Hyponatremia and mortality among patients on the liver-transplant waiting list

C-reactive protein predicts short-term mortality in patients with cirrhosis

BACKGROUND & AIMS

We aimed at improving prediction of short-term mortality in cirrhotic inpatients by evaluating C-reactive protein (CRP) as a surrogate marker of systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS).

METHODS

One-hundred and forty-eight consecutive cirrhotic patients with Child-Pugh score ≥ B8 and without hepatocellular carcinoma were prospectively included and followed for 182 days. The primary end point was 6-month survival.

RESULTS

Main baseline characteristics were as follows: alcoholic liver disease in 88.5%; bacterial infection in 37%; hepatorenal syndrome in 7% of cases. CRP range was 1-240 mg/L (median 26 mg/L); 42 patients (28.4%) had SIRS as defined by ACCP/SCCM-criteria. CRP levels were higher in patients with SIRS (50 vs. 21 mg/L; p<0.0001), infection (46 vs. 27 mg/L; p<0.0001), and alcoholic hepatitis (44 vs. 32 mg/L, p=0.049). Forty-two patients died within the first 6 months of follow-up. Short-term mortality was associated with extrahepatic co-morbidities (p=0.002), high MELD score (p<0.001; AUROC=0.67), renal failure (p=0.008), elevated blood lactates (p<0.001), and high baseline CRP levels (p=0.003; AUROC=0.63; best cut-off value at 29 mg/L). Among patients with baseline CRP ≥ 29 mg/L, 32 still had CRP ≥ 29 mg/L at day 15 (group A). Group A was associated with 6-month mortality in the overall population (p<0.001) and also through sensitivity analyses restricted to patients without infection or alcoholic hepatitis. Multivariate analysis (Cox) adjusted for age identified three predictors of mortality: high MELD score (HR=1.08; 95% CI: 1.03-1.12; p<0.001), extrahepatic co-morbidities (HR=2.51; 95% CI: 1.31-4.84; p=0.006), and CRP level (group A) (HR=2.73; 95% CI: 1.41-5.26; p=0.003). The performance of the three variables taken together for predicting death was 0.80 (AUROC).

CONCLUSIONS

In Child-Pugh score ≥ B8 cirrhotic patients, persistent CRP levels ≥ 29 mg/L predicted short-term mortality independently of age, MELD, and co-morbidities, and better than infection or clinically-assessed SIRS.

Primeiro transplante duplo de fígado esquerdo intervivos adultos do Brasil

O transplante hepático inter vivos adulto expandiu as possibilidades terapêuticas para pacientes com insuficiência hepática terminal. A necessidade de um volume hepático adequado que será retirado do doador e necessário ao receptor limita sua utilização em alguns casos. Apresentamos um caso em que se utilizou dois lobos esquerdos de dois doadores vivos no intuito de prover parênquima hepático suficiente ao receptor.

Vasopressin V2-receptor antagonists in patients with cirrhosis, ascites and hyponatremia

Hyponatremia is a common problem in patients with advanced cirrhosis. It develops slowly (paralleling the rate of progression of the liver disease) and usually produces no neurological symptoms, although it may exacerbate hepatic encephalopathy. For patients awaiting liver transplantation a low serum sodium level is a strong predictor of pretransplant mortality, independent of the Model for End-stage Liver Disease score (MELD). The pathogenesis of hyponatremia is related to the hemodynamic changes and secondary neurohormonal adaptations that occur in patients with cirrhosis and ascites. The nonosmotic release of arginine vasopressin is the principle cause of the hyponatremia and vasopressin-receptor antagonists are a new class of drugs recently approved for treatment of cirrhotic hyponatremia. In this article we review the safety and efficacy of V2-receptor antagonists in patients with cirrhosis, ascites and hyponatremia.

Renal failure and hyponatremia in patients with cirrhosis and skin and soft tissue infection. A retrospective study

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Skin and soft tissue infection in cirrhosis is considered a non-severe infection, but specific information is lacking. This study aimed at assessing the characteristics, occurrence of renal failure, and outcome of cirrhotic patients with skin and soft tissue infection.

METHODS

Ninety-two patients with cirrhosis and skin and soft tissue infection admitted to hospital within a 6-year period were retrospectively analyzed. A control group matched by severity of liver disease, admitted for reasons other than infection, was also studied.

RESULTS

Resolution of the infection was achieved in 96% of patients. Twenty (21.7%) patients with skin and soft tissue infection developed renal failure, compared to only five patients (5.4%) of the control group (p=0.001). Renal failure was persistent despite infection resolution in 10 of the 20 patients vs. none of the control group. Renal failure was associated with poor prognosis. Hyponatremia developed in 40% and 25% of the infection and control group, respectively (p=0.028). Within a 3-month follow-up period, 25 patients (23%) with skin and soft tissue infection died or were transplanted compared to only four patients (4%) of the control group (p<0.001). Factors independently associated with mortality in the infection group were: site of acquisition of the infection and MELD-sodium score at diagnosis.

CONCLUSIONS

Skin and soft tissue infection is a severe complication of cirrhosis with high frequency of renal failure and hyponatremia that may persist despite resolution of the infection. MELD-sodium score is useful to assess 3-month mortality in these patients.

Different models in predicting the short-term prognosis of patients with hepatitis B virus-related acute-on-chronic liver failure

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Effective assessing the prognosis of patients with end-stage liver disease is always challenging. This study aimed to investigate the accuracy of different models in predicting short-term prognosis of patients with hepatitis B virus (HBV)-related acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We retrospectively evaluated survival of a cohort of patients with at least 3-month follow up. The receiver-operating-characteristic curves (ROC) were drawn for Child-Turcotte-Pugh (CTP) classification, King's College Hospital (KCH) criteria, model for end-stage liver disease (MELD), MELD combined with serum sodium (Na) concentration (MELDNa), integrated MELD (iMELD) and logistic regression model (LRM).

RESULTS

Of the 273 eligible patients, 152 patients (55.7%) died within 3-month follow up. In cirrhotic patients (n = 101), the AUCs of LRM (0.851), MELDNa (0.849), iMELD (0.845) and MELD (0.840) were all significantly higher than those of KCH criteria (0.642) and CTP (0.625) (all p < 0.05), while the differences among LRM, MELD, MELDNa and iMELD were not significant, and the most predictive cutoff value was 0.5176 for LRM, 30 for MELDNa, 47.87 for iMELD and 29 for MELD, respectively. In non-cirrhotic patients (n = 172), the AUC of LRM (0.897) was significantly higher than that of MELDNa (0.776), iMELD (0.768), MELD (0.758), KCH criteria (0.647) and CTP (0.629), respectively (all p < 0.05), and the most predictive cutoff value for LRM was -0.3264.

CONCLUSIONS

LRM, MELD, MELDNa and iMELD are with similar accuracy in predicting the shortterm prognosis of HBV-ACLF patients with liver cirrhosis, while LRM is superior to MELD, MELDNa and iMELD in predicting the short-term prognosis of HBV-ACLF patients without liver cirrhosis.

Update in liver transplantation

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Successful transplant outcomes require optimal patient selection and timing. This review will update clinicians with current status and challenges in liver transplantation. Currently, the major limitation facing liver transplant centers is the shortage of organs. The limited availability of organs has led to long waiting periods for liver transplantation and consequently many patients become seriously ill or die while on the waiting list.

RECENT FINDINGS

This has major implications in the selection of patients, as well as the timing of transplant, for optimal use of these scarce organs. Indications and contraindications have changed slightly over the years and will be reviewed in this article.

SUMMARY

Timing for transplantation has changed more dramatically in the recent years because major changes to organ allocation systems have been undertaken to provide clinicians with a better way to prioritize patients for liver transplant.

Hyponatremia in cirrhosis

Hyponatremia is common in patients with cirrhosis. Portal hypertension, diuretics, large volume paracentesis without albumin, infection, and multiple medications are connected with the development or worsening of hyponatremia. Hyponatremia in cirrhosis, particularly advanced cirrhosis, is a common development.(1) In a population survey of 997 patients with cirrhosis, 486 (49.4%) and 211 (21.6%) had a serum sodium concentration ([Na(+)]) <135 mEq/L and ≤ 130 mEq/L, respectively.(2) Hyponatremia and its severity correlate with the presence of severe complications of cirrhosis such as hepatorenal syndrome, encephalopathy, and spontaneous bacterial peritonitis. The presence of hyponatremia frequently complicates the management of the cirrhotic patient.

Clinical management of SIADH

Hyponatremia is the most frequent electrolyte disorder and the syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH) accounts for approximately one-third of all cases. In the diagnosis of SIADH it is important to ascertain the euvolemic state of extracellular fluid volume, both clinically and by laboratory measurements. SIADH should be treated to cure symptoms. While this is undisputed in the presence of grave or advanced symptoms, the clinical role and the indications for treatment in the presence of mild to moderate symptoms are currently unclear. Therapeutic modalities include nonspecific measures and means (fluid restriction, hypertonic saline, urea, demeclocycline), with fluid restriction and hypertonic saline commonly used. Recently vasopressin receptor antagonists, called vaptans, have been introduced as specific and direct therapy of SIADH. Although clinical experience with vaptans is limited at this time, they appear advantageous to patients because there is no need for fluid restriction and the correction of hyponatremia can be achieved comfortably and within a short time. Vaptans also appear to be beneficial for physicians and staff because of their efficiency and reliability. The side effects are thirst, polydipsia and frequency of urination. In any therapy of chronic SIADH it is important to limit the daily increase of serum sodium to less than 8-10 mmol/liter because higher correction rates have been associated with osmotic demyelination. In the case of vaptan treatment, the first 24 h are critical for prevention of an overly rapid correction of hyponatremia and the serum sodium should be measured after 0, 6, 24 and 48 h of treatment. Discontinuation of any vaptan therapy for longer than 5 or 6 days should be monitored to prevent hyponatremic relapse. It may be necessary to taper the vaptan dose or restrict fluid intake or both.

Acute-on-chronic liver failure in chronic hepatitis B

Acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) in chronic hepatitis B (CHB) is most commonly caused by acute severe exacerbation of CHB. The pathophysiology of ACLF in CHB is still poorly understood. Despite the identification of important predisposing factors and prognostic markers, ACLF in CHB remains a disease associated with high mortality. The majority of studies using nucleoside analog therapy did not show any significant improvement in survival, although larger prospective studies are needed. Liver transplantation is the definitive treatment for ACLF in CHB. The challenge ahead would be prognosticating cases with favorable or unfavorable outcomes in order to streamline patients for early transplantation or for medical therapy.

Albumin infusion in patients undergoing large-volume paracentesis: a meta-analysis of randomized trials

Albumin infusion reduces the incidence of postparacentesis circulatory dysfunction among patients with cirrhosis and tense ascites, as compared with no treatment. Treatment alternatives to albumin, such as artificial colloids and vasoconstrictors, have been widely investigated. The aim of this meta-analysis was to determine whether morbidity and mortality differ between patients receiving albumin versus alternative treatments. The meta-analysis included randomized trials evaluating albumin infusion in patients with tense ascites. Primary endpoints were postparacentesis circulatory dysfunction, hyponatremia, and mortality. Eligible trials were sought by multiple methods, including computer searches of bibliographic and abstract databases and the Cochrane Library. Results were quantitatively combined under a fixed-effects model. Seventeen trials with 1,225 total patients were included. There was no evidence of heterogeneity or publication bias. Compared with alternative treatments, albumin reduced the incidence of postparacentesis circulatory dysfunction (odds ratio [OR], 0.39; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.27-0.55). Significant reductions in that complication by albumin were also shown in subgroup analyses versus each of the other volume expanders tested (e.g., dextran, gelatin, hydroxyethyl starch, and hypertonic saline). The occurrence of hyponatremia was also decreased by albumin, compared with alternative treatments (OR, 0.58; 95% CI, 0.39-0.87). In addition, mortality was lower in patients receiving albumin than alternative treatments (OR, 0.64; 95% CI, 0.41-0.98).

CONCLUSIONS

This meta-analysis provides evidence that albumin reduces morbidity and mortality among patients with tense ascites undergoing large-volume paracentesis, as compared with alternative treatments investigated thus far.

Tolvaptan, an oral vasopressin antagonist, in the treatment of hyponatremia in cirrhosis

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Tolvaptan is a vasopressin V2-receptor antagonist that improves serum sodium concentration by increasing renal solute-free water excretion. Specific data on the safety and efficacy of tolvaptan in patients with cirrhosis and hyponatremia has not been exclusively evaluated.

METHODS

This sub-analysis of the Study of Ascending Levels of Tolvaptan trials examined cirrhotic patients with hyponatremia who received 15 mg oral tolvaptan (n=63; increased to 30 or 60 mg if needed) or placebo (n=57) once-daily for 30 days. At baseline, 44% had mild hyponatremia (serum sodium 130-134 mmol/L), 56% had marked hyponatremia (serum sodium <130 mmol/L), 85% had cirrhosis due to alcohol and/or hepatitis B/C, and 80% were Child-Pugh class B/C.

RESULTS

Tolvaptan was effective in raising serum sodium. Average daily area under the curve for serum sodium was significantly greater in the tolvaptan group from baseline to day 4 (p<0.0001) and day 30 (p<0.0001). This superiority was maintained after stratification by baseline hyponatremia (mild and marked), estimated glomerular filtration rate (≤ 60 ml/min and >60 ml/min), or serum creatinine levels (<1.5mg/dl and ≥ 1.5mg/dl). Hyponatremia recurred 7 days after discontinuation of tolvaptan. Mean mental component summary scores of the SF-12 health survey improved from baseline to day 30 in the tolvaptan group but not the placebo group (4.68 vs. 0.08, p=0.02). Major side effects due to tolvaptan were dry mouth and thirst. Gastrointestinal bleeding occurred in 10% and 2% of patients in the tolvaptan and placebo group, respectively (p=0.11). Adverse event rates, withdrawals, and deaths were similar in both groups.

CONCLUSIONS

One month of tolvaptan therapy improved serum sodium levels and patient-reported health status in cirrhotic patients with hyponatremia. Hyponatremia recurred in tolvaptan-treated patients after discontinuation.

The sequential organ failure assessment (SOFA) score is prognostically superior to the model for end-stage liver disease (MELD) and MELD variants following paracetamol (acetaminophen) overdose

BACKGROUND

The prognostic value of the model for end-stage liver disease (MELD) and sodium-based MELD variants in predicting survival following paracetamol overdose remains unclear.

AIM

To examine the prognostic accuracy of sodium-based MELD variants in paracetamol-induced acute liver injury compared with the sequential organ failure assessment (SOFA) score.

METHODS

Retrospective analysis of 138 single time point paracetamol overdoses admitted to a tertiary liver centre. Individual laboratory samples were correlated with the corresponding clinical parameters in relation to time post-overdose, and the daily MELD, MELD-Na, MELDNa, MESO, iMELD, UKELD, updated MELD and SOFA scores were calculated.

RESULTS

Sixty-six (47.8%) patients developed hepatic encephalopathy, of whom 7 were transplanted and 21 died without liver transplantation. SOFA had a significantly greater area under the receiver operator characteristic for the prediction of spontaneous survival compared with MELD at both 72 (P = 0.024) and 96 (P = 0.017) h post-overdose. None of the sodium-based MELD variants improved the prognostic accuracy of MELD. A SOFA score >6 by 72 h or >7 by 96 h, post-overdose predicted death/transplantation with a negative predictive value of 96.9 (95% CI 90.2-99.4) and 98.8 (95% CI 93.6-99.9) respectively. SOFA and MELD had similar accuracy for predicting the development of hepatic encephalopathy (P = 0.493).

CONCLUSIONS

The SOFA score is superior to MELD in predicting spontaneous survival following paracetamol-induced acute liver injury. Modification of the MELD score to include serum sodium does not improve prognostic accuracy in this setting. SOFA may have potential as a quantitative triage marker following paracetamol overdose.

Pretransplant prediction of posttransplant survival for liver recipients with benign end-stage liver diseases: a nonlinear model

Background

The scarcity of grafts available necessitates a system that considers expected posttransplant survival, in addition to pretransplant mortality as estimated by the MELD. So far, however, conventional linear techniques have failed to achieve sufficient accuracy in posttransplant outcome prediction. In this study, we aim to develop a pretransplant predictive model for liver recipients' survival with benign end-stage liver diseases (BESLD) by a nonlinear method based on pretransplant characteristics, and compare its performance with a BESLD-specific prognostic model (MELD) and a general-illness severity model (the sequential organ failure assessment score, or SOFA score).

Methodology/Principal Findings

With retrospectively collected data on 360 recipients receiving deceased-donor transplantation for BESLD between February 1999 and August 2009 in the west China hospital of Sichuan university, we developed a multi-layer perceptron (MLP) network to predict one-year and two-year survival probability after transplantation. The performances of the MLP, SOFA, and MELD were assessed by measuring both calibration ability and discriminative power, with Hosmer-Lemeshow test and receiver operating characteristic analysis, respectively. By the forward stepwise selection, donor age and BMI; serum concentration of HB, Crea, ALB, TB, ALT, INR, Na⁺; presence of pretransplant diabetes; dialysis prior to transplantation, and microbiologically proven sepsis were identified to be the optimal input features. The MLP, employing 18 input neurons and 12 hidden neurons, yielded high predictive accuracy, with c-statistic of 0.91 (P<0.001) in one-year and 0.88 (P<0.001) in two-year prediction. The performances of SOFA and MELD were fairly poor in prognostic assessment, with c-statistics of 0.70 and 0.66, respectively, in one-year prediction, and 0.67 and 0.65 in two-year prediction.

Conclusions/Significance

The posttransplant prognosis is a multidimensional nonlinear problem, and the MLP can achieve significantly high accuracy than SOFA and MELD scores in posttransplant survival prediction. The pattern recognition methodologies like MLP hold promise for solving posttransplant outcome prediction.

Human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells improve liver function and ascites in decompensated liver cirrhosis patients

Decompensated liver cirrhosis (LC), a life-threatening complication of chronic liver disease, is one of the major indications for liver transplantation. Recently, mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) transfusion has been shown to lead to the regression of liver fibrosis in mice and humans. This study examined the safety and efficacy of umbilical cord-derived MSC (UC-MSC) in patients with decompensated LC. A total of 45 chronic hepatitis B patients with decompensated LC, including 30 patients receiving UC-MSC transfusion, and 15 patients receiving saline as the control, were recruited; clinical parameters were detected during a 1-year follow-up period. No significant side-effects and complications were observed in either group. There was a significant reduction in the volume of ascites in patients treated with UC-MSC transfusion compared with controls (P < 0.05). UC-MSC therapy also significantly improved liver function, as indicated by the increase of serum albumin levels, decrease in total serum bilirubin levels, and decrease in the sodium model for end-stage liver disease scores. UC-MSC transfusion is clinically safe and could improve liver function and reduce ascites in patients with decompensated LC. UC-MSC transfusion, therefore, might present a novel therapeutic approach for patients with decompensated LC.

Acute kidney injury network criteria as a predictor of hospital mortality in cirrhotic patients with ascites

BACKGROUND

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is frequent in cirrhotic patients but its best definition is unclear. Recently, the Acute Kidney Injury Network (AKIN) proposed criteria to define AKI. The aims of this study were to apply AKIN criteria to cirrhotic patients with ascites and to evaluate its association to hospital mortality.

STUDY

In this retrospective study, cirrhotic patients with ascites admitted to a university hospital in Brazil between November 2003 and December 2007 were included. AKIN criteria were applied in the first 48 hours of hospitalization, considering 2 values of creatinine in this period. Association of AKI at admission and hospital mortality was analyzed.

RESULTS

Of the 198 patients in the study, 91 (46%) presented AKI at hospital admission. Overall hospital mortality was 40.4%. Patients without AKI had a hospital mortality rate of 29.9%, whereas the same rate for patients with this complication was 52.7% (odds ratio=2.6; 95% confidence interval, 1.5-4.7; P=0.001). In a logistic regression analysis, 4 variables were independently associated to hospital mortality: infection, hepatic encephalopathy, Child score, and AKI. A receiver operating characteristic curve analysis revealed that the variation in creatinine proposed by AKIN had the best combination of sensitivity and specificity in relation to hospital mortality.

CONCLUSIONS

In cirrhotic patients with ascites, prevalence of AKI at hospital admission is high. Patients with renal dysfunction defined by AKIN have significant higher hospital mortality. AKIN criteria are useful in cirrhotic patients with ascites, as it identifies earlier patients with worse prognosis.

Model for end-stage liver disease and model for end-stage liver disease-Na scores predict both before-listing and wait-list mortality

BACKGROUND

Due to the organ shortage, many patients die without transplantation, even before completing an evaluation for candidacy. We analyzed outcomes after patient referral and factors associated with mortality both before and after listing for cadaveric donor liver transplantation.

METHODS

We analyzed 132 consecutive patients who were evaluated for candidacy for cadaveric donor liver transplantation between 2003 and 2010.

RESULTS

The study included 69 men and 63 women of median age 49 years (range, 1-65). Etiologies of diseases were acute hepatic failure (n=19), liver cirrhosis due to hepatitis B or C (n=36), primary biliary cirrhosis (n=19), nonviral cirrhosis (n=14), hepatocellular carcinoma (n=13), or other causes (n=31). After evaluation for candidacy, we listed 68 (52%), subjects whereas 24 (18%) died before listing. Factors affecting death before listing were the levels of albumin (P<.001), bilirubin (P<.001), sodium (P<.001), international normalized ratio (INR; P<.001), Model for End-stage Liver Disease (MELD) score (P<.001), MELD-Na score (P<.001), and Child-Pugh-Turcotte (CPT) score (P<.001). Based on multivariate Cox regression analysis, MELD score (hazard ratio [HR] 1.201, P=.017), MELD-Na score (HR 1.244, P=.014), CPT score (HR 1.468, P=.033), and INR (HR 0.491, P=.027) were independently associated with death before listing. Among 68 listed candidates, 11 (16%) underwent transplantation, whereas 29 (43%) died without transplantation. Based on multivariate Cox regression analysis, MELD score (HR 1.102, P=.001), MELD-Na score (HR 1.128, P=.001), and CPT score (HR 1.282, P=.038) independently predicted wait-list mortality. All 11 patients who underwent cadaveric liver transplantation were alive at 29 months (range, 1-55) after transplantation.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with a higher MELD, higher MELD-Na, and higher CPT score at referral were at greater risk for death without transplantation, especially before listing. Evaluation for transplantation candidacy is a time-consuming process. Therefore, earlier referral is mandatory to achieve successful listing for transplantation.

Comparison of seven liver allocation models with respect to lives saved among patients on the liver transplant waiting list

The patients with end-stage liver disease (ESLD) on the liver transplant waiting list are prioritized for transplant based on the model for end-stage liver disease (MELD) score. We developed and used an innovative approach to compare MELD to six proposed alternatives with respect to waiting list mortality. Our analysis was based on United Network for Organ Sharing data of patients with ESLD on the waiting list between January 2006 and June 2009. We compared six allocation models to MELD. Two models were based on reweighting the variables used by MELD: an "updated" MELD, and ReFit MELD. Four models also included serum sodium: MESO, MeldNa, UKELD, and ReFit MELDNa. We estimated that UKELD and the updated MELD would result in significantly fewer lives saved. There were no significant differences between the other models. Our new approach can supplement standard methods to provide insight into the relative performance of liver allocation models in reducing waiting list mortality. Our analysis suggests that UKELD and the updated MELD score would not be optimal for reducing waiting list mortality in the United States.

Muscle wasting is associated with mortality in patients with cirrhosis

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Sarcopenia, defined as a low level of muscle mass, occurs in patients with cirrhosis. We assessed its incidence among cirrhotic patients undergoing evaluation for liver transplantation to investigate associations between sarcopenia and mortality and prognosis.

METHODS

We studied 112 patients with cirrhosis (78 men; mean age, 54 ± 1 years) who were consecutively evaluated for liver transplantation and had a computed tomography scan at the level of the third lumbar (L3) vertebrae to determine the L3 skeletal muscle index; sarcopenia was defined by using previously published, sex-specific cutoffs.

RESULTS

Of the patients studied, 45 (40%) had sarcopenia. Univariate Cox analysis associated mortality with ascites (hazard ratio [HR], 2.12; P = .04), encephalopathy (HR, 1.99; P = .04), level of bilirubin (HR, 1.007; P < .01), international normalized ratio (HR, 7.69; P < .001), level of creatinine (HR, 1.01; P = .005), level of albumin (HR, 94; P = .008), serum level of sodium (HR, 89; P < .001), Model for End-Stage Liver Disease (MELD) score (HR, 1.14; P < .01), Child-Pugh score (HR, 2.84; P < .001), and sarcopenia (HR, 2.18; P = .006). By multivariate Cox analysis, only Child-Pugh (HR, 1.85; P = .04) and MELD scores (HR, 1.08; P = .001) and sarcopenia (HR, 2.21; P = .008) were independently associated with mortality. The median survival time for patients with sarcopenia was 19 ± 6 months, compared with 34 ± 11 months among nonsarcopenia patients (P = .005). There was a low level of correlation between L3 skeletal muscle index and MELD (r = -0.07; P = .5) and Child-Pugh scores (r = -0.14; P = .1).

CONCLUSIONS

Sarcopenia is associated with mortality in patients with cirrhosis. It does not correlate with the degree of liver dysfunction evaluated by using conventional scoring systems. Scoring systems should include evaluation of sarcopenia to better assess mortality among patients with cirrhosis.

Hepatic radiation toxicity: avoidance and amelioration

The refinement of radiation therapy and radioembolization techniques has led to a resurgent interest in radiation-induced liver disease (RILD). The awareness of technical and clinical parameters that influence the chance of RILD is important to guide patient selection and toxicity minimization strategies. "Classic" RILD is characterized by anicteric ascites and hepatomegaly and is unlikely to occur after a mean liver dose of approximately 30 Gy in conventional fractionation. By maintaining a low mean liver dose and sparing a "critical volume" of liver from radiation, stereotactic delivery techniques allow for the safe administration of higher tumor doses. Caution must be exercised for patients with hepatocellular carcinoma or pre-existing liver disease (eg, Child-Pugh score of B or C) because they are more susceptible to RILD that can manifest in a nonclassic pattern. Although no pharmacologic interventions have yet been proven to mitigate RILD, preclinical research shows the potential for therapies targeting transforming growth factor-β and for the transplantation of stem cells, hepatocytes, and liver progenitor cells as strategies that may restore liver function. Also, in the clinical setting of veno-occlusive liver disease after high-dose chemotherapy, agents with fibrinolytic and antithrombotic properties can reverse liver failure, suggesting a possible role in the setting of RILD.

Model for End-Stage Liver Disease score for predicting outcome in critically ill medical patients with liver cirrhosis

PURPOSE

We hypothesized that the Model for End-Stage Liver Disease (MELD) score at admission to the intensive care unit (ICU) can predict in-hospital mortality for patients with liver cirrhosis. We also tested the MELD-natremia (Na) score and compared the predictive value of the 2 models.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This is a retrospective cohort study. A total of 441 consecutive patients with liver cirrhosis admitted to the ICU were included. The MELD and MELD-Na scores and other variables were obtained upon patients' admission to the ICU.

RESULTS

The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve to predict in-hospital mortality was 0.77 (95% confidence interval, 0.73-0.82) for the MELD score and 0.77 (95% confidence interval, 0.73-0.81) for the MELD-Na score.

CONCLUSION

The MELD scoring system provides useful prognostic information for critically ill patients with liver cirrhosis admitted to an ICU. The MELD and MELD-Na scores had similar predictive value.

Pretransplant severe hepatic encephalopathy, peritransplant sodium and post-liver transplantation morbidity and mortality

BACKGROUND

Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) does not enhance the prediction of model of end-stage liver disease (MELD) wait-list mortality, but its influence on post-liver transplantation (LT) morbidity and mortality is largely unknown.

AIMS

To examine the association between severe pre-LT HE and peri-LT serum sodium levels as well as post-LT length of stay (LOS) and survival.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort of 393 adult patients undergoing first LT for end-stage liver disease and followed for a median of 4 years post-LT was performed to evaluate the association between severe HE within the 30 days prior to LT and selected in-hospital post-LT outcomes.

RESULTS

Thirty-nine (10%) of the cohort had severe HE pre-LT. Patients with severe HE more frequently had Na changes of ≥15 mmol/L in the peri-LT period (P = 0.002). LOS was significantly longer for severe HE than non-severe HE patients (16 vs. 8 days, P < 0.0001) and this association was independent of MELD, presence of hepatocellular carcinoma, pre-LT nadir serum sodium and pre- to post-LT change in serum sodium. The 1-year mortality was 15% in the severe HE vs. 7% in the non-severe HE groups (HR = 2.19, P = 0.08), and this difference was attenuated by adjusting for pre-LT severe hypernatremia, but increased by adjusting for donor risk index.

CONCLUSION

Severe HE mainly affects LOS, and this association is independent of MELD. Whether the large changes in peri-LT serum Na, more frequently seen in the severe HE group, contribute to post-LT morbidity requires further study.

Sodium handling is associated with liver function impairment and renin-aldosterone axis activity in patients with preascitic cirrhosis without hyponatremia

BACKGROUND

In cirrhotic patients awaiting liver transplantation, serum sodium concentration is related to prognosis. However, abnormalities in sodium homeostasis are evident even in the early preascitic stage of cirrhosis. We aimed to investigate whether parameters of renal sodium handling (serum sodium, urinary sodium and fractional exertion of sodium (FeNa%) correlate with markers of liver function and renin-aldosterone axis activity in patients with preascitic cirrhosis without hyponatremia.

METHODS

Patients with preascitic cirrhosis without hyponatremia underwent routine blood and urine laboratory tests, including markers of liver function impairment and sodium homeostasis.

RESULTS

Thirty eight cirrhotic patients (22 men) with mean age of 57.3±12.2 (SD) years were included. Twenty six and twelve patients were at Child-Pugh stage A and B cirrhosis respectively. Eighteen patients had a Model for End-stage Liver Disease (MELD) score of ≤9 and twenty had MELD >9. Serum sodium was found to differ significantly between Child-Pugh stage A and B cirrhotics (mean 142.8±2.0 mmol/L vs. 140.5±3.3 mmol/L, p<0.05). Serum sodium was also found to differ significantly between patients with MELD score ≤9 and >9 (mean 143.3±2.0 mmol/L vs. 140.9±2.8 mmol/L, respectively, p<0.01). Serum sodium correlated negatively with the international normalized ratio (INR) (r=-0.51, p<0.01), aldosterone (r=-0.40, p<0.05), Child-Pugh and MELD scores (r=-0.34, p<0.05 and r=-0.45, p<0.05 respectively). FeNa% correlated negatively with renin and aldosterone (r=-0.56, p<0.001 and r=-0.50, p<0.01 respectively).

CONCLUSION

Serum sodium concentration is a good surrogate marker of liver function impairment not only in late-stage liver cirrhosis before transplantation but also in the early preascitic stage.

Prospective evaluation of the prognostic scores for cirrhotic patients admitted to an intensive care unit

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Cirrhotic patients admitted to an Intensive Care Unit (ICU) have a poor prognosis. Identifying patients in whom ICU care will be useful can be challenging. The aim of this study was to assess the predictive value of prognostic scores with respect to mortality and to identify mortality risk factors.

METHODS

Three hundred and seventy-seven cirrhotic patients admitted to a Liver ICU between May 2005 and March 2009 were enrolled in this study. Their average age was 55.5±11.4 years. The etiology of cirrhosis was alcohol (68%), virus hepatitis (18%), or mixed (5.5%). The main causes of hospitalization were gastrointestinal hemorrhage (43%), sepsis (19%), and hepatic encephalopathy (12%).

RESULTS

ICU and in-hospital mortality rates were 34.7% and 43.0%, respectively. Infection was the major cause of death (81.6%). ROC curve analysis demonstrated that SOFA (0.92) and SAPS II (0.89) scores calculated within 24h of admission predicted ICU mortality better than the Child-Pugh score (0.79) or MELD scores with (0.79-0.82) or without the incorporation of serum sodium levels (0.82). Statistical analysis showed that the prognostic severity scores, organ replacement therapy, and infection were accurate predictors of mortality. On multivariate analysis, mechanical ventilation, vasopressor therapy, bilirubin level at admission, and infection were independently associated with ICU mortality.

CONCLUSIONS

For cirrhotic patients admitted to the ICU, SAPS II, and SOFA scores predicted ICU mortality better than liver-specific scores. Mechanical ventilation or vasopressor therapy, bilirubin levels at admission and infection in patients with advanced cirrhosis were associated with a poor outcome.

Experience Since MELD Implementation: How Does the New System Deliver?

Because of increasing waiting-list mortality, the MELD (Model for End-Stage Liver Disease) allocation system was implemented within most countries of the Eurotransplant area on December 16, 2006. Five years have now passed, and we review in this paper the effects of the MELD-based allocation upon the waiting list for liver transplantation, on peri-operative management and on postoperative outcome. Giving priority to sicker patients on the waiting list has resulted in a significant increase in mean MELD score at the time of organ allocation. Consequently, there has also been a significant reduction in waiting-list mortality. However, in Germany a worsening in postoperative outcome, mainly in the group of high-MELD recipients (≥30 points), has been reported. This paper presents comprehensive results following liver transplantation within the MELD era. Especially for the group of high-risk recipients, risk factors for impaired survival are presented and discussed.

The evolution in the prioritization for liver transplantation

Policies for organ allocation can be based on medical urgency, utility or transplant benefit. With an urgency policy, patients with worse outcomes on the waiting list are given higher priority for transplantation [based on the Child-Turcotte-Pugh score or the Model for End-stage Liver Disease (MELD) score, or United Kingdom model for End-stage Liver Disease (UKELD) score]. The MELD and UKELD scores have statistical validation and use objective and widely available laboratory tests. However, both scores have important limitations. Adjustments to the original MELD equation and new scoring systems have been proposed to overcome these limitations; incorporation of serum sodium improves its predictive accuracy and is part of the UKELD score. The utility-based systems are based on post-transplant outcome taking into account donor and recipient characteristics. MELD and UKELD scores poorly predict outcomes after liver transplantation due to the absence of donor factors. The transplant benefit models rank patients according to the net survival benefit that they would derive from transplantation. These models would be based on the maximization of the lifetime gained through liver transplantation. Well-designed prospective studies and simulation models are necessary to establish the optimal allocation system in liver transplantation, as no current model has all the best characteristics.

Hyponatremia in cirrhosis and end-stage liver disease: treatment with the vasopressin V₂-receptor antagonist tolvaptan

Hyponatremia is common in patients with cirrhosis and portal hypertension, and is characterized by excessive renal retention of water relative to sodium due to reduced solute-free water clearance. The primary cause is increased release of arginine vasopressin. Hyponatremia is associated with increased mortality in cirrhotic patients, those with end-stage liver disease (ESLD) on transplant waiting lists, and, in some studies, posttransplantation patients. Clinical evidence suggests that adding serum sodium to model for ESLD (MELD) scoring identifies patients in greatest need of liver transplantation by improving waiting list mortality prediction. Hyponatremia is also associated with numerous complications in liver disease patients, including severe ascites, hepatic encephalopathy, infectious complications, renal impairment, increased severity of liver disease in cirrhosis, and increased hospital stay and neurologic/infectious complications posttransplant. Vasopressin receptor antagonists, which act to increase free water excretion (aquaresis) and thereby increase serum sodium concentration, have been evaluated in patients with hypervolemic hyponatremia (including cirrhosis and heart failure) and euvolemic hyponatremia (SIADH). Tolvaptan, a selective vasopressin V(2)-receptor antagonist, is the only oral agent in this class approved for raising sodium levels in hypervolemic and euvolemic hyponatremia. The SALT trials showed that tolvaptan treatment rapidly and effectively resolved hyponatremia in these settings, including cirrhosis, and it has been shown that this agent can be safely and effectively used in long-term treatment. Fluid restriction should be avoided during the first 24 h of treatment to prevent overly rapid correction of hyponatremia, and tolvaptan should not be used in patients who cannot sense/respond to thirst, anuric patients, hypovolemic patients, and/or those requiring urgent intervention to raise serum sodium acutely.

Hyponatremia's Impact on Patients and Health Systems

Purpose

To define hyponatremia, discuss its incidence and epidemiology, and summarize the frequency and prognostic implications of hyponatremia in selected clinical conditions.

Summary

Hyponatremia is the most common electrolyte abnormality encountered in clinical practice. Hyponatremia is commonly defined as a serum sodium concentration of <136 mEq/L. There are 3 different types of hyponatremia: hypovolemia, euvolemia, and hypervolemia. Epidemiologic studies reveal that hyponatremia is a common problem in hospitalized patients whether it is present at admission or is hospital acquired. The disorder increases the risk of admission to the intensive care unit, hospital length of stay, and morbidity and mortality. Hyponatremia appears to be a marker for severe underlying disease with a poor prognosis. Congestive heart failure, pneumonia, cirrhosis, and neurologic disease are among the serious clinical conditions known to be associated with hyponatremia. Chronic hyponatremia presents its own set of challenges; even in mild disease that is often asymptomatic, patients are at heightened risk for falls, gait disturbances, attention deficits, and fracture.

Conclusion

Hyponatremia is the most common electrolyte disorder encountered in clinical practice and is associated with significant morbidity and mortality, especially at lower serum sodium concentrations. The disorder has a substantial impact on hospital length of stay with a direct impact on health care costs. Further, as this discussion illustrates, hyponatremia represents a significant clinical burden in all forms – mild, moderate, and severe – with subsequent clinical consequences.

Model for end-stage liver disease: end of the first decade

The Model for End-stage Liver Disease (MELD) score is the basis for allocation of liver allografts for transplantation in the United States. The MELD score, as an objective scale of disease severity, is also used in the management of patients with chronic liver disease in the nontransplant setting. Several models have been proposed to improve the MELD score. The authors believe that the MELD score is, by design, continually evolving and lends itself to continued refinement and improvement to serve as a metric to optimize organ allocation in the future.

Electroencephalography in patients with cirrhosis

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Electroencephalography has not been completely quantified in patients with cirrhosis. We investigated the electroencephalogram (EEG) dynamics in patients with cirrhosis.

METHODS

We performed closed-eye EEGs on 175 patients with cirrhosis (age, 55 ± 11 years; 24% Child-Pugh class A, 48% class B, and 285 class C), conducted clinical and psychometric assessments for hepatic encephalopathy (HE), and followed the patients for 1 year. EEG characteristics were assessed in the frequency domain, in the frontal (F3-F4) and parietal (P3-P4) derivations. Intrahemispheric (frontoparietal, right, and left) and interhemispheric (F3-F4 and P3-P4) coherence were computed. The EEGs of 50 healthy volunteers (age, 56 ± 17 years) served as controls.

RESULTS

Compared with controls, the EEGs of patients with cirrhosis had a reduced frequency in the posterior derivations (P3/P4 mean dominant frequency, 9.1 ± 1.8 and 8.9 ± 1.7 Hz vs 10.4 ± 1.3 and 10.2 ± 1.3 Hz, respectively; P < .01) and an increase in interhemispheric parietal relative coherence within the theta band (22.3% ± 5.5% vs 18.9% ± 3.5%; P < .01). These features were more prominent in patients with Child class C and in patients with a history of overt HE; they correlated with hyperammonemia and hyponatremia. The decrease in EEG frequency, along with the increase in interhemispheric theta coherence in the posterior derivations, was inversely associated with survival and the occurrence of overt HE during the follow-up period.

CONCLUSIONS

In patients with cirrhosis, alterations in the EEG were significantly associated with the severity of liver disease and HE; the EEG might be used in determining prognosis.

Predictive factors of response to treatment in patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma: new evidence

Renal cell carcinoma represents approximately 3% of adult malignancies and 90-95% of neoplasms arising from the kidney. Many agents that target angiogenesis (e.g., sunitinib, sorafenib, bevacizumab and pazopanib) and mTOR-targeted therapy (e.g., temsirolimus and everolimus) have been approved as first-line agents. The choice of the most suitable treatment for advanced renal cell carcinoma depends on the definition of risk. In this article, we reviewed the scientific literature identifying predictive factors on the activity/efficacy of a specific therapy.

Bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells as immunosuppressants in liver transplantation: a review of current data

This article provides an overview of the current knowledge relating to the potential use of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BM-MSCs) acting as immunosuppressants after liver transplantation. Clinical use of BM-MSCs in liver transplantation remains experimental, as there is uncertainty as to their mechanism of action, conflicting studies in animal models, and the possibility of their cellular fusion with hepatocytes leading to potentially genetically unstable hepatocytes. These obstacles, to their underuse, have been decreasing, and BM-MSCs have elicited great interest for possible use in solid organ transplantation. Bone marrow-derived-MSCs, when transplanted systemically, might positively influence grafted organ outcome through cell-cell contact or the secretion of soluble factors that are immunomodulatory. Thus, the use of BM-MSCs to modulate organ rejection may directly or indirectly influence the survival properties of transplanted livers.

Model for end-stage liver disease exceptions in the context of the French model for end-stage liver disease score-based liver allocation system

Model for End-Stage Liver Disease (MELD) score-based allocation systems have been adopted by most countries in Europe and North America. Indeed, the MELD score is a robust marker of early mortality for patients with cirrhosis. Except for extreme values, high pretransplant MELD scores do not significantly affect posttransplant survival. The MELD score can be used to optimize the allocation of allografts according to a sickest first policy. Most often, patients with small hepatocellular carcinomas (HCCs) and low MELD scores receive extra points, which allow them appropriate access to transplantation comparable to the access of patients with advanced cirrhosis and high MELD scores. In addition to patients with advanced cirrhosis and HCC, patients with a number of relatively uncommon conditions have low MELD scores and a poor prognosis in the short term without transplantation but derive excellent benefits from transplantation. These conditions, which correspond to the so-called MELD score exceptions, justify the allocation of a specific score for appropriate access to transplantation. Here we report the conclusions of the French consensus meeting. The goals of this meeting were (1) to identify which conditions merit MELD score exceptions, (2) to list the criteria needed for defining each of these conditions, and (3) to define a reasonable time interval for organ allocation for each MELD exception in the general context of organ shortages. MELD exceptions were discussed in an attempt to reconcile the concepts of transparency, equity, justice, and utility.

The Model for End-stage Liver Disease accurately predicts 90-day liver transplant wait-list mortality in Atlantic Canada

OBJECTIVE

To determine the generalizability of the predictions for 90-day mortality generated by Model for End-stage Liver Disease (MELD) and the serum sodium augmented MELD (MELDNa) to Atlantic Canadian adults with end-stage liver disease awaiting liver transplantation (LT).

METHODS

The predictive accuracy of the MELD and the MELDNa was evaluated by measurement of the discrimination and calibration of the respective models' estimates for the occurrence of 90-day mortality in a consecutive cohort of LT candidates accrued over a five-year period. Accuracy of discrimination was measured by the area under the ROC curves. Calibration accuracy was evaluated by comparing the observed and model-estimated incidences of 90-day wait-list failure for the total cohort and within quantiles of risk.

RESULTS

The area under the ROC curve for the MELD was 0.887 (95% CI 0.705 to 0.978) - consistent with very good accuracy of discrimination. The area under the ROC curve for the MELDNa was 0.848 (95% CI 0.681 to 0.965). The observed incidence of 90-day wait-list mortality in the validation cohort was 7.9%, which was not significantly different from the MELD estimate of 6.6% (95% CI 4.9% to 8.4%; P=0.177) or the MELDNa estimate of 5.8% (95% CI 3.5% to 8.0%; P=0.065). Global goodness-of-fit testing found no evidence of significant lack of fit for either model (Hosmer-Lemeshow c2 [df=3] for MELD 2.941, P=0.401; for MELDNa 2.895, P=0.414).

CONCLUSION

Both the MELD and the MELDNa accurately predicted the occurrence of 90-day wait-list mortality in the study cohort and, therefore, are generalizable to Atlantic Canadians with end-stage liver disease awaiting LT.

Hyponatremia in hospitalized patients: the potential role of tolvaptan

Hyponatremia (typically defined as serum sodium level < 135 mEq/L) is a common electrolyte abnormality among hospitalized patients. Whether present at admission or acquired during hospitalization, hyponatremia is associated with higher mortality and longer hospital stays. Failure to adequately investigate and treat hyponatremia may also be associated with adverse outcomes. The presence and severity of clinical symptoms largely depend on the rate and extent of the decline in serum sodium; rapid or large decreases may cause serious neurologic complications. The approach to treatment depends on the presence and severity of symptoms, the timing of their onset, the underlying etiology, and the patient's volume status. Patients with euvolemic or hypervolemic hyponatremia usually have inappropriately elevated levels of arginine vasopressin, which stimulates water reabsorption even in the presence of low serum osmolality. Tolvaptan is an orally active, selective V2-receptor antagonist that blocks the effects of arginine vasopressin in the renal collecting duct to promote aquaresis without increasing sodium or potassium excretion; as a result, it increases serum sodium in a controlled manner. Tolvaptan offers a mechanism-based treatment option for patients with euvolemic or hypervolemic hyponatremia who have serum sodium levels < 125 mEq/L or persistent symptoms resistant to fluid restriction.

Risk factors for long-term mortality in a large cohort of patients wait-listed for liver transplantation in Brazil

Liver donor shortage and long waiting times are observed in many liver transplant programs worldwide. The aim of this study was to evaluate the wait list in a developing country, before and after the introduction of the MELD scoring system. In addition, the MELD score ability to predict mortality in this setting was assessed. A single-center retrospective study of patients wait-listed for liver transplantation between 1997 and 2010 was undertaken. There were 1339 and 762 patients on the list in pre-MELD and MELD era, respectively. A competitive risk analysis was performed to assess age, gender, disease diagnosis, serum sodium, MELD, Child-Pugh, ABO type, and body mass index. Also, MELD score predictive ability at 3, 6, 12, and 24 months after list enrollment was evaluated. The overall mortality rates on waiting list were 31.0% and 28.1% (P = 0.16), and the median waiting times were 412 and 952 days (P < 0.001), in pre and MELD eras, respectively. The competitive risk analysis yielded the following significant P values for both eras: HCC (0.03 and <0.001), MELD (<0.001 and 0.002), sodium level (0.002 and <0.001), and Child-Pugh (0.02 and <0.001). The MELD mortality predictions at 3, 6, 12, and 24 months were similar. In conclusion, in a liver transplant program with long waiting times, the MELD system introduction did not improve mortality rate. In either pre and MELD eras, HCC diagnosis, serum sodium, Child-Pugh, and MELD were significant predictors of prognosis. Short- and long-term MELD based mortality predictions were similarly accurate. Strategies for increasing the liver donor pool should be implemented to improve mortality.

Elective liver transplant list mortality: development of a United Kingdom end-stage liver disease score

BACKGROUND

Prediction of short-term survival probability is important in the selection and allocation of patients for liver transplantation, and the Mayo End-Stage Liver Disease (MELD) score has been used in these contexts. The aim of this study was to develop and validate a model for estimation of short-term prognosis of patients selected for elective liver transplantation in the United Kingdom.

METHODS

A modeling dataset was based on 1103 adult patients registered for a first elective liver transplant in the United Kingdom between April 1, 2003, and March 31, 2006, and a validation dataset based on 452 patients registered between April 1, 2006, and March 31, 2007. The final model (United Kingdom End-Stage Liver Disease) included international normalized ratio, serum creatinine, bilirubin, and sodium.

RESULTS

The model, based on the modeling dataset, accurately predicted mortality on the transplant list in the validation dataset and proved to be a better predictor than MELD or MELD-Na. The United Kingdom End-Stage Liver Disease score was not associated with overall posttransplant survival but was associated with both the duration of intensive care unit stay and overall initial hospital stay.

CONCLUSION

This model, developed specifically for patients awaiting liver transplantation, provides a useful tool for the selection of patients for liver transplantation and the allocation of donor livers.

Mild hyponatremia as a risk factor for fractures: the Rotterdam Study

Recent studies suggest that mild hyponatremia is associated with fractures, but prospective studies are lacking. We studied whether hyponatremia is associated with fractures, falls, and/or bone mineral density (BMD). A total of 5208 elderly subjects with serum sodium assessed at baseline were included from the prospective population-based Rotterdam Study. The following data were analyzed: BMD, vertebral fractures (mean follow-up 6.4 years), nonvertebral fractures (7.4 years), recent falls, comorbidity, medication, and mortality. Hyponatremia was detected in 399 subjects (7.7%, 133.4 ± 2.0 mmol/L). Subjects with hyponatremia were older (73.5 ± 10.3 years versus 70.0 ± 9.0 years, p < .001), had more recent falls (23.8% versus 16.4%, p < .01), higher type 2 diabetes mellitus prevalence (22.2% versus 10.3%, p < .001), and more often used diuretics (31.1% versus 15.0%, p < .001). Hyponatremia was not associated with lower BMD but was associated with increased risk of incident nonvertebral fractures [hazard ratio (HR) =1.39, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.11-1.73, p = .004] after adjustment for age, sex, and body mass index. Further adjustments for disability index, use of diuretics, use of psycholeptics, recent falls, and diabetes did not modify results. In the fully adjusted model, subjects with hyponatremia also had increased risk of vertebral fractures at baseline [odds ratio (OR) = 1.78, 95% CI 1.04-3.06, p = .037] but not at follow-up. Finally, all-cause mortality was higher in subjects with hyponatremia (HR = 1.21, 95% CI 1.03-1.43, p = .022). It is concluded that mild hyponatremia in the elderly is associated with an increased risk of vertebral fractures and incident nonvertebral fractures but not with BMD. Increased fracture risk in hyponatremia also was independent of recent falls, pointing toward a possible effect on bone quality.

Hyponatremia a valuable predictor of early mortality in patients with cirrhosis listed for liver transplantation

Moini M, Hoseini‐Asl MK, Taghavi SA, Sagheb MM, Nikeghbalian S, Salahi H, Bahador A, Motazedian M, Jafari P, Malek‐Hosseini SA. Hyponatremia a valuable predictor of early mortality in patients with cirrhosis listed for liver transplantation.
Clin Transplant 2011: 25: 638–645. © 2010 John Wiley & Sons A/S.

Abstract:  The current policy for organ allocation in liver transplantation is to give priority to the sickest patients mostly using model for end‐stage liver disease (MELD) score in ranking. However, other factors as serum sodium may be of value in predicting early mortality. In this single‐center study, patients with cirrhosis over age 14 on the liver transplant wait‐list from September 1998 to June 2007 were followed for six months from the time of listing to evaluate the value of hyponatremia on mortality. Of 612 listed patients, 51 were transplanted who were excluded from survival analysis and 55 died without transplantation within the first three months. The numbers of transplanted and dead patients during months 3–6 were 29 and 24, respectively. Both MELD score and serum sodium at the time of listing were independent predictors of early mortality. On bivariate analysis, serum sodium of <130 mEq/L beside MELD was a significant predictor of mortality within 90 and 180 d. Serum sodium level <135 mEq/L masked the difference in mortality between patients with refractory and non‐refractory ascites. Serum sodium level of <130 mEq/L and an increased MELD score are significant predictors of early mortality in patients listed for liver transplantation.

Diagnostic value of cystatin C for predicting acute kidney injury in patients with liver cirrhosis

BACKGROUND/AIMS

The present study aimed to determine the role of cystatin C as a prognostic factor for acute kidney injury and survival in cirrhotic patients.

METHODS

The study investigated 53 liver cirrhosis patients. The renal function was evaluated by serum creatinine, serum and urine cystatin C, and 24-hour creatinine clearance on admission. Acute kidney injury was defined as a serum creatinine level exceeding the normal range (>1.2 mg/dl) and an increase of at least 50% from the baseline value. Multivariate analysis, receiver operating characteristic curve, and survival analysis were used to investigate prognostic factors for acute kidney injury and survival.

RESULTS

Nine of the 53 cirrhotic patients (17.0%) developed acute kidney injury within 3 months. Both serum creatinine and cystatin C were predictive factors for acute kidney injury in univariate analysis, with a diagnostic accuracy of 0.735 (95% confidence interval (CI), 0.525-0.945; p=0.028) for serum cystatin C and 0.698 (95% CI, 0.495-0.901, p=0.063) for creatinine. In multivariate analysis, only serum cystatin C was an independent risk factor for acute kidney injury. The sensitivity and specificity of a serum cystatin C level of >1.23 mg/L to acute kidney injury were 66% and 86%, respectively. Serum cystatin C was positively correlated with the Model for End-Stage Liver Disease (MELD) and MELD-Na scores (r=0.346 and p=0.011, and r=0.427 and p=0.001, respectively). Comparison of the survival rates over the observation period revealed that a serum cystatin C level of >1.23 mg/L was a useful marker for short-term mortality (p<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

The accuracy in predicting acute kidney injury and short-term mortality was higher for a serum cystatin C level of >1.23 mg/L than for the serum creatinine concentration in patients with cirrhosis.

The MELD score in patients awaiting liver transplant: strengths and weaknesses

Adoption of the Model for End-stage Liver Disease (MELD) to select and prioritize patients for liver transplantation represented a turning point in organ allocation. Prioritization of transplant recipients switched from time accrued on the waiting list to the principle of "sickest first". The MELD score incorporates three simple laboratory parameters (serum creatinine and bilirubin, and INR for prothrombin time) and stratifies patients according to their disease severity in an objective and continuous ranking scale. Concordance statistics have demonstrated its high accuracy in stratifying patients according to their risk of dying in the short-term (three months). Further validations of MELD as a predictor of survival at various temporal end-points have been obtained in independent patient cohorts with a broad spectrum of chronic liver disease. The MELD-based liver graft allocation policy has led to a reduction in waitlist new registrations and mortality, shorter waiting times, and an increase in transplants, without altering overall graft and patient survival rates after transplantation. MELD limitations are related either to the inter-laboratory variability of the parameters included in the score, or to the inability of the formula to predict mortality accurately in specific settings. For some conditions, such as hepatocellular carcinoma, widely accepted MELD corrections have been devised. For others, such as persistent ascites and hyponatremia, attempts to improve MELD's predicting power are currently underway, but await definite validation.

A revised model for end-stage liver disease optimizes prediction of mortality among patients awaiting liver transplantation

BACKGROUND & AIMS

The Model for End Stage Liver Disease (MELD) was originally developed based on data from patients who underwent the transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt procedure. An updated MELD based on data from patients awaiting liver transplantation should improve mortality prediction and allocation efficiency.

METHODS

Wait-list data from adult primary liver transplantation candidates from the Organ Procurement and Transplantation Network were divided into a model derivation set (2005-2006; n=14,214) and validation set (2007-2008; n=13,945). Cox regression analysis was used to derive and validate an optimized model that updated coefficients and upper and lower bounds for MELD components and included serum levels of sodium. Main outcomes measure was ability to predict 90-day mortality of patients on the liver transplantation wait list.

RESULTS

Optimized MELD score updated coefficients and implemented new upper and lower bounds for creatinine (0.8 and 3.0 mg/dL, respectively) and international normalized ratio (1 and 3, respectively). Serum sodium concentrations significantly predicted mortality, even after adjusting for the updated MELD model. The final model, based on updated fit of the 4 variables (ie, bilirubin, creatinine, international normalized ratio, and sodium) had a modest yet statistically significant gain in discrimination (concordance: 0.878 vs 0.865; P<.01) in the validation dataset. Utilization of the new score could affect up to 12% of patients (based on changed score for 459 of 3981 transplants in the validation set).

CONCLUSIONS

Modification of MELD score to update coefficients, change upper and lower bounds, and incorporate serum sodium levels improved wait-list mortality prediction and should increase efficiency of allocation of donated livers.

Serum bilirubin and platelet count: a simple predictive model for survival in patients with refractory ascites treated by TIPS

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Refractory ascites in patients with cirrhosis is associated with poor survival. TIPS is more effective than paracentesis for the prevention of recurrence of ascites but increases the risk of encephalopathy while survival remains unchanged. A more accurate selection of the patients might improve these results. The aim of the present study was to identify parameters of prognostic value for survival in patients with refractory ascites treated with TIPS.

METHODS

One hundred and five consecutive French patients with cirrhosis and refractory ascites treated with TIPS were used to assess parameters associated with 1-year survival. The model was then tested in two different cohorts: a local and prospective one including 40 patients from Toulouse, France, and an external one including 48 patients from Barcelona, Spain.

RESULTS

The actuarial rate of survival in the first 105 patients was 60% at 1 year. Using multivariate analysis, only lower bilirubin levels and higher platelet counts were independently associated with survival. The actuarial 1-year survival rate in patients with both a platelet count above 75×10(9)/L and a bilirubin level lower than 50 μmol/L [3mg/dl] was 73.1% as compared to 31.2%, in patients with a platelet count below 75×10(9)/L or a bilirubin level higher than 50 μmol/L. These results were confirmed in the two different validation cohorts.

CONCLUSIONS

The combination of a bilirubin level below 50 μmol/L and a platelet count above 75×10(9)/L is predictive of survival in patients with refractory ascites treated with TIPS. This simple score could be used at bedside to help choose the best therapeutic options.

Adult liver transplantation in the USA

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To provide the nontransplant clinician with a basic understanding of the liver transplant process.

RECENT FINDINGS

Since its inception, the technique of liver transplantation and patient management has evolved considerably. We present an up-to-date overview of the evaluation of the transplant recipient and the listing and timing of transplant. We conclude with a brief summary of long-term complications, which should be considered when caring for the posttransplant patient.

SUMMARY

Liver transplantation is the only definitive treatment option for patients dying of liver failure. The growing population of patients with liver disease means that more transplants will be performed. As these patients now live longer lives, it is crucial that clinicians have a basic understanding of the process and outcomes.