51
|
Navid A. Development of constraint-based system-level models of microbial metabolism. Methods Mol Biol 2012; 881:531-549. [PMID: 22639225 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-61779-827-6_18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Genome-scale models of metabolism are valuable tools for using genomic information to predict microbial phenotypes. System-level mathematical models of metabolic networks have been developed for a number of microbes and have been used to gain new insights into the biochemical conversions that occur within organisms and permit their survival and proliferation. Utilizing these models, computational biologists can (1) examine network structures, (2) predict metabolic capabilities and resolve unexplained experimental observations, (3) generate and test new hypotheses, (4) assess the nutritional requirements of the organism and approximate its environmental niche, (5) identify missing enzymatic functions in the annotated genome, and (6) engineer desired metabolic capabilities in model organisms. This chapter details the protocol for developing genome-scale models of metabolism in microbes as well as tips for accelerating the model building process.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ali Navid
- Biosciences and Biotechnology Division, Physics and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
52
|
Genome-scale metabolic reconstruction and hypothesis testing in the methanogenic archaeon Methanosarcina acetivorans C2A. J Bacteriol 2011; 194:855-65. [PMID: 22139506 DOI: 10.1128/jb.06040-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Methanosarcina acetivorans strain C2A is a marine methanogenic archaeon notable for its substrate utilization, genetic tractability, and novel energy conservation mechanisms. To help probe the phenotypic implications of this organism's unique metabolism, we have constructed and manually curated a genome-scale metabolic model of M. acetivorans, iMB745, which accounts for 745 of the 4,540 predicted protein-coding genes (16%) in the M. acetivorans genome. The reconstruction effort has identified key knowledge gaps and differences in peripheral and central metabolism between methanogenic species. Using flux balance analysis, the model quantitatively predicts wild-type phenotypes and is 96% accurate in knockout lethality predictions compared to currently available experimental data. The model was used to probe the mechanisms and energetics of by-product formation and growth on carbon monoxide, as well as the nature of the reaction catalyzed by the soluble heterodisulfide reductase HdrABC in M. acetivorans. The genome-scale model provides quantitative and qualitative hypotheses that can be used to help iteratively guide additional experiments to further the state of knowledge about methanogenesis.
Collapse
|
53
|
Ghosh A, Zhao H, Price ND. Genome-scale consequences of cofactor balancing in engineered pentose utilization pathways in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. PLoS One 2011; 6:e27316. [PMID: 22076150 PMCID: PMC3208632 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0027316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2011] [Accepted: 10/14/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Biofuels derived from lignocellulosic biomass offer promising alternative renewable energy sources for transportation fuels. Significant effort has been made to engineer Saccharomyces cerevisiae to efficiently ferment pentose sugars such as D-xylose and L-arabinose into biofuels such as ethanol through heterologous expression of the fungal D-xylose and L-arabinose pathways. However, one of the major bottlenecks in these fungal pathways is that the cofactors are not balanced, which contributes to inefficient utilization of pentose sugars. We utilized a genome-scale model of S. cerevisiae to predict the maximal achievable growth rate for cofactor balanced and imbalanced D-xylose and L-arabinose utilization pathways. Dynamic flux balance analysis (DFBA) was used to simulate batch fermentation of glucose, D-xylose, and L-arabinose. The dynamic models and experimental results are in good agreement for the wild type and for the engineered D-xylose utilization pathway. Cofactor balancing the engineered D-xylose and L-arabinose utilization pathways simulated an increase in ethanol batch production of 24.7% while simultaneously reducing the predicted substrate utilization time by 70%. Furthermore, the effects of cofactor balancing the engineered pentose utilization pathways were evaluated throughout the genome-scale metabolic network. This work not only provides new insights to the global network effects of cofactor balancing but also provides useful guidelines for engineering a recombinant yeast strain with cofactor balanced engineered pathways that efficiently co-utilizes pentose and hexose sugars for biofuels production. Experimental switching of cofactor usage in enzymes has been demonstrated, but is a time-consuming effort. Therefore, systems biology models that can predict the likely outcome of such strain engineering efforts are highly useful for motivating which efforts are likely to be worth the significant time investment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amit Ghosh
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
- Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Huimin Zhao
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
- Center for Biophysics and Computational Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
- * E-mail: (HZ); (NDP)
| | - Nathan D. Price
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
- Center for Biophysics and Computational Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
- Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
- * E-mail: (HZ); (NDP)
| |
Collapse
|
54
|
Jang YS, Park JM, Choi S, Choi YJ, Seung DY, Cho JH, Lee SY. Engineering of microorganisms for the production of biofuels and perspectives based on systems metabolic engineering approaches. Biotechnol Adv 2011; 30:989-1000. [PMID: 21889585 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2011.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2011] [Revised: 08/06/2011] [Accepted: 08/17/2011] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The increasing oil price and environmental concerns caused by the use of fossil fuel have renewed our interest in utilizing biomass as a sustainable resource for the production of biofuel. It is however essential to develop high performance microbes that are capable of producing biofuels with very high efficiency in order to compete with the fossil fuel. Recently, the strategies for developing microbial strains by systems metabolic engineering, which can be considered as metabolic engineering integrated with systems biology and synthetic biology, have been developed. Systems metabolic engineering allows successful development of microbes that are capable of producing several different biofuels including bioethanol, biobutanol, alkane, and biodiesel, and even hydrogen. In this review, the approaches employed to develop efficient biofuel producers by metabolic engineering and systems metabolic engineering approaches are reviewed with relevant example cases. It is expected that systems metabolic engineering will be employed as an essential strategy for the development of microbial strains for industrial applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Sin Jang
- Metabolic and Biomolecular Engineering National Research Laboratory, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering (BK21 Program), BioProcess Engineering Research Center, Center for Systems and Synthetic Biotechnology, Institute for the BioCentury, KAIST, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
55
|
Milne CB, Eddy JA, Raju R, Ardekani S, Kim PJ, Senger RS, Jin YS, Blaschek HP, Price ND. Metabolic network reconstruction and genome-scale model of butanol-producing strain Clostridium beijerinckii NCIMB 8052. BMC SYSTEMS BIOLOGY 2011; 5:130. [PMID: 21846360 PMCID: PMC3212993 DOI: 10.1186/1752-0509-5-130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2011] [Accepted: 08/16/2011] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Solventogenic clostridia offer a sustainable alternative to petroleum-based production of butanol--an important chemical feedstock and potential fuel additive or replacement. C. beijerinckii is an attractive microorganism for strain design to improve butanol production because it (i) naturally produces the highest recorded butanol concentrations as a byproduct of fermentation; and (ii) can co-ferment pentose and hexose sugars (the primary products from lignocellulosic hydrolysis). Interrogating C. beijerinckii metabolism from a systems viewpoint using constraint-based modeling allows for simulation of the global effect of genetic modifications. RESULTS We present the first genome-scale metabolic model (iCM925) for C. beijerinckii, containing 925 genes, 938 reactions, and 881 metabolites. To build the model we employed a semi-automated procedure that integrated genome annotation information from KEGG, BioCyc, and The SEED, and utilized computational algorithms with manual curation to improve model completeness. Interestingly, we found only a 34% overlap in reactions collected from the three databases--highlighting the importance of evaluating the predictive accuracy of the resulting genome-scale model. To validate iCM925, we conducted fermentation experiments using the NCIMB 8052 strain, and evaluated the ability of the model to simulate measured substrate uptake and product production rates. Experimentally observed fermentation profiles were found to lie within the solution space of the model; however, under an optimal growth objective, additional constraints were needed to reproduce the observed profiles--suggesting the existence of selective pressures other than optimal growth. Notably, a significantly enriched fraction of actively utilized reactions in simulations--constrained to reflect experimental rates--originated from the set of reactions that overlapped between all three databases (P = 3.52 × 10-9, Fisher's exact test). Inhibition of the hydrogenase reaction was found to have a strong effect on butanol formation--as experimentally observed. CONCLUSIONS Microbial production of butanol by C. beijerinckii offers a promising, sustainable, method for generation of this important chemical and potential biofuel. iCM925 is a predictive model that can accurately reproduce physiological behavior and provide insight into the underlying mechanisms of microbial butanol production. As such, the model will be instrumental in efforts to better understand, and metabolically engineer, this microorganism for improved butanol production.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Caroline B Milne
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
56
|
Saha R, Suthers PF, Maranas CD. Zea mays iRS1563: a comprehensive genome-scale metabolic reconstruction of maize metabolism. PLoS One 2011; 6:e21784. [PMID: 21755001 PMCID: PMC3131064 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0021784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2011] [Accepted: 06/09/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The scope and breadth of genome-scale metabolic reconstructions have continued to expand over the last decade. Herein, we introduce a genome-scale model for a plant with direct applications to food and bioenergy production (i.e., maize). Maize annotation is still underway, which introduces significant challenges in the association of metabolic functions to genes. The developed model is designed to meet rigorous standards on gene-protein-reaction (GPR) associations, elementally and charged balanced reactions and a biomass reaction abstracting the relative contribution of all biomass constituents. The metabolic network contains 1,563 genes and 1,825 metabolites involved in 1,985 reactions from primary and secondary maize metabolism. For approximately 42% of the reactions direct literature evidence for the participation of the reaction in maize was found. As many as 445 reactions and 369 metabolites are unique to the maize model compared to the AraGEM model for A. thaliana. 674 metabolites and 893 reactions are present in Zea mays iRS1563 that are not accounted for in maize C4GEM. All reactions are elementally and charged balanced and localized into six different compartments (i.e., cytoplasm, mitochondrion, plastid, peroxisome, vacuole and extracellular). GPR associations are also established based on the functional annotation information and homology prediction accounting for monofunctional, multifunctional and multimeric proteins, isozymes and protein complexes. We describe results from performing flux balance analysis under different physiological conditions, (i.e., photosynthesis, photorespiration and respiration) of a C4 plant and also explore model predictions against experimental observations for two naturally occurring mutants (i.e., bm1 and bm3). The developed model corresponds to the largest and more complete to-date effort at cataloguing metabolism for a plant species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rajib Saha
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Patrick F. Suthers
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Costas D. Maranas
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
57
|
Ip K, Colijn C, Lun DS. Analysis of complex metabolic behavior through pathway decomposition. BMC SYSTEMS BIOLOGY 2011; 5:91. [PMID: 21639889 PMCID: PMC3135541 DOI: 10.1186/1752-0509-5-91] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2010] [Accepted: 06/03/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Background Understanding complex systems through decomposition into simple interacting components is a pervasive paradigm throughout modern science and engineering. For cellular metabolism, complexity can be reduced by decomposition into pathways with particular biochemical functions, and the concept of elementary flux modes provides a systematic way for organizing metabolic networks into such pathways. While decomposition using elementary flux modes has proven to be a powerful tool for understanding and manipulating cellular metabolism, its utility, however, is severely limited since the number of modes in a network increases exponentially with its size. Results Here, we present a new method for decomposition of metabolic flux distributions into elementary flux modes. Our method can easily operate on large, genome-scale networks since it does not require all relevant modes of the metabolic network to be generated. We illustrate the utility of our method for metabolic engineering of Escherichia coli and for understanding the survival of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) during infection. Conclusions Our method can achieve computational time improvements exceeding 2000-fold and requires only several seconds to generate elementary mode decompositions on genome-scale networks. These improvements arise from not having to generate all relevant elementary modes prior to initiating the decomposition. The decompositions from our method are useful for understanding complex flux distributions and debugging genome-scale models.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kuhn Ip
- Phenomics and Bioinformatics Research Centre, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, SA 5095, Australia
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
58
|
Enzyme maintenance effort as criterion for the characterization of alternative pathways and length distribution of isofunctional enzymes. Biosystems 2011; 105:122-9. [PMID: 21664944 DOI: 10.1016/j.biosystems.2011.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2010] [Revised: 03/28/2011] [Accepted: 05/10/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
|
59
|
Golomysova AN, Ivanov PS. Investigation of the anaerobic metabolism of Rhodobacter capsulatus by means of a flux model. Biophysics (Nagoya-shi) 2011. [DOI: 10.1134/s000635091101009x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
|
60
|
Hoppe A, Hoffmann S, Gerasch A, Gille C, Holzhütter HG. FASIMU: flexible software for flux-balance computation series in large metabolic networks. BMC Bioinformatics 2011; 12:28. [PMID: 21255455 PMCID: PMC3038154 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2105-12-28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2010] [Accepted: 01/22/2011] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Flux-balance analysis based on linear optimization is widely used to compute metabolic fluxes in large metabolic networks and gains increasingly importance in network curation and structural analysis. Thus, a computational tool flexible enough to realize a wide variety of FBA algorithms and able to handle batch series of flux-balance optimizations is of great benefit. Results We present FASIMU, a command line oriented software for the computation of flux distributions using a variety of the most common FBA algorithms, including the first available implementation of (i) weighted flux minimization, (ii) fitness maximization for partially inhibited enzymes, and (iii) of the concentration-based thermodynamic feasibility constraint. It allows batch computation with varying objectives and constraints suited for network pruning, leak analysis, flux-variability analysis, and systematic probing of metabolic objectives for network curation. Input and output supports SBML. FASIMU can work with free (lp_solve and GLPK) or commercial solvers (CPLEX, LINDO). A new plugin (faBiNA) for BiNA allows to conveniently visualize calculated flux distributions. The platform-independent program is an open-source project, freely available under GNU public license at http://www.bioinformatics.org/fasimu including manual, tutorial, and plugins. Conclusions We present a flux-balance optimization program whose main merits are the implementation of thermodynamics as a constraint, batch series of computations, free availability of sources, choice on various external solvers, and the flexibility on metabolic objectives and constraints.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Hoppe
- Institute of Biochemistry, University Medicine Charité Berlin, Seestr, 73, 13347 Berlin, Germany.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
61
|
Cvijovic M, Bordel S, Nielsen J. Mathematical models of cell factories: moving towards the core of industrial biotechnology. Microb Biotechnol 2010; 4:572-84. [PMID: 21375719 PMCID: PMC3819008 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-7915.2010.00233.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Industrial biotechnology involves the utilization of cell factories for the production of fuels and chemicals. Traditionally, the development of highly productive microbial strains has relied on random mutagenesis and screening. The development of predictive mathematical models provides a new paradigm for the rational design of cell factories. Instead of selecting among a set of strains resulting from random mutagenesis, mathematical models allow the researchers to predict in silico the outcomes of different genetic manipulations and engineer new strains by performing gene deletions or additions leading to a higher productivity of the desired chemicals. In this review we aim to summarize the main modelling approaches of biological processes and illustrate the particular applications that they have found in the field of industrial microbiology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marija Cvijovic
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg, Sweden
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
62
|
Beste DJV, McFadden J. System-level strategies for studying the metabolism of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. MOLECULAR BIOSYSTEMS 2010; 6:2363-72. [PMID: 20938502 PMCID: PMC3172586 DOI: 10.1039/c003757p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2010] [Accepted: 09/08/2010] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Despite decades of research many aspects of the biology of Mycobacterium tuberculosis remain unclear and this is reflected in the antiquated tools available to treat and prevent tuberculosis and consequently this disease remains a serious public health problem. Important discoveries linking M. tuberculosis's metabolism and pathogenesis have renewed interest in this area of research. Previous experimental studies were limited to the analysis of individual genes or enzymes whereas recent advances in computational systems biology and high throughput experimental technologies now allow metabolism to be studied on a genome scale. Here we discuss the progress being made in applying system level approaches to studying the metabolism of this important pathogen. The information from these studies will fundamentally change our approach to tuberculosis research and lead to new targets for therapeutic drugs and vaccines.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dany J. V. Beste
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences , University of Surrey , Guildford GU2 7XH , UK . ; ; Fax: +44 (0)1483-300374 ; Tel: +44 (0)1483-696494
| | - Johnjoe McFadden
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences , University of Surrey , Guildford GU2 7XH , UK . ; ; Fax: +44 (0)1483-300374 ; Tel: +44 (0)1483-696494
| |
Collapse
|
63
|
Schmidt BJ, Lin-Schmidt X, Chamberlin A, Salehi-Ashtiani K, Papin JA. Metabolic systems analysis to advance algal biotechnology. Biotechnol J 2010; 5:660-70. [PMID: 20665641 DOI: 10.1002/biot.201000129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Algal fuel sources promise unsurpassed yields in a carbon neutral manner that minimizes resource competition between agriculture and fuel crops. Many challenges must be addressed before algal biofuels can be accepted as a component of the fossil fuel replacement strategy. One significant challenge is that the cost of algal fuel production must become competitive with existing fuel alternatives. Algal biofuel production presents the opportunity to fine-tune microbial metabolic machinery for an optimal blend of biomass constituents and desired fuel molecules. Genome-scale model-driven algal metabolic design promises to facilitate both goals by directing the utilization of metabolites in the complex, interconnected metabolic networks to optimize production of the compounds of interest. Network analysis can direct microbial development efforts towards successful strategies and enable quantitative fine-tuning of the network for optimal product yields while maintaining the robustness of the production microbe. Metabolic modeling yields insights into microbial function, guides experiments by generating testable hypotheses, and enables the refinement of knowledge on the specific organism. While the application of such analytical approaches to algal systems is limited to date, metabolic network analysis can improve understanding of algal metabolic systems and play an important role in expediting the adoption of new biofuel technologies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brian J Schmidt
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Virginia, Health System, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
64
|
|
65
|
Senger RS. Biofuel production improvement with genome-scale models: The role of cell composition. Biotechnol J 2010; 5:671-85. [DOI: 10.1002/biot.201000007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
|
66
|
Boshoff HIM, Lun DS. Systems biology approaches to understanding mycobacterial survival mechanisms. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 7:e75-e82. [PMID: 21072257 DOI: 10.1016/j.ddmec.2010.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The advent of high-throughput platforms for the interrogation of biological systems at the cellular and molecular level have allowed living cells to be observed and understood at a hitherto unprecedented level of detail and have enabled the construction of comprehensive, predictive in silico models. Here, we review the application of such high-throughput, systems-biological techniques to mycobacteria-specifically to the pernicious human pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTb) and its ability to survive in human hosts. We discuss the development and application of transcriptomic, proteomic, regulomic, and metabolomic techniques for MTb as well as the development and application of genome-scale in silico models. Thus far, systems-biological approaches have largely focused on in vitro models of MTb growth; reliably extending these approaches to in vivo conditions relevant to infection is a significant challenge for the future that holds the ultimate promise of novel chemotherapeutic interventions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Helena I M Boshoff
- Tuberculosis Research Section, LCID, NIAID, NIH, Building 33, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | | |
Collapse
|