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Aartsen WM, van Cleef KWR, Pellissier LP, Hoek RM, Vos RM, Blits B, Ehlert EME, Balaggan KS, Ali RR, Verhaagen J, Wijnholds J. GFAP-driven GFP expression in activated mouse Müller glial cells aligning retinal blood vessels following intravitreal injection of AAV2/6 vectors. PLoS One 2010; 5:e12387. [PMID: 20808778 PMCID: PMC2927518 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0012387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2010] [Accepted: 07/27/2010] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Müller cell gliosis occurs in various retinal pathologies regardless of the underlying cellular defect. Because activated Müller glial cells span the entire retina and align areas of injury, they are ideal targets for therapeutic strategies, including gene therapy. Methodology/Principal Findings We used adeno-associated viral AAV2/6 vectors to transduce mouse retinas. The transduction pattern of AAV2/6 was investigated by studying expression of the green fluorescent protein (GFP) transgene using scanning-laser ophthalmoscopy and immuno-histochemistry. AAV2/6 vectors transduced mouse Müller glial cells aligning the retinal blood vessels. However, the transduction capacity was hindered by the inner limiting membrane (ILM) and besides Müller glial cells, several other inner retinal cell types were transduced. To obtain Müller glial cell-specific transgene expression, the cytomegalovirus (CMV) promoter was replaced by the glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) promoter. Specificity and activation of the GFAP promoter was tested in a mouse model for retinal gliosis. Mice deficient for Crumbs homologue 1 (CRB1) develop gliosis after light exposure. Light exposure of Crb1−/− retinas transduced with AAV2/6-GFAP-GFP induced GFP expression restricted to activated Müller glial cells aligning retinal blood vessels. Conclusions/Significance Our experiments indicate that AAV2 vectors carrying the GFAP promoter are a promising tool for specific expression of transgenes in activated glial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wendy M. Aartsen
- Department of Neuromedical Genetics, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, an Institute of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Koen W. R. van Cleef
- Department of Neuromedical Genetics, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, an Institute of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Lucie P. Pellissier
- Department of Neuromedical Genetics, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, an Institute of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Robert M. Hoek
- Department of Neuromedical Genetics, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, an Institute of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Rogier M. Vos
- Department of Neuromedical Genetics, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, an Institute of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Bas Blits
- Department of Neuroregeneration, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, an Institute of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Amsterdam Molecular Therapeutics, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Erich M. E. Ehlert
- Department of Neuroregeneration, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, an Institute of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Kamaljit S. Balaggan
- Division of Molecular Therapy, Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Robin R. Ali
- Division of Molecular Therapy, Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Joost Verhaagen
- Department of Neuroregeneration, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, an Institute of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jan Wijnholds
- Department of Neuromedical Genetics, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, an Institute of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- * E-mail:
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Fischer MD, Huber G, Beck SC, Tanimoto N, Muehlfriedel R, Fahl E, Grimm C, Wenzel A, Remé CE, van de Pavert SA, Wijnholds J, Pacal M, Bremner R, Seeliger MW. Noninvasive, in vivo assessment of mouse retinal structure using optical coherence tomography. PLoS One 2009; 4:e7507. [PMID: 19838301 PMCID: PMC2759518 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0007507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2009] [Accepted: 09/21/2009] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a novel method of retinal in vivo imaging. In this study, we assessed the potential of OCT to yield histology-analogue sections in mouse models of retinal degeneration. Methodology/Principal Findings We achieved to adapt a commercial 3rd generation OCT system to obtain and quantify high-resolution morphological sections of the mouse retina which so far required in vitro histology. OCT and histology were compared in models with developmental defects, light damage, and inherited retinal degenerations. In conditional knockout mice deficient in retinal retinoblastoma protein Rb, the gradient of Cre expression from center to periphery, leading to a gradual reduction of retinal thickness, was clearly visible and well topographically quantifiable. In Nrl knockout mice, the layer involvement in the formation of rosette-like structures was similarly clear as in histology. OCT examination of focal light damage, well demarcated by the autofluorescence pattern, revealed a practically complete loss of photoreceptors with preservation of inner retinal layers, but also more subtle changes like edema formation. In Crb1 knockout mice (a model for Leber's congenital amaurosis), retinal vessels slipping through the outer nuclear layer towards the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) due to the lack of adhesion in the subapical region of the photoreceptor inner segments could be well identified. Conclusions/Significance We found that with the OCT we were able to detect and analyze a wide range of mouse retinal pathology, and the results compared well to histological sections. In addition, the technique allows to follow individual animals over time, thereby reducing the numbers of study animals needed, and to assess dynamic processes like edema formation. The results clearly indicate that OCT has the potential to revolutionize the future design of respective short- and long-term studies, as well as the preclinical assessment of therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Dominik Fischer
- Division of Ocular Neurodegeneration, Centre for Ophthalmology, Institute for Ophthalmic Research, University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Gesine Huber
- Division of Ocular Neurodegeneration, Centre for Ophthalmology, Institute for Ophthalmic Research, University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
- Institute of Animal Welfare, Ethology and Animal Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
| | - Susanne C. Beck
- Division of Ocular Neurodegeneration, Centre for Ophthalmology, Institute for Ophthalmic Research, University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Naoyuki Tanimoto
- Division of Ocular Neurodegeneration, Centre for Ophthalmology, Institute for Ophthalmic Research, University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Regine Muehlfriedel
- Division of Ocular Neurodegeneration, Centre for Ophthalmology, Institute for Ophthalmic Research, University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Edda Fahl
- Division of Ocular Neurodegeneration, Centre for Ophthalmology, Institute for Ophthalmic Research, University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Christian Grimm
- Laboratory of Retinal Cell Biology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Andreas Wenzel
- Laboratory of Retinal Cell Biology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Charlotte E. Remé
- Laboratory of Retinal Cell Biology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Serge A. van de Pavert
- Neuromedical Genetics, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jan Wijnholds
- Neuromedical Genetics, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Marek Pacal
- Toronto Western Research Institute, University Health Network, Departments of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, and Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Rod Bremner
- Toronto Western Research Institute, University Health Network, Departments of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, and Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Mathias W. Seeliger
- Division of Ocular Neurodegeneration, Centre for Ophthalmology, Institute for Ophthalmic Research, University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
- * E-mail:
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Bringmann A, Iandiev I, Pannicke T, Wurm A, Hollborn M, Wiedemann P, Osborne NN, Reichenbach A. Cellular signaling and factors involved in Müller cell gliosis: neuroprotective and detrimental effects. Prog Retin Eye Res 2009; 28:423-51. [PMID: 19660572 DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2009.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 515] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Müller cells are active players in normal retinal function and in virtually all forms of retinal injury and disease. Reactive Müller cells protect the tissue from further damage and preserve tissue function by the release of antioxidants and neurotrophic factors, and may contribute to retinal regeneration by the generation of neural progenitor/stem cells. However, Müller cell gliosis can also contribute to neurodegeneration and impedes regenerative processes in the retinal tissue by the formation of glial scars. This article provides an overview of the neuroprotective and detrimental effects of Müller cell gliosis, with accounts on the cellular signal transduction mechanisms and factors which are implicated in Müller cell-mediated neuroprotection, immunomodulation, regulation of Müller cell proliferation, upregulation of intermediate filaments, glial scar formation, and the generation of neural progenitor/stem cells. A proper understanding of the signaling mechanisms implicated in gliotic alterations of Müller cells is essential for the development of efficient therapeutic strategies that increase the supportive/protective and decrease the destructive roles of gliosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Bringmann
- Department of Ophthalmology and Eye Hospital, University of Leipzig, Liebigstrasse 10-14, D-04103 Leipzig, Germany.
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Aartsen WM, Arsanto JP, Chauvin JP, Vos RM, Versteeg I, Cardozo BN, Bivic AL, Wijnholds J. PSD95β regulates plasma membrane Ca(2+) pump localization at the photoreceptor synapse. Mol Cell Neurosci 2009; 41:156-65. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2009.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2008] [Revised: 01/27/2009] [Accepted: 02/10/2009] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
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Fernández-Medarde A, Barhoum R, Riquelme R, Porteros A, Núñez A, de Luis A, de Las Rivas J, de la Villa P, Varela-Nieto I, Santos E. RasGRF1 disruption causes retinal photoreception defects and associated transcriptomic alterations. J Neurochem 2009; 110:641-52. [PMID: 19457086 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2009.06162.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
RasGRF1 null mutant mice display impaired memory/learning and their hippocampus transcriptomic pattern includes a number of differentially expressed genes playing significant roles in sensory development and function. Odour avoidance and auditory brainstem response tests yielded normal results but electroretinographic analysis showed severe light perception impairment in the RasGRF1 knockouts. Whereas no structural alterations distinguished the retinas of wild-type and knockout mice, microarray transcriptional analysis identified at least 44 differentially expressed genes in the retinas of these Knockout animals. Among these, Crb1, Pttg1, Folh1 and Myo7a have been previously related to syndromes involving retina degeneration. Interestingly, over-expression of Folh1 would be expected to result in accumulation of its enzymatic product N-acetyl-aspartate, an event known to be linked to Canavan disease, a human cerebral degenerative syndrome often involving blindness and hearing loss. Consistently, in vivo brain nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy identified higher levels of N-acetyl-aspartate in our RasGRF1-/- mice and immunohistochemical analysis detected reduced levels of aspartoacylase, the enzyme which degrades N-acetyl-aspartate. These studies demonstrate for the first time the functional relevance of Ras signalling in mammalian photoreception and warrant further analysis of RasGRF1 Knockout mice as potential models to analyse molecular mechanisms underlying defective photoreception human diseases.
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West E, Pearson R, MacLaren R, Sowden J, Ali R. Cell transplantation strategies for retinal repair. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2009; 175:3-21. [PMID: 19660645 PMCID: PMC3272389 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6123(09)17501-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Cell transplantation is a novel therapeutic strategy to restore visual responses to the degenerate adult neural retina and represents an exciting area of regenerative neurotherapy. So far, it has been shown that transplanted postmitotic photoreceptor precursors are able to functionally integrate into the adult mouse neural retina. In this review, we discuss the differentiation of photoreceptor cells from both adult and embryonic-derived stem cells and their potential for retinal cell transplantation. We also discuss the strategies used to overcome barriers present in the degenerate neural retina and improve retinal cell integration. Finally, we consider the future translation of retinal cell therapy as a therapeutic strategy to treat retinal degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- E.L. West
- Department of Genetics, UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, London, UK
| | - R.A. Pearson
- Department of Genetics, UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, London, UK
| | - R.E. MacLaren
- Department of Genetics, UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, London, UK
- Vitreoretinal Service, Moorfields Eye Hospital, London, UK
| | - J.C. Sowden
- Developmental Biology Unit, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, UK
| | - R.R. Ali
- Department of Genetics, UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, London, UK
- Molecular Immunology Unit, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, UK
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den Hollander AI, Roepman R, Koenekoop RK, Cremers FPM. Leber congenital amaurosis: genes, proteins and disease mechanisms. Prog Retin Eye Res 2008; 27:391-419. [PMID: 18632300 DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2008.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 560] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA) is the most severe retinal dystrophy causing blindness or severe visual impairment before the age of 1 year. Linkage analysis, homozygosity mapping and candidate gene analysis facilitated the identification of 14 genes mutated in patients with LCA and juvenile retinal degeneration, which together explain approximately 70% of the cases. Several of these genes have also been implicated in other non-syndromic or syndromic retinal diseases, such as retinitis pigmentosa and Joubert syndrome, respectively. CEP290 (15%), GUCY2D (12%), and CRB1 (10%) are the most frequently mutated LCA genes; one intronic CEP290 mutation (p.Cys998X) is found in approximately 20% of all LCA patients from north-western Europe, although this frequency is lower in other populations. Despite the large degree of genetic and allelic heterogeneity, it is possible to identify the causative mutations in approximately 55% of LCA patients by employing a microarray-based, allele-specific primer extension analysis of all known DNA variants. The LCA genes encode proteins with a wide variety of retinal functions, such as photoreceptor morphogenesis (CRB1, CRX), phototransduction (AIPL1, GUCY2D), vitamin A cycling (LRAT, RDH12, RPE65), guanine synthesis (IMPDH1), and outer segment phagocytosis (MERTK). Recently, several defects were identified that are likely to affect intra-photoreceptor ciliary transport processes (CEP290, LCA5, RPGRIP1, TULP1). As the eye represents an accessible and immune-privileged organ, it appears to be uniquely suitable for human gene replacement therapy. Rodent (Crb1, Lrat, Mertk, Rpe65, Rpgrip1), avian (Gucy2D) and canine (Rpe65) models for LCA and profound visual impairment have been successfully corrected employing adeno-associated virus or lentivirus-based gene therapy. Moreover, phase 1 clinical trials have been carried out in humans with RPE65 deficiencies. Apart from ethical considerations inherently linked to treating children, major obstacles for the treatment of LCA could be the putative developmental deficiencies in the visual cortex in persons blind from birth (amblyopia), the absence of sufficient numbers of viable photoreceptor or RPE cells in LCA patients, and the unknown and possibly toxic effects of overexpression of transduced genes. Future LCA research will focus on the identification of the remaining causal genes, the elucidation of the molecular mechanisms of disease in the retina, and the development of gene therapy approaches for different genetic subtypes of LCA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anneke I den Hollander
- Department of Human Genetics & Nijmegen Centre for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, P.O. Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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Galli-Resta L, Leone P, Bottari D, Ensini M, Rigosi E, Novelli E. The genesis of retinal architecture: an emerging role for mechanical interactions? Prog Retin Eye Res 2008; 27:260-83. [PMID: 18374618 DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2008.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Patterns in nature have always fascinated human beings. They convey the idea of order, organization and optimization, and, to the enquiring mind, the alluring promise that understanding their building rules may uncover the forces that shaped them. In the retina, two patterns are outstanding: the stacking of cells in layers and, within the layers, the prevalent arrangement of neurons of the same type in orderly arrays, often referred to as mosaics for the crystalline-like order that some can display. Layers and mosaics have been essential keys to our present understanding of retinal circuital organization and function. Now, they may also be a precious guide in our exploration of how the retina is built. Here, we will review studies addressing the mechanisms controlling the formation of retinal mosaics and layers, illustrating common themes and unsolved problems. Among the intricacies of the building process, a world of physical forces is making its appearance. Cells are extremely complex to model as "physical entities", and many aspects of cell mechanotransduction are still obscure. Yet, recent experiments, focusing on the mechanical aspects of growth and differentiation, suggest that adopting this viewpoint will open new ways of understanding retinal formation and novel possibilities to approach retinal pathologies and repair.
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