestradiol, estriol, and progesterone. This presence of EDCs in forest lands is not yet understood and requires further studies concerning its origins, its fate and its effect on human health. This study is the first large-scale sampling campaign targeting EDCs in soils in Europe and the second in the world. It is also the first to assess the concentrations of these compounds based on different land covers.

Endocrine disrupting bisphenol A, 4-tert-octylphenol and 4-nonylphenol in gonads of long-tailed ducks Clangula hyemalis wintering in the southern Baltic

This paper focuses on determining the concentrations of phenol derivatives in the gonads of seabirds and examining the potential factors (age, sex and region) affecting the degree of their bioaccumulation. The study involved assays of bisphenol A (BPA), 4-tert-octylphenol (4-t-OP) and 4-nonylphenol (4-NP) in the gonads of long-tailed ducks taken as bycatch from the Southern Baltic region in 2015-2016. Among phenol derivatives, 4-NP was found to reach the highest concentrations in the gonads of long-tailed ducks, and its concentrations were in the range of <0.1-717.5 ng g-1 dw. The concentrations of BPA and 4-t-OP were similar and amounted to <0.4-181.6 ng g-1 dw and <0.1-192.4 ng g-1 dw respectively. The concentration levels of phenol derivatives in the birds' gonads were similar to the levels which had been observed to have negative endocrine effects in other authors studies. This shows that the studied xenoestrogens can interfere with the reproduction and development of birds. Moreover, adult long-tailed ducks had higher concentrations of phenol derivatives compared to immature ones, possibly resulting from long-term bioaccumulation, as well as from diverse pollution in their respective habitats. Particularly in the case of 4-NP, the median concentrations in gonads of adult birds were 2-fold higher than in immature ones. In turn, among adult long-tailed ducks, phenol derivatives were characterized by higher concentrations in males than in females, with almost 3 times and approx. 3.5 times higher median concentrations of BPA and 4-t-OP, respectively. Lower concentrations of phenol derivatives in female gonads may result from the additional elimination of pollutants from their bodies through the transfer of pollutants from mother to egg. The results show the need for further research on phenol derivatives in the gonads of birds, focusing on their impact on the reproductive system and early development.

Assessment of Endocrine Disruptor Exposure in Hospital Professionals Using Hair and Urine Analyses: An Awareness Campaign

BACKGROUND

In 2021, French public authorities initiated the fourth National Environmental Health Plan to prevent environment-related health risks. This plan primarily focuses on the sensitization of health professionals and health care institutions. Endocrine disruptors (EDs) are environmental factors associated with several adverse health effects, such as reproductive disorders, obesity, and cancer. This study aimed to conduct an awareness campaign among professionals at a general hospital center on the risks related to EDs.

METHODS

Hospital professionals were directly involved in this study, and urine and hair samples were collected to determine bisphenol and paraben exposure levels. Analyses were performed using validated liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry methods, enabling the simultaneous determination of bisphenols and parabens. A questionnaire on lifestyle habits was distributed to assess its relationship with the exposure profiles. Nineteen professionals were recruited for the study.

RESULTS

Bisphenol A was detected in 95% of the urine samples, and the chlorinated derivatives of bisphenol A were between 16% and 63%. parabens showed detection frequencies between 37% and 100%, and methylparaben was quantified at an average concentration of 0.45 ± 0.46 ng/mL. In hair samples, bisphenols A, F, and S were detected at 95%-100%, chlorinated derivatives of bisphenol A were detected at 37%-68%, and parabens were detected at 100%.

CONCLUSIONS

This awareness campaign may encourage health care institutions to adopt a policy of reducing endocrine disruptor exposure among their patients and professionals, who could be educated regarding the risks associated with EDs. Conducting a multicenter study to refine the results herein and establish a dynamic to prevent endocrine disruptor and environmental risks in health care systems would be valuable.

Ultrasound for the degradation of endocrine disrupting compounds in aqueous solution: A review on mechanisms, influence of operating parameters and cost estimation

Availability of drinking water is one of the basic humanitarian goals but remains as a grand challenge that the world is facing today. Currently, water bodies are contaminated not only with conventional pollutants but also with numerous recalcitrant pollutants, such as PPCPs, endocrine disrupting compounds, etc. These emerging pollutants require special attention because of their toxicity to living organisms, bio-resistant and can sustain even after primary and secondary treatments of wastewater. Among different treatment technologies, sonolysis is found to be an innovative and promising technique for the treatment of emerging pollutants present in aqueous solution. Sonolysis is the use of ultrasound to enhance or alter chemical reactions by the formation of free radicals and shock waves which ultimately helps in degradation of pollutants. This review summarizes several studies in the sonochemical literature, including mechanisms of sonochemical process, physical and chemical effects of ultrasound, and the influence of several process variables such as ultrasound frequency, power density, temperature and pH of the medium on degradation performance for endocrine disrupting compounds. In addition, this review highlighted techno-economic perspectives focusing on the total cost required for translating the ultrasound-based processes on a large scale. Overall, the objective of this study is to exhibit a critical review of information available in the literature to encourage and promote future research on sonolysis for the degradation of Endocrine Disrupting Compounds (EDCs).

Atmospheric endocrine disruptors: A systematic review on oestrogenic and androgenic activity of particulate matter

The alarming human health effects induced by endocrine disruptors (ED) have raised the attention of public opinion and policy makers leading worldwide to regulations that are continuously improved to reduce exposure to them. However, decreasing the exposure levels is challenging because EDs are ubiquitous and exposure occurs through multiple routes. The main exposure route is considered ingestion, but, recently, the inhalation has been hypothesized as an important additional route. To explore this scenario, some authors applied bioassays to assess the endocrine activity of air. This review summarizes for the first time the applied methods and the obtained evidences about the in vitro endocrine activity of airborne particulate matter (PM) collected outdoor. Among the bioassay endpoints, (anti)oestrogenic and (anti)androgenic activities were selected because are the most studied endocrine activities. A total of 24 articles were ultimately included in this review. Despite evidences are still scarce, the results showed that PM can induce oestrogenic, antioestrogenic, androgenic and antiandrogenic effects, suggesting that PM has an endocrine disrupting potential that should be considered because it could represent a further source of exposure to EDs. Although it is difficult to estimate how much inhalation can contribute to the total burden of EDs, endocrine activity of PM may increase the human health risk. Finally, the results pointed out that the overall endocrine activity is difficult to predict from the concentrations of individual pollutants, so the assessment using bioassays could be a valuable additional tool to quantify the health risk posed by EDs in air.

Deep eutectic solvents for the determination of endocrine disrupting chemicals

The harmful effects of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) to humans and other organisms in the environment have been well established over the years, and more studies are ongoing to classify other chemicals that have the potential to alter or disrupt the regular function of the endocrine system. In addition to toxicological studies, analytical detection systems are progressively being improved to facilitate accurate determination of EDCs in biological, environmental and food samples. Recent microextraction methods have focused on the use of green chemicals that are safe for analytical applications, and present very low or no toxicity upon disposal. Deep eutectic solvents (DESs) have emerged as one of the viable alternatives to the conventional hazardous solvents, and their unique properties make them very useful in different applications. Notably, the use of renewable sources to prepare DESs leads to highly biodegradable products that mitigate negative ecological impacts. This review presents an overview of both organic and inorganic EDCs and their ramifications on human health. It also presents the fundamental principles of liquid phase and solid phase microextraction methods, and gives a comprehensive account of the use of DESs for the determination of EDCs in various samples.

New analytical method for the determination of endocrine disruptors in human faeces using gas chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals are environmental pollutants that can enter our bodies and cause diverse pathologies. Some bisphenols and parabens have been shown to be capable of modifying proper functioning of the endocrine system. Among other dysfunctions, endocrine-disrupting chemicals can cause changes in intestinal microbiota. Faeces are a convenient matrix that can be useful for identifying the quantity of endocrine disruptors that reach the intestine and the extent to which the organism is exposed to these pollutants. The present work developed a new analytical method to determine 17 compounds belonging to the paraben and bisphenol families found in human faeces. The extraction method was optimized using an ultrasound-assisted extraction technique followed by a clean-up step based on the QuEChERS (Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged and Safe) technique. Optimization was performed using the design of experiments technique. In validation analysis, the method was proven to be linear over a wide range. R-squared outcomes were between 95 and 99%. Selectiveness and sensitivity outcomes were acceptable, with detection limits being between 1 and 10 ng g-1 in all cases, whilst quantification limits were between 3 and 25 ng g-1 in all instances, with the exception of bisphenol AF. The method was deemed accurate, with recovery values being close to 100% and relative standard deviations being lower than 15% in all cases. Applicability was examined by analysing 13 samples collected from volunteers (male and female). All samples were contaminated with at least one of the analytes studied. The most commonly found compounds were methylparaben and bisphenol A, which were detected in almost all samples and quantitatively determined in 11 and 12 samples, respectively. Of the 17 compounds analysed, 11 were found in at least one sample. Outcomes demonstrate that faeces can be a good matrix for the determination of exposure to contaminants of interest here.

Contamination of Bisphenol A, Nonylphenol, Octylphenol, and Estrone in Major Rivers of Mega Manila, Philippines

Endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) such as natural and synthetic hormones as well as phenolic industrial chemicals are considered contaminants of emerging concern in environmental waters. While EDCs carried through rivers may impact ecosystem health and productivity, these compounds are still not widely studied nor regulated. In the present study, we report the occurrence of EDCs in urban rivers in Mega Manila, namely, the Marikina, Pasig, Angat, and Pampanga Rivers that drain into Manila Bay. Endocrine-disrupting compounds may have reached these rivers through domestic wastewater and industrial effluents. Water samples from the rivers were extracted by solid-phase extraction before instrumental analysis using a liquid chromatograph coupled to a mass spectrometer. The analytical method exhibited good linear response (>99% in the concentration range of 1-50 µg/L) and low instrument detection limits (0.14-1.46 µg/L) for the hormones estrone (E1), estradiol, ethinylestradiol, progesterone, and testosterone, and the industrial chemicals bisphenol A, nonylphenol, and octylphenol. Of the hormones, E1 was detected up to 11 ng/L. Bisphenol A, nonylphenol, and octylphenol were measured up to 54, 1878, and 62 ng/L, respectively. Endocrine-disrupting compounds are not yet monitored in water bodies in the Philippines and there are no local guidelines yet on occurrence, pollution prevention, and mitigation. Environ Toxicol Chem 2024;43:259-266. © 2023 SETAC.

Implementation of simple and effective fine droplet formation-based spray-assisted liquid phase microextraction for the simultaneous determination of twenty-nine endocrine disruptor compounds and pesticides in rock, soil, water, moss, and feces samples from antarctica using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

This study established the simultaneous determination of the selected endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) and pesticides in rock, soil, water, moss, and feces samples collected from the Antarctic region. The spray-assisted droplet formation-based liquid phase microextraction (SADF-LPME) coupled to GC-MS system was developed and validated for the screening and monitoring of 29 selected EDCs and pesticides. Binary solvent system, 1:1 (v/v) dichlormethane: 1,2-dichloroethane mixture was employed as an extraction solvent and sprayed onto sample or standard solutions using a straightforward and practical spray apparatus. The factors affecting the extraction process such as extraction solvent type and ratio, extraction solvent volume (spray repetition), vortexing period, and sample pH were properly optimized. Analytical figures of the merit of the method were recorded under the optimal extraction/chromatographic conditions. The LOD, LOQ, and enhancement factor were in the range of 1.0 to 6.6 ng/g, 3.2 to 22.1 ng/g, and 3.7 to 158.9, respectively. The method demonstrated a good linear working range for all the selected analytes with proper coefficients of determination. The usability and reliability of the microextraction strategy was confirmed using seawater, moss, and soil samples, and the %recoveries were within an acceptable range (> 70%) for all examined samples. The environmental samples collected from the Horseshoe and Faure Islands of the Antarctica region were analyzed to assess the potential pollution of EDCs and pesticides. This method has the potential to be employed for the analysis of EDCs in routine analytical laboratories and for controlling and screening the organic pollutant content of different environmental samples.

Fabrication of magnetic Fe3O4 doped β-cyclodextrin microporous organic network for the efficient extraction of endocrine disrupting chemicals from food takeaway boxes

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are a typical class of natural or man-made endogenous hormone agonists or antagonists that can directly or potentially interfere with human endocrine system. However, it is still difficult to analyze trace EDCs directly from complex environment and food matrices. Therefore, the proper sample pretreatment is highly desired and the preparation of efficient adsorbents is of great challenge and importance. Herein, we report the facile one-pot solvothermal synthesis of Fe3O4 nanoparticle doped magnetic β-cyclodextrin microporous organic network composites (MCD-MONs) for the magnetic solid phase extraction (MSPE) of four phenolic EDCs in water and food takeaway boxes prior to the high-performance liquid chromatography analysis. The sheet-like Fe3O4 doped MCD-MONs offered good magnetic property (16.5 emu g-1) and stability, and provided numerous hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic, π-π, and host-guest interaction sites for EDCs. Under the optimal experimental conditions, the established method was successfully verified with wide linear range (2.0-1000 µg L-1), low limits of detection (0.6-1.0 µg L-1), good precisions (intra-day and inter-day RSDs < 5.2 %, n = 3), large enrichment factors (88-98) and adsorption capacity (90.3-255.8 mg g-1), short extraction time (6 min), less adsorbent consumption (3 mg), and good reusability (at least 8 times) for EDCs. The proposed method was successfully applied to detect the trace EDCs in real samples with the recovery of 84.0-99.7 %. This work demonstrated the great potential of MCD-MONs for the efficient MSPE of trace EDCs from complex food takeaway boxes and water samples and uncovered the prospect of CD-based MONs in sample pretreatment.

Public perception on human exposure risk: A case study on endocrine disrupting compounds in the environment

Humans are exposed to environmental risks owing to the broad usage of endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs). However, the subjective evaluation of risk levels and characteristics, as well as the variation in risk processing, have not been thoroughly examined. The objective was to understand the public's perception of the risk associated with human exposure to environmental EDCs and identify any variations in risk perception. In this pioneering study conducted within the distinctive social and cultural context of Malaysia, a developing nation, a quantitative analysis approach was employed to assess the subjective evaluation of risk levels and characteristics among the public while developing a risk perception model. Data gathered from surveys and questionnaires were analyzed to gather information on the public's perception of environmental and health issues pertaining to pesticides, hormones, plastics, medicines, and cosmetics. The analysis revealed that the majority of the public assessed the level of human exposure to environmental risks based on experiential processing, which was influenced by cognitive and affective variables. Interestingly, a higher proportion of individuals in the community had a low risk perception of environmental EDCs, surpassing the overall risk perception by 19.3%. Furthermore, the public showed significant awareness of environmental and health issues related to pesticides, hormones, and plastics but had a lesser inclination to acknowledge the vulnerability of humans to risks associated with medicines and cosmetics. These findings suggest that the public is likely to be exposed to environmental EDCs based on their current perceived risks, and that sociopsychological factors play a significant role in shaping perceptions and judgments. This understanding can inform the development of targeted risk management strategies and interventions to mitigate the potential harm caused by environmental EDCs.

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals in Vietnamese marine fish: Occurrence, distribution, and risk assessment

The release of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) into the aquatic environment, specifically the oceans, is increasing, leading to adverse effects on the marine ecosystem. Using optimized QuEChERS extraction methods, the study created the first contamination profiles of 44 EDCs, including organic ultraviolet compounds, pharmaceutically active compounds, hormones, and phthalate esters, in 114 fish muscle samples from five species collected along the Vietnamese coast. The study found that largehead hairtail exhibited the highest total EDCs at 208.3 ng g-1 lipid weight (lw), while Indian catfish displayed the lowest concentration at 105.5 ng g-1 lw. Besides, the study observed notable variations in the total EDCs across distinct fish species. This study hypothesized that the marine economic characteristics of each research location have a significant role in shaping the pollution profile of EDCs found in fish specimens taken from the corresponding area. As a result, a notable disparity in the composition of organic ultraviolet compounds has been observed among the three regions of North, Central, and South Vietnam (Mann-Whitney U test, p < 0.05). Despite these findings, EDC-contaminated fish did not pose any health risks to Vietnam's coastal population.

The seasonality of the concentration of endocrine phenolic compounds in the matter attached to the surface of microplastics

Rapid biofilm formation on microplastic (MP) surfaces in marine environments and the tendency of hydrophobic pollutants to bioaccumulate may increase the exposure of organisms to ingested plastics and transport pollutants far from their sources. The role of the matter attached to MPs (MaM) in the interactions between MPs and other pollutants in marine environments is poorly understood. This paper studies pollutant sorption in MaM for three phenolic endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs): bisphenol A (BPA), 4-tert-octylphenol (4-t-OP), and 4-nonylphenol (4-NP). Polypropylene (PP), expanded polystyrene (EPS), and polylactide (PLA) MPs were exposed to an environment conducive to biofouling (Vistula Lagoon, Baltic Sea) for four weeks in summer, spring, and winter. The concentrations of EDCs in MaM and the suspended particulate matter (SPM) were similar and were 2-3 orders of magnitude higher than those in water and sediment. The type and morphology of the polymers were less significant for determining the concentrations of EDCs in MaM than the season. The concentrations were higher in the growing season than in winter. EDCs increased linearly with the increase in particulate organic carbon. The relationships between organic carbon partition coefficients and octanol/water partition coefficients indicate that hydrophobic partitioning into organic matter was the dominant mechanism of 4-t-OP and 4-NP binding in MaM and in SPM. For BPA, additional sorption mechanisms seem to be significant. In addition to the direct sorption from ambient water, the binding of phytoplankton-derived particles, most probably via attachment to extracellular polymeric substances, appears to be a source of EDCs in MPs. Rough estimates showed that the largest load of particulate matter and EDCs was attached to expanded polystyrene. This study suggests that the potential negative impacts of MPs on the environment are seasonal and that low-density porous plastics can be particularly effective carriers of large EDC loads.

The environmental occurrence, fate, and risks of 25 endocrine disruptors in Slovenian waters

Natural hormones, synthetic steroids and bisphenols are among the most active endocrine disruptors (EDs) in the aquatic environment, with great potential for causing adverse effects in aquatic organisms and humans. In this study, a focused group of 25 potent estrogenic and other ED compounds were simultaneously measured in wastewaters (WWs) and receiving surface waters (SWs) before and after wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), where their removal efficiency was also estimated. Up to 16 of 25 EDs were successfully quantified in SWs and WWs, with bisphenols BPS, BPA, and BPF together with estriol and chlormadinone being the most prevalent with the highest measured concentrations of up to 35 μg/L in WWs and 400 ng/L in SWs. High load and insufficient removal of these substances by WWTPs lead to a significant increase in their concentrations in the receiving SWs downstream, while other sources could be responsible for an important portion of river contamination with EDs. Removal efficiency was very good for most EDs, although only from 0 to 44 % for E2, which shows a need for the improvement of current removal techniques. E2 and EE2 contribute the most to the alarmingly high risks of the total ED estrogenic potential, with the value increased by 36 % in SWs downstream from WWTPs, and the RQ value for the total estrogenic potential in individual SW samples being three orders of magnitude higher than that representing high risk. An additional comprehensive multi-parameter risk assessment determined high risk quotient and priority index values for BPA, E2, BPS and E1 with values of up to 450 in SWs. Our results show a focused insight into the risks associated with an important group of EDs and the role of WWTPs, while further highlighting the importance of regular monitoring of the environmental occurrence and risks of a focused range of EDs.

Biodegradation and sorption of nutrients and endocrine disruptors in a novel concrete-based substrate in vertical-flow constructed wetlands

Removing phosphorus and endocrine-disruptors (EDC) is still challenging for low-cost sewage treatment systems. This study investigated the efficiency of three vertical-flow constructed wetlands (VFCW) vegetated with Eichhornia crassipes onto red clay (CW-RC), autoclaved aerated concrete (CW-AC), and composite from the chemical activation of autoclaved aerated concrete with white cement (CW-AAC) in the removal of organic matter, nutrients, and estrone, 17β-estradiol, and 17α-ethinylestradiol. The novelty aspect of this study is related to selecting these clay and cementitious-based materials in removing endocrine disruptors and nutrients in VFCW. The subsurface VFCW were operated in sequencing-batch mode (cycles of 48-48-72 h), treating synthetic wastewater for 308 days. The operation consisted of Stages I and II, different by adding EDC in Stage II. The presence of EDC increased the competition for dissolved oxygen (DO) and reduced the active sites available for adsorption, diminishing the removal efficiencies of TKN and TAN and total phosphorus in the systems. CW-RC showed a significant increase in COD removal from 65% to 91%, while CW-AC and CW-AAC maintained stable COD removal (84%-82% and 78%-81%, respectively). Overall, the substrates proved effective in removing EDC, with CW-AC and CW-AAC achieving >60% of removal. Bacteria Candidatus Brocadia and Candidatus Jettenia, responsible for carrying out the Anammox process, were identified in assessing the microbial community structure. According to the mass balance analysis, adsorption is the main mechanism for removing TP in CW-AC and CW-AAC, while other losses were predominant in CW-RC. Conversely, for TN removal, the adsorption is more representative in CW-RC, and the different metabolic routes of microorganisms, biofilm assimilation, and partial ammonia volatilization in CW-AC and CW-AAC. The results suggest that the composite AAC is the most suitable material for enhancing the simultaneous removal of organic matter, nutrients, and EDC in VFCW under the evaluated operational conditions.

Co-exposure to organic UV filters and phthalates and their associations with oxidative stress levels in children: A prospective follow-up study in China

Children are highly vulnerable to environmental pollutants, especially endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs). Previous research has linked both organic UV filters and phthalates exposure to adiposity and pubertal development in children. Nevertheless, the individual and collective effects of these chemicals on this population remain poorly understood. In this study, twelve organic UV filters and metabolites, six phthalate metabolites and two oxidative stress biomarkers were analyzed in a prospective follow-up study in Shanghai, China after a baseline study conducted 1.5 years earlier. Results revealed a positive association between exposure to individual organic UV filters or their mixture and levels of 8-OHdG (β ranging from 0.242 to 0.588, P < 0.05), a marker of oxidative DNA damage. BP-3 and OD-PABA made a greater contribution to oxidative DNA damage than other UV filters. Levels of 8-OHdG were also positively correlated with single phthalate metabolites and their mixture, with MnBP and MMP contributing the most. Stratified analysis found that these associations were mainly observed in girls. Our mixture analysis revealed cumulative risks of oxidative DNA damage when there was co-exposure to these two kinds of EDCs. These results underscore the importance of considering the risks associated with organic UV filters and the necessity of evaluating the effects of all these pollutants, both individually and in mixtures.

Nontargeted Analysis Reveals a Broad Range of Bioactive Pollutants in Drinking Water by Estrogen Receptor Affinity-Mass Spectrometry

Exposure to environmental endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) can cause extensive health issues. However, specific EDCs remain elusive. This work aimed at performing nontargeted identification of estrogen receptor α (ERα)-active compounds using an ERα protein affinity assay combined with high-resolution mass spectrometry in the source and drinking water sampled from major rivers in China. Fifty-one potential ERα-active compounds across 13 categories were identified. For the first time, diisodecyl phenyl phosphate was found to have antiestrogenic activity, and three chemicals (galaxolidone, bensulfuron methyl, and UV234) were plausible ERα ligands. Among the 51 identified compounds, 12 were detected in the aquatic environment for the first time, and the concentration of N-phenyl-2-naphthylamine, a widely used antioxidant in rubber products, was up to 1469 and 1190 ng/L in source and drinking water, respectively. This study demonstrated the widespread presence of known and unknown ERα estrogenic and antiestrogenic pollutants in the major rivers that serve as key sources of drinking water in China and the low removal efficiency of these chemicals in drinking water treatment plants.

Ecological risk assessment of pharmaceuticals and endocrine disrupting compounds in Brazilian surface waters

Pharmaceuticals and endocrine disrupting compounds are organic micropollutants that can cause adverse effects at low concentrations. Their occurrence in surface waters has been reported in several countries, including Brazil, at concentrations on the order of ngL-1, while the concentrations at which toxic effects are observed are often in the range of mg.L-1 to μg.L -1, however few studies have been undertaken to characterize risks they represent in Brazilian surface waters. Thus, the objective of this study was to evaluate the ecological risk to Brazilian surface waters caused by the presence of pharmaceuticals and natural and environmental estrogens. Twenty-nine pharmaceuticals, hormones and environmental estrogens were included in the risk assessment while twelve were discarded due to insufficient data availability. The endocrine disrupting compounds were the most frequently detected (39.8% of the reported concentrations), followed by non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (16.3%), antibiotics (6.6%), antiseptics (5.1%), analgesics (5.1%), antihypertensives (4.6%), and to a lesser extent, lipid controllers, anticonvulsants, antidepressants, antihistamines, antivirals and corticosteroids. Bisphenol-A was the most frequently detected compound, followed by diclofenac, 17-β-estradiol, 17-α-ethynilestradiol, naproxen, triclosan and 4-n-nonylphenol. Acute ecological risk was predicted in two thirds and chronic risk in one third of the water bodies surveyed. The presence of diclofenac or triclosan was determinant for acute risk while estrogenic hormones proved to be decisive for chronic risk. In addition to natural and synthetic endocrine disruptors, the pharmacological groups estimated to have the highest average associated risks were non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, followed by anticonvulsants. No discharge limits exist for most of the compounds found to contribute to ecological risks, indicating the need for regulatory action by the proper Brazilian authorities.

Challenges and Recommendations in Assessing Potential Endocrine-Disrupting Properties of Metals in Aquatic Organisms

New tools and refined frameworks for identifying and regulating endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are being developed as our scientific understanding of how they work advances. Although focus has largely been on organic chemicals, the potential for metals to act as EDCs in aquatic systems is receiving increasing attention. Metal interactions with the endocrine system are complicated because some metals are essential to physiological systems, including the endocrine system, and nonessential metals can have similar physiochemical attributes that allow substitution into or interference with these systems. Consequently, elevated metal exposure could potentially cause endocrine disruption (ED) but can also cause indirect effects on the endocrine system via multiple pathways or elicit physiologically appropriate compensatory endocrine-mediated responses (endocrine modulation). These latter two effects can be confused with, but are clearly not, ED. In the present study, we provide several case studies that exemplify the challenges encountered in evaluating the endocrine-disrupting (ED) potential of metals, followed by recommendations on how to meet them. Given that metals have multiple modes of action (MOAs), we recommend that assessments use metal-specific adverse outcome pathway networks to ensure that accurate causal links are made between MOAs and effects on the endocrine system. We recommend more focus on establishing molecular initiating events for chronic metal toxicity because these are poorly understood and would reduce uncertainty regarding the potential for metals to be EDCs. Finally, more generalized MOAs such as oxidative stress could be involved in metal interactions with the endocrine system, and we suggest it may be experimentally efficient to evaluate these MOAs when ED is inferred. These experiments, however, must provide explicit linkage to the ED endpoints of interest. Environ Toxicol Chem 2023;42:2564-2579. © 2023 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.

The evolution of endocrine disruptor chemical assessments worldwide in the last three decades

Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) encompass a wide variety of substances capable of interfering with the endocrine system, including but not limited to bisphenol A, organochlorines, polybrominated flame retardants, alkylphenols and phthalates. These compounds are widely produced and used in everyday modern life and have increasingly been detected in aquatic matrices worldwide. In this context, this study aimed to carry out a literature review to assess the evolution of EDCs detected in different matrices in the last thirty years. A bibliometric analysis was conducted at the Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar databases. Data were evaluated using the Vosviewer 1.6.17 software. A total of 3951 articles in English were retrieved following filtering. The results demonstrate a gradual and significant growth in the number of published documents, strongly associated with the increasing knowledge on the real environmental impacts of these compounds. Studied were mostly conducted by developed countries in the first two decades, 1993 to 2012, but in the last decade (2013 to 2022), an exponential leap in the number of publications by countries such as China and an advance in research by developing countries, such as Brazil, was verified.

Differences in MCF-7 response to endocrine disruptors in waste, superficial, and treated water from Southern Brazil

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of possible endocrine disruptors in surface and wastewater using a cell proliferation assay in an estrogen-responsive cell line (MCF-7). This study was conducted in the Sinos River (Brazil). The residual water was collected from a Pilot Treatment Plant (using Typha domingensis) and surface waters of the Luis Rau stream, the Sinos River, and the Water Treatment Station (WTS). After exposures (24-120 h), a Sulforhodamine B assay was performed to determine the proliferation rate. The higher increase in proliferation rate was observed with the Luiz Rau stream and the sewage treated by macrophytes in a flotation filter. The results from WTS water remained with a proliferation rate similar to the negative control at all times, suggesting that the conventional treatment is partially effective for the withdrawal of endocrine-disrupting agents. The study demonstrated the efficiency of the MCF-7 line in assessing endocrine disruption caused by wastewater and surface water samples. Our results indicate that conventional water treatment can partially remove the polluting load of endocrine disruptors, minimizing their environmental and public health impacts. Besides, it demonstrates the need to expand sanitary services to improve the population's quality of life.

Assessment of 18 endocrine disrupting chemicals in tap water samples from Klang Valley, Malaysia

Multiclass of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) such as nine perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), five bisphenols, and four parabens were analysed in tap water samples from Malaysia's Klang Valley region. All samples were analysed using liquid chromatography mass tandem spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) with limit of quantitation (LOQ) ranged between 0.015 and 5 ng/mL. Fifteen of the 18 EDCs were tested positive in tap water samples, with total EDC concentrations ranging from 0.28 to 5516 ng/L for all 61 sampling point locations. In a specific area of the Klang Valley, the total concentration of EDCs was found to be highest in Hulu Langat, followed by Sepang, Putrajaya, Petaling, Kuala Lumpur, Seremban, and Gombak/Klang. PFAS and paraben were the most found EDCs in all tap water samples. Meanwhile, ethyl paraben (EtP) exhibited the highest detection rate, with 90.2% of all locations showing its presence. Over 60% of the regions showed the presence of perfluoro-n-butanoic acid (PFBA), perfluoro-n-hexanoic acid (PFHXA), perfluoro-n-octanoic acid (PFOA), perfluoro-n-nonanoic acid (PFNA), and perfluoro-1-octanesulfonate (PFOS), whereas the frequency of detection for other compounds was less than 40%. The spatial distribution and mean concentrations of EDCs in the Klang Valley regions revealed that Hulu Langat, Petaling Jaya, and Putrajaya exhibited higher levels of bisphenol A (BPA). On the other hand, Kuala Lumpur and Sepang displayed the highest mean concentrations of PFBA. In the worst scenario, the estimated daily intake (EDI) and risk quotient of some EDCs in this study exceeded the acceptable daily limits recommended by international standards, particularly for BPA, PFOA, PFOS, and PFNA, where the risk quotient (RQ) was found to be greater than 1, indicating a high risk to human health. The increasing presence of EDCs in tap water is undoubtedly a cause for concern as these substances can have adverse health consequences. This highlights the necessity for a standardised approach to evaluating EDC exposure and its direct impact on human populations' health.

Bisphenol A contamination in aquatic environments: a review of sources, environmental concerns, and microbial remediation

The production of polycarbonate, a high-performance transparent plastic, employs bisphenol A, which is a prominent endocrine-disrupting compound. Polycarbonates are frequently used in the manufacturing of food, bottles, storage containers for newborns, and beverage packaging materials. Global production of BPA in 2022 was estimated to be in the region of 10 million tonnes. About 65-70% of all bisphenol A is used to make polycarbonate plastics. Bisphenol A leaches from improperly disposed plastic items and enters the environment through wastewater from plastic-producing industries, contaminating, sediments, surface water, and ground water. The concentration BPA in industrial and domestic wastewater ranges from 16 to 1465 ng/L while in surface water it has been detected 170-3113 ng/L. Wastewater treatment can be highly effective at removing BPA, giving reductions of 91-98%. Regardless, the remaining 2-9% of BPA will continue through to the environment, with low levels of BPA commonly observed in surface water and sediment in the USA and Europe. The health effects of BPA have been the subject of prolonged public and scientific debate, with PubMed listing more than 17,000 scientific papers as of 2023. Bisphenol A poses environmental and health hazards in aquatic systems, affecting ecosystems and human health. While several studies have revealed its presence in aqueous streams, environmentally sound technologies should be explored for its removal from the contaminated environment. Concern is mostly related to its estrogen-like activity, although it can interact with other receptor systems as an endocrine-disrupting chemical. Present review article encompasses the updated information on sources, environmental concerns, and sustainable remediation techniques for bisphenol A removal from aquatic ecosystems, discussing gaps, constraints, and future research requirements.

Prevalence of Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals in the urban wastewater treatment systems of Dehradun, India: Daunting presence of Estrone

We quantified the occurrences and seasonal variations of the target endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) at four (two major municipals, and two academic institutions) WWTPs in Dehradun city, Uttarakhand, India. The results showed estrone in higher concentrations at μgL-1 levels in influent among the WWTPs, compared to triclosan (TCS) at ngL-1 levels. An astounding concentration of 123.95 μgL-1 was recorded for the estrone in the influent, which is to date the highest ever recorded, globally. Statistical data treatment was performed to test the distribution of the data (Shapiro-Wilk, Anderson-Darling, Lilliefors, and Jarque-Bera tests), and the significant difference between the mean of the wastewater sample population (ANOVA: F statistics, p values, Mann-Whitney test, Tukey's and Dunn's post hoc analysis). Statistical data treatment indicated EDCs concentration with a bi-modal distribution. The Shapiro-Wilk, Anderson-Darling, Lilliefors, and Jarque-Bera tests elucidate a non-normal distribution for the EDCs sample data. A statistically significant difference (F = 8.46; p < 0.0001) in the seasonal data for the abundance of the target EDCs at the WWTPs have been observed. Highest and significantly different mean EDCs concentrations were recorded during the monsoon, compared to the spring (p = 0.025) and summer (p = 0.0004) seasons in the influent waters. The mean influent concentrations of TCS and estrone in monsoon were 66.45 ngL-1 and 78.02 μgL-1, respectively. Maximum removals were recorded for TCS, while maximum negative removal of ∼293% was observed for estrone in the WWTPs. Particularly, the high levels of estrone in the wastewater pose a significant threat as estrone presence could be led to feminization, dysregulation of reproduction in organisms, and carcinogenesis processes in the environment. This study critically highlights the limitation of the WWTPs in the treatment, degradation, and assimilation of EDCs leading to their hyperaccumulation at WWTP effluents, thereby posing a substantial threat to nearby aquatic ecosystems, human health, and the ecological balance of the region.

Review of Endocrine Disrupting Compounds (EDCs) in China's water environments: Implications for environmental fate, transport and health risks

Endocrine Disrupting Compounds (EDCs) are ubiquitous in soil and water system and have become a great issue of environmental and public health concern since the 1990s. However, the occurrence and mechanism(s) of EDCs' migration and transformation at the watershed scale are poorly understood. A review of EDCs pollution in China's major watersheds (and comparison to other countries) has been carried out to better assess these issues and associated ecological risks, compiling a large amount of data. Comparing the distribution characteristics of EDCs in water environments around the world and analyzing various measures and systems for managing EDCs internationally, the significant insights of the review are: 1) There are significant spatial differences and concentration variations of EDCs in surface water and groundwater in China, yet all regions present non-negligible ecological risks. 2) The hyporheic zone, as a transitional zone of surface water and groundwater interaction, can effectively adsorb and degrade EDCs and prevent the migration of high concentrations of EDCs from surface water to groundwater. This suggests that more attention needs to be paid to the role played by critical zones in water environments, when considering the removal of EDCs in water environments. 3) In China, there is a lack of comprehensive and effective regulations to limit and reduce EDCs generated during human activities and their discharge into the water environment. 4) To prevent the deterioration of surface water and groundwater quality, the monitoring and management of EDCs in water environments should be strengthened in China. This review provides a thorough survey of scientifically valid data and recommendations for the development of policies for the management of EDCs in China's water environment.

Socioeconomic and seasonal effects on spatiotemporal trends in estrogen occurrence and ecological risk within a river across low-urbanized and high-husbandry landscapes

Estrogen pollution is a persistent issue in rivers. This study investigated the occurrence, spatiotemporal variation mechanisms, sources, and ecological risks of estrone (E1), 17β-estradiol (E2), estriol (E3), 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2), diethylstilbestrol (DES), and bisphenol-A (BPA) in the waters of the Zijiang River, a tributary of the middle Yangtze River. The results revealed elevated detection frequencies and estrogen concentrations in the dry season compared to the wet season, mainly due to the precipitation dilution effect. Total estrogen concentration ranged from 21.2 to 97.5 ng/L in the dry season, which was significantly correlated to spatial distributions of animal husbandry and population. Among the estrogens studied in the river, E2, BPA, and EE2 were predominant. The collective sources of E1, E2, E3, and EE2 were traced back to human and husbandry excrement, whereas BPA emitted from daily life products, contributing to 55.5% and 42.7% of the total estrogen concentration, respectively. Particularly, the average and median E1, E2, and EE2 concentrations in the river exceeded the environmental quality standards of the European Union. The total estrogenic activity dominated by EE2 exceeded the 1 ng E2/L threshold, with levels exceeding 10 ng E2/L during the dry season. The risk quotients exhibited a high ecological risk of E1 and EE2 to fish and a moderate to high ecological risk of E1 to crustaceans, EE2 to mollusks, and E2 to fish. Therefore, E1, E2, and EE2 pollution of the river may lead to both high estrogenic potency and moderate or high ecological risk; thus, they should be considered priority pollutants in the river. These results yield valuable insights into the spatiotemporal change mechanisms, sources, and ecological risks of estrogens in river water of low-urbanization and rural watersheds.

Assessment of endocrine disruptor pollutants and their metabolites in environmental water samples using a sustainable natural deep eutectic solvent-based analytical methodology

In this work, an evaluation of the occurrence of fifteen phthalates, four metabolites and one adipate in different groundwater, seawater and wastewater samples has been carried out due to their relevance on human health as they act as endocrine disruptors. For this purpose, a sustainable, fast and easy-handling vortex-assisted liquid-liquid microextraction method using a natural hydrophobic deep eutectic solvent based on menthol and carvacrol as extraction agent, combined with ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry technique, has been developed and applied for the first time. An optimization was performed to evaluate four important factors affecting the extraction performance, and an analytical validation was carried out in terms of matrix effect, linearity, extraction efficiency, and sensitivity. Recovery values were obtained in the range 72-119% for all analytes (except for monoethyl phthalate: 61.1-72.3%) with relative standard deviation values lower than 17%. Limits of quantification were found between 0.91 and 8.09 μg L-1. As a result of the assessment of 31 different environmental water samples, monoethyl phthalate, diethyl phthalate, dibutyl phthalate and bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate were detected and quantified at different concentrations in the range 2.59-21.17 μg L-1 in 6 samples, and diallyl phthalate, butyl benzyl phthalate, dipentyl phthalate, dicyclohexyl phthalate, dihexyl phthalate and bis (2-ethylhexyl) adipate were detected in 20 more, showing the exposition of the population to these hazardous substances.

Occurrence, tissue distribution, and risk assessment of progestins, androgens, estrogens, and phenols in wild freshwater fish species

The presence of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in aquatic environments such as water, sediment, and sludge received more and more attention. However, the bioaccumulate properties of EDCs, particularly progestins and androgens, in various tissues of different wild freshwater fish species, as well as their effects on human health, have not been fully studied. The muscle, liver, and gills of three wild fish species obtained from the East Dongting Lake in southern China were examined for the presence of 19 EDCs (4 progestins, 5 androgens, 6 estrogens, and 4 phenols). Seventeen analytes were detected in all fish samples, and the concentrations of progestins, androgens, estrogens, and phenols ranged from ND-78.80 ng/g (wet weight, ww), ND-50.40 ng/g ww, ND-3573.82 ng/g ww, and ND-88.17 ng/g ww, respectively. The bioaccumulation of some EDCs in wild fish from East Dongting Lake was species-specific. Additionally, AND, EES, P4, and E2 were discovered in the liver at higher levels than in the muscle, suggesting that livers had a larger ability for enriching these EDCs than the muscle. Furthermore, the relationships between the fish sizes and the EDC concentrations indicated that total weight and length had a negligible impact on the bioaccumulation of EDCs in various fish species. Most importantly, the effects of EDCs on human health as a result of fish consumption were assessed. Although the estimated daily intakes (EDIs) of most EDCs were much lower compared with the corresponding acceptable daily intakes (ADIs) via consuming fish collected in this study, the EDI of EE2 in Silurus asotus was higher than the ADI of E2, indicating that Silurus asotus from East Dongting Lake should be eaten in moderation by local residents.

Prevalence, distribution, accumulation, and risk of environmental corticosteroids and estrogens in biofilms from the Pearl River Delta

Biofilms play a significant role in the biogeochemical processing of organic matter and the environmental fate of emerging pollutants. In this study, we investigated the occurrence and distribution of 32 endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), including 24 environmental corticosteroids (ECs) and 8 environmental estrogens (EEs), in natural biofilms from the Pearl River system. Their association between biofilms and water and environmental risk were assessed. The ECs and EEs ubiquitously occurred in the biofilms, ranging from <0.61-6.57 ng/g and <0.8-2535 ng/g, respectively. Temporally, there was no obvious variance in either ECs or EEs in the biofilms during the winter and summer, and their concentrations exhibited a spatial trend of upward to midstream, descending downstream, and then seaward attenuation at the estuary. For ECs and EEs, the similar levels of field-derived bioconcentration factors (BCFs) (logarithm values: 2.42-2.86 and 2.72-2.98, respectively) and biofilm organic carbon-normalized partitioning coefficients (Kboc) (3.39-3.69 and 3.35-3.95) suggest the comparable potential of accumulation and sorption by biofilms between these two classes of EDCs. In addition, higher values of BCF and Kboc for the EEs were found in winter and were correspondingly comparable to their distribution coefficients (Kd) and Koc derived from suspended particles and sediment, revealing that biofilms are a competitive environmental compartment for capturing EDCs, particularly during the mature period. A positive logKboc-logKow relationship suggests hydrophobic partitioning as a primary interaction mechanism between the biofilm and EEs. Moreover, high risks from biofilm-associated ECs and EEs might have posed to the fluvial ecosystem. This study provides original insights into the occurrence, fate, and risk of ECs in natural biofilms for the first time and demonstrates that biofilms may not only serve as reservoirs but also serve as sentinels for fluvial EDC contamination. These results contribute to the further understanding of the behavior and fate of EDCs in aquatic environments.

Modeling and insights into the structural characteristics of endocrine-disrupting chemicals

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) can cause serious harm to human health and the environment; therefore, it is important to rapidly and correctly identify EDCs. Different computational models have been proposed for the prediction of EDCs over the past few decades, but the reported models are not always easily available, and few studies have investigated the structural characteristics of EDCs. In the present study, we have developed a series of artificial intelligence models targeting EDC receptors: the androgen receptor (AR); estrogen receptor (ER); and pregnane X receptor (PXR). The consensus models achieved good predictive results for validation sets with balanced accuracy values of 87.37%, 90.13%, and 79.21% for AR, ER, and PXR binding assays, respectively. Analysis of the physical-chemical properties suggested that several chemical properties were significantly (p < 0.05) different between EDCs and non-EDCs. We also identified structural alerts that can indicate an EDC, which were integrated into the web server SApredictor. These models and structural characteristics can provide useful tools and information in the discrimination and mechanistic understanding of EDCs in drug discovery and environmental risk assessment.

Synthesis of amine-functionalized magnetic porous organic polymers for effective extraction of phenolic endocrine disrupting chemicals

Amine-functionalized porous organic polymers (EDA-POP-PC and EDA-POP-BT) were prepared by post-modification of POP-PC and POP-BT with ethylenediamine (EDA) for the first time. The POP-PC and POP-BT were obtained through Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction of potassium tetraphenylborate with p-phthaloyl chloride (PC) and 1,3,5-benzenetricarbonyl trichloride (BT), respectively. The EDA-POPs exhibited superior adsorption capacity for phenolic endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs). After magnetically functionalization, the obtained M-EDA-POP-PC was employed as a magnetic adsorbent for enrichment of phenolic EDCs from real samples prior to high performance liquid chromatography-ultraviolet detection. The current strategy showed low detection limits (S/N = 3) of 0.02-0.07, 0.04-0.08 and 0.04-0.10 ng mL-1 for river water, white peach juice and lychee juice, respectively. The method recoveries were 81.7%-115% with relative standard deviations below 8.6%. The proposed strategy showed good practicality for sensitive determination of phenolic EDCs in real samples.

Carboxyl functionalized sorbent based solid-phase extraction for sensitive determination of endocrine disrupting chemicals in bottled water, juice and milk

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) pose a serious threat to human health even at extremely low concentration. Three carboxyl functionalized porous polymers (PDA-DPBP, PTCDA-DPBP and ODPA-DPBP) were synthesized for the first time and employed as solid-phase extraction sorbent to enrich phenolic EDCs at trace level. Compared with PTCDA-DPBP, ODPA-DPBP and corresponding carboxyl-free counterpart (PC-DPBP), PDA-DPBP delivered superior enrichment efficiency for the phenolic EDCs, which can be ascribed to the strong hydrogen bonding, pore filling, hydrophobic interaction and π-π interaction between PDA-DPBP and phenolic EDCs. Coupled with high performance liquid chromatography, phenolic EDC residues in bottled water, juice and milk samples were enriched and determined. At the optimum conditions, the PDA-DPBP based method provided a good linear response in the range of 0.04-100ng mL-1 for bottled water, 0.07-100ng mL-1 for juice and 0.15-500ng mL-1 for milk samples. The detection limits (S/N=3) were 0.01-0.04, 0.02-0.06 and 0.05-0.10ng mL-1 for bottled water, juice and milk, respectively. The method recoveries were in the range from 81.6% to 116%, with RSDs ≤ 7.7%. This work provides an attractive and reliable alternative method for sensitive determination of phenolic EDCs.

Can oestrogenic activity in air contribute to the overall body burden of endocrine disruptors?

Endocrine disruptors (EDCs) are emerging contaminants that are harmful to health. Human exposure occurs mainly through ingestion or dermal contact, but inhalation could be an additional exposure route; therefore, this study was conducted to evaluate the oestrogenic activity of airborne particulate matter (PM). Outdoor PM was collected for a year in five Italian sites and extracted with organic solvents (four seasonal extracts/site). The oestrogenic activity was assessed using a gene reporter assay (MELN), and the risk to human health through inhalation was quantified using the results. Moreover, extracts were analysed to assess cytotoxicity (WST-1 and LDH assays) on human bronchial cells (BEAS-2B). The extracts induced a significant cytotoxicity and oestrogenic activity. Oestrogenic activity showed a seasonal trend and was correlated with concentrations of benzo(a)pyrene and toxic equivalency factor. Although a low inhalation cancer risk was found, this study confirmed that oestrogenic activity in air could contribute to overall health risks due to EDC exposure.