51
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Silveira MG, Lindor KD. Investigational drugs in phase II clinical trials for primary biliary cholangitis. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2017; 26:1115-1121. [DOI: 10.1080/13543784.2017.1371135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marina G. Silveira
- Section of Digestive Diseases, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Keith D. Lindor
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Mayo Clinic, Phoenix, AZ, USA
- Office of the University Provost, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ, USA
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52
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EASL Clinical Practice Guidelines: The diagnosis and management of patients with primary biliary cholangitis. J Hepatol 2017; 67:145-172. [PMID: 28427765 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2017.03.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 752] [Impact Index Per Article: 107.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2017] [Accepted: 03/23/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) is a chronic inflammatory autoimmune cholestatic liver disease, which when untreated will culminate in end-stage biliary cirrhosis. Diagnosis is usually based on the presence of serum liver tests indicative of a cholestatic hepatitis in association with circulating antimitochondrial antibodies. Patient presentation and course can be diverse and risk stratification is important to ensure all patients receive a personalised approach to their care. The goals of treatment and management are the prevention of end-stage liver disease, and the amelioration of associated symptoms. Pharmacologic approaches in practice, to reduce the impact of the progressive nature of disease, currently include licensed therapies (ursodeoxycholic acid and obeticholic acid) and off-label therapies (fibric acid derivatives, budesonide). These clinical practice guidelines summarise the evidence for the importance of a structured, life-long and individualised, approach to the care of patients with PBC, providing a framework to help clinicians diagnose and effectively manage patients.
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53
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Cheung AC, LaRusso NF, Gores GJ, Lazaridis KN. Epigenetics in the Primary Biliary Cholangitis and Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis. Semin Liver Dis 2017; 37:159-174. [PMID: 28564724 PMCID: PMC5553635 DOI: 10.1055/s-0037-1603324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Epigenomics, the study of modifications to genetic material that do not alter the underlying DNA sequence, is generating increasing interest as a means to help clarify disease pathogenesis and outcomes. Although genome-wide association studies have identified several potential candidate genes that may be implicated in primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) and primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC), it is estimated that these genes explain less than 20% of the heritability of these diseases. Thus, to date, the origins of “missing heritability” for PBC and PSC remain elusive. The epigenome may provide a potentially elegant solution to this phenomenon, as it can be modified by both internal and external exposures (coined the “exposome”). This may explain differences in disease presentation, treatment response, and rates of progression between individuals. Epigenetic changes may also provide a framework for discovering potential biomarkers for diagnosis and screening of PBC and PSC. Importantly, because the epigenome is modifiable, it may also highlight novel pathways for therapeutic discovery and interventions of these diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela C. Cheung
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Nicholas F. LaRusso
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Gregory J. Gores
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
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McDaniel K, Meng F, Wu N, Sato K, Venter J, Bernuzzi F, Invernizzi P, Zhou T, Kyritsi K, Wan Y, Huang Q, Onori P, Francis H, Gaudio E, Glaser S, Alpini G. Forkhead box A2 regulates biliary heterogeneity and senescence during cholestatic liver injury in mice‡. Hepatology 2017; 65:544-559. [PMID: 27639079 PMCID: PMC5258713 DOI: 10.1002/hep.28831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2016] [Revised: 08/01/2016] [Accepted: 09/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Biliary-committed progenitor cells (small mouse cholangiocytes; SMCCs) from small bile ducts are more resistant to hepatobiliary injury than large mouse cholangiocytes (LGCCs) from large bile ducts. The definitive endoderm marker, forkhead box A2 (FoxA2), is the key transcriptional factor that regulates cell differentiation and tissue regeneration. Our aim was to characterize the translational role of FoxA2 during cholestatic liver injury. Messenger RNA expression in SMCCs and LGCCs was assessed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) array analysis. Liver tissues and hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) from primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) and primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) patients were tested by real-time PCR for methylation, senescence, and fibrosis markers. Bile duct ligation (BDL) and multidrug resistance protein 2 (MDR2) knockout mice (MDR2-/- ) were used as animal models of cholestatic liver injury with or without healthy transplanted large or small cholangiocytes. We demonstrated that FoxA2 was notably enhanced in murine liver progenitor cells and SMCCs and was silenced in human PSC and PBC liver tissues relative to respective controls that are correlated with the epigenetic methylation enzymes, DNA methyltransferase (DNMT) 1 and DNMT3B. Serum alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase levels in nonobese diabetic/severe combined immunodeficiency mice engrafted with SMCCs post-BDL showed significant changes compared to vehicle-treated mice, along with improved liver fibrosis. Enhanced expression of FoxA2 was observed in BDL mouse liver after SMCC cell therapy. Furthermore, activation of fibrosis signaling pathways were observed in BDL/MDR2-/- mouse liver as well as in isolated HSCs by laser capture microdissection, and these signals were recovered along with reduced hepatic senescence and enhanced hepatic stellate cellular senescence after SMCC engraft. CONCLUSION The definitive endoderm marker and the positive regulator of biliary development, FoxA2, mediates the therapeutic effect of biliary-committed progenitor cells during cholestatic liver injury. (Hepatology 2017;65:544-559).
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly McDaniel
- Research, Central Texas Veterans Health Care System, Temple, TX, USA,Department of Medicine, Baylor Scott & White Health Digestive Disease Research Center, Texas A&M HSC and Baylor Scott & White Health, Temple, TX, USA,Research Institute, Baylor Scott & White Health, Temple, TX, USA
| | - Fanyin Meng
- Research, Central Texas Veterans Health Care System, Temple, TX, USA,Department of Medicine, Baylor Scott & White Health Digestive Disease Research Center, Texas A&M HSC and Baylor Scott & White Health, Temple, TX, USA,Research Institute, Baylor Scott & White Health, Temple, TX, USA
| | - Nan Wu
- Department of Medicine, Baylor Scott & White Health Digestive Disease Research Center, Texas A&M HSC and Baylor Scott & White Health, Temple, TX, USA
| | - Keisaku Sato
- Department of Medicine, Baylor Scott & White Health Digestive Disease Research Center, Texas A&M HSC and Baylor Scott & White Health, Temple, TX, USA
| | - Julie Venter
- Department of Medicine, Baylor Scott & White Health Digestive Disease Research Center, Texas A&M HSC and Baylor Scott & White Health, Temple, TX, USA
| | - Francesca Bernuzzi
- Liver Unit and Center for Autoimmune Liver Diseases, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Rozzano, Milan, Italy
| | - Pietro Invernizzi
- Liver Unit and Center for Autoimmune Liver Diseases, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Rozzano, Milan, Italy
| | - Tianhao Zhou
- Department of Medicine, Baylor Scott & White Health Digestive Disease Research Center, Texas A&M HSC and Baylor Scott & White Health, Temple, TX, USA
| | - Konstantina Kyritsi
- Department of Medicine, Baylor Scott & White Health Digestive Disease Research Center, Texas A&M HSC and Baylor Scott & White Health, Temple, TX, USA
| | - Ying Wan
- Research Institute, Baylor Scott & White Health, Temple, TX, USA,Department of Pathophysiology, Key Lab for Shock and Microcirculation Research of Guangdong Province, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qiaobing Huang
- Department of Pathophysiology, Key Lab for Shock and Microcirculation Research of Guangdong Province, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Paolo Onori
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic Medicine and Orthopedics Sciences, Sapienza, Rome, Italy
| | - Heather Francis
- Research, Central Texas Veterans Health Care System, Temple, TX, USA,Department of Medicine, Baylor Scott & White Health Digestive Disease Research Center, Texas A&M HSC and Baylor Scott & White Health, Temple, TX, USA,Research Institute, Baylor Scott & White Health, Temple, TX, USA
| | - Eugenio Gaudio
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic Medicine and Orthopedics Sciences, Sapienza, Rome, Italy
| | - Shannon Glaser
- Research, Central Texas Veterans Health Care System, Temple, TX, USA,Department of Medicine, Baylor Scott & White Health Digestive Disease Research Center, Texas A&M HSC and Baylor Scott & White Health, Temple, TX, USA
| | - Gianfranco Alpini
- Research, Central Texas Veterans Health Care System, Temple, TX, USA,Department of Medicine, Baylor Scott & White Health Digestive Disease Research Center, Texas A&M HSC and Baylor Scott & White Health, Temple, TX, USA
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55
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Trivedi HD, Lizaola B, Tapper EB, Bonder A. Primary biliary cholangitis: new treatments for an old disease. Frontline Gastroenterol 2017; 8:29-36. [PMID: 28839882 PMCID: PMC5369441 DOI: 10.1136/flgastro-2016-100741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2016] [Revised: 10/04/2016] [Accepted: 10/17/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) is an immunological condition that causes a significant health disturbance and dramatically reduces the quality of life for those affected with the disease. It is a potentially fatal disease that can lead to multiple hepatic and extrahepatic complications. Having adequate therapeutic interventions that can improve the course of the disease is imperative in reducing the associated morbidity and mortality. Ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) is the gold standard therapy. However, it has been associated with suboptimal response rates in a significant proportion of patients. Despite UDCA, approximately 35%-40% of individuals with PBC still experience a progression of the disease, leading to liver failure and requiring liver transplantation. Recent studies of new pharmacological approaches have shown beneficial outcomes. Some of these agents can now be applied to a clinical scenario. In this review article, we will outline the new and emerging treatments for PBC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hirsh D Trivedi
- Liver Center, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Blanca Lizaola
- Department of Internal Medicine, St. Elizabeth's Medical Center, Brighton, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Elliot B Tapper
- Department of Hepatology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Alan Bonder
- Liver Center, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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56
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Marzorati S, Lleo A, Carbone M, Gershwin ME, Invernizzi P. The epigenetics of PBC: The link between genetic susceptibility and environment. Clin Res Hepatol Gastroenterol 2016; 40:650-659. [PMID: 27341761 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinre.2016.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2016] [Revised: 04/30/2016] [Accepted: 05/13/2016] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) previously known as primary biliary cirrhosis is an autoimmune disease-associated with progressive cholestasis, the presence of autoreactive T cell and characteristic serological autoantibodies. Genetic and genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have recently shed light on the genetic background of PBC. Besides that some causal nucleotide changes and mechanisms remain largely unknown as suggested for example, by the observation that monozygotic twins have an identical DNA sequence even if presents some phenotypic differences that may be consequences of different exposures to environmental stressors. For this reason, it is believed that epigenetic mechanisms may be involved in PBC pathogenesis, as already demonstrated in many autoimmune diseases and can eventually provide an understanding that has been missed from genetics alone. This review will focus on the most commonly studied epigenetic modifications already demonstrated in PBC; special attention will be paid also to other epigenetic mechanisms so far not demonstrated in PBC patients, but that could increase our understanding in PBC pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simona Marzorati
- Liver Unit and Center for Autoimmune Liver Diseases, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Rozzano, Milan, Italy
| | - Ana Lleo
- Liver Unit and Center for Autoimmune Liver Diseases, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Rozzano, Milan, Italy
| | - Marco Carbone
- Liver Unit and Center for Autoimmune Liver Diseases, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Rozzano, Milan, Italy
| | - Merrill Eric Gershwin
- Division of Rheumatology, Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Pietro Invernizzi
- Division of Rheumatology, Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of California, Davis, CA, USA; Program for Autoimmune Liver Diseases, Section of Digestive Diseases, International Center for Digestive Health, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milan-Bicocca, Monza (MB), Italy.
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57
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Carbone M, Invernizzi P. Novel treatments targeting immune-related mechanisms in primary biliary cholangitis. Clin Liver Dis (Hoboken) 2016; 8:127-131. [PMID: 31041080 PMCID: PMC6490213 DOI: 10.1002/cld.587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2016] [Revised: 08/24/2016] [Accepted: 09/02/2016] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Marco Carbone
- Liver UnitHumanitas Clinical and Research InstituteRozzano (Milan)Italy,Academic Department of Medical GeneticsUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUnited Kingdom
| | - Pietro Invernizzi
- Program for Autoimmune Liver Diseases, International Center for Digestive Health, Department of Medicine and SurgeryUniversity of Milan‐BicoccaMilanItaly,Division of Rheumatology, Allergy, and Clinical ImmunologyUniversity of California at Davis School of MedicineDavisCA
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58
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Huang YQ. Recent advances in the diagnosis and treatment of primary biliary cholangitis. World J Hepatol 2016; 8:1419-1441. [PMID: 27957241 PMCID: PMC5124714 DOI: 10.4254/wjh.v8.i33.1419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2016] [Revised: 07/26/2016] [Accepted: 08/29/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Primary biliary cholangitis (PBC), formerly referred to as primary biliary cirrhosis, is an infrequent progressive intrahepatic cholestatic autoimmune illness that can evolve into hepatic fibrosis, hepatic cirrhosis, hepatic failure, and, in some cases, hepatocellular carcinoma. The disease itself is characterized by T-lymphocyte-mediated chronic non-suppurative destructive cholangitis and elevated serum levels of extremely specific anti-mitochondrial autoantibodies (AMAs). In this article, we will not only review epidemiology, risk factors, natural history, predictive scores, radiologic approaches (e.g., acoustic radiation force impulse imaging, vibration controlled transient elastography, and magnetic resonance elastography), clinical features, serological characteristics covering biochemical markers, immunoglobulins, infections markers, biomarkers, predictive fibrosis marker, specific antibodies (including AMAs such as AMA-M2), anti-nuclear autoantibodies [such as anti-multiple nuclear dot autoantibodies (anti-sp100, PML, NDP52, anti-sp140), anti-rim-like/membranous anti-nuclear autoantibodies (anti-gp210, anti-p62), anti-centromere autoantibodies, and some of the novel autoantibodies], histopathological characteristics of PBC, diagnostic advances, and anti-diastole of PBC. Furthermore, this review emphasizes the recent advances in research of PBC in terms of therapies, including ursodeoxycholic acid, budesonide, methotrexate, obeticholic acid, cyclosporine A, fibrates such as bezafibrate and fenofibrate, rituximab, mesenchymal stem cells transplant, and hepatic transplant. Currently, hepatic transplant remains the only optimal choice with acknowledged treatment efficiency for end-stage PBC patients.
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59
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60
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Mousa HS, Carbone M, Malinverno F, Ronca V, Gershwin ME, Invernizzi P. Novel therapeutics for primary biliary cholangitis: Toward a disease-stage-based approach. Autoimmun Rev 2016; 15:870-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.autrev.2016.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2016] [Accepted: 06/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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61
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Chen R, Meng X, Zhao A, Wang C, Yang C, Li H, Cai J, Zhao Z, Kan H. DNA hypomethylation and its mediation in the effects of fine particulate air pollution on cardiovascular biomarkers: A randomized crossover trial. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2016; 94:614-619. [PMID: 27397927 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2016.06.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2016] [Revised: 05/23/2016] [Accepted: 06/21/2016] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Short-term exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) air pollution has been associated with altered DNA methylation in observational studies, but it remains unclear whether this change mediates the effects on cardiovascular biomarkers. OBJECTIVE To examine the impact of ambient PM2.5 on gene-specific DNA methylation and its potential mediation in the acute effects of PM2.5 on cardiovascular biomarkers. METHODS We designed a randomized, double-blind crossover trial using true or sham air purifiers for 48h among 35 healthy college students in Shanghai, China, in 2014. We measured blood global methylation estimated in long interspersed nucleotide element-1 (LINE‑1) and Alu repetitive elements, methylation in ten specific genes, and ten cardiovascular biomarkers. We used linear mixed-effect models to examine the associations between PM2.5 and methylation. We also performed causal mediation analyses to evaluate the potential mediation of methylation in the associations between PM2.5 and biomarkers. RESULTS Air purification increased DNA methylation in repetitive elements and all candidate genes. An IQR increase (64μg/m(3)) in PM2.5 was significantly associated with reduction of methylation in LINE-1 (1.44%), one pro-inflammatory gene (CD40LG, 9.13%), two pro-coagulant genes (F3, 15.20%; SERPINE1, 3.69%), and two pro-vasoconstriction genes (ACE, 4.64%; EDN1, 9.74%). There was a significant mediated effect (17.82%, P=0.03) of PM2.5 on sCD40L protein through CD40LG hypomethylation. Hypomethylation in other candidate genes generally showed positive but non-significant mediation. CONCLUSIONS This intervention study provided robust human evidence that ambient PM2.5 could induce rapid decreases in DNA methylation and consequently partly mediate its effects on cardiovascular biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renjie Chen
- School of Public Health, Key Lab of Public Health Safety of the Ministry of Education, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; Key Lab of Health Technology Assessment of the Ministry of Health, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; Shanghai Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Particle Pollution and Prevention (LAP(3)), Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Xia Meng
- Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta 30322, GA, USA
| | - Ang Zhao
- School of Public Health, Key Lab of Public Health Safety of the Ministry of Education, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Cuicui Wang
- School of Public Health, Key Lab of Public Health Safety of the Ministry of Education, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Changyuan Yang
- School of Public Health, Key Lab of Public Health Safety of the Ministry of Education, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Huichu Li
- School of Public Health, Key Lab of Public Health Safety of the Ministry of Education, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Jing Cai
- School of Public Health, Key Lab of Public Health Safety of the Ministry of Education, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; Key Lab of Health Technology Assessment of the Ministry of Health, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Zhuohui Zhao
- School of Public Health, Key Lab of Public Health Safety of the Ministry of Education, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; Key Lab of Health Technology Assessment of the Ministry of Health, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Haidong Kan
- School of Public Health, Key Lab of Public Health Safety of the Ministry of Education, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; Key Lab of Health Technology Assessment of the Ministry of Health, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; Shanghai Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Particle Pollution and Prevention (LAP(3)), Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China.
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62
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Gatselis NK, Dalekos GN. Molecular diagnostic testing for primary biliary cholangitis. Expert Rev Mol Diagn 2016; 16:1001-10. [DOI: 10.1080/14737159.2016.1217159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nikolaos K. Gatselis
- Department of Medicine and Research Laboratory of Internal Medicine, Medical School, University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece
| | - George N. Dalekos
- Department of Medicine and Research Laboratory of Internal Medicine, Medical School, University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece
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63
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Long H, Yin H, Wang L, Gershwin ME, Lu Q. The critical role of epigenetics in systemic lupus erythematosus and autoimmunity. J Autoimmun 2016; 74:118-138. [PMID: 27396525 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2016.06.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2016] [Accepted: 06/29/2016] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
One of the major disappointments in human autoimmunity has been the relative failure on genome-wide association studies to provide "smoking genetic guns" that would explain the critical role of genetic susceptibility to loss of tolerance. It is well known that autoimmunity refers to the abnormal state that the dysregulated immune system attacks the healthy cells and tissues due to the loss of immunological tolerance to self-antigens. Its clinical outcomes are generally characterized by the presence of autoreactive immune cells and (or) the development of autoantibodies, leading to various types of autoimmune disorders. The etiology and pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases are highly complex. Both genetic predisposition and environmental factors such as nutrition, infection, and chemicals are implicated in the pathogenic process of autoimmunity, however, how much and by what mechanisms each of these factors contribute to the development of autoimmunity remain unclear. Epigenetics, which refers to potentially heritable changes in gene expression and function that do not involve alterations of the DNA sequence, has provided us with a brand new key to answer these questions. In the recent decades, increasing evidence have demonstrated the roles of epigenetic dysregulation, including DNA methylation, histone modification, and noncoding RNA, in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases, especially systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), which have shed light on a new era for autoimmunity research. Notably, DNA hypomethylation and reactivation of the inactive X chromosome are two epigenetic hallmarks of SLE. We will herein discuss briefly how genetic studies fail to completely elucidate the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases and present a comprehensive review on landmark epigenetic findings in autoimmune diseases, taking SLE as an extensively studied example. The epigenetics of other autoimmune diseases such as rheumatic arthritis, systemic sclerosis and primary biliary cirrhosis will also be summarized. Importantly we emphasize that the stochastic processes that lead to DNA modification may be the lynch pins that drive the initial break in tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hai Long
- Department of Dermatology, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenomics, Changsha, China
| | - Heng Yin
- Department of Dermatology, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenomics, Changsha, China
| | - Ling Wang
- Department of Stomatology, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - M Eric Gershwin
- Division of Rheumatology, Allergy, and Clinical Immunology, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Qianjin Lu
- Department of Dermatology, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenomics, Changsha, China.
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64
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Sex bias in paediatric autoimmune disease – Not just about sex hormones? J Autoimmun 2016; 69:12-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2016.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2016] [Revised: 02/25/2016] [Accepted: 02/29/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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65
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Adaptive immunity in the liver. Cell Mol Immunol 2016; 13:354-68. [PMID: 26996069 PMCID: PMC4856810 DOI: 10.1038/cmi.2016.4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2015] [Revised: 01/06/2016] [Accepted: 01/09/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The anatomical architecture of the human liver and the diversity of its immune components endow the liver with its physiological function of immune competence. Adaptive immunity is a major arm of the immune system that is organized in a highly specialized and systematic manner, thus providing long-lasting protection with immunological memory. Adaptive immunity consists of humoral immunity and cellular immunity. Cellular immunity is known to have a crucial role in controlling infection, cancer and autoimmune disorders in the liver. In this article, we will focus on hepatic virus infections, hepatocellular carcinoma and autoimmune disorders as examples to illustrate the current understanding of the contribution of T cells to cellular immunity in these maladies. Cellular immune suppression is primarily responsible for chronic viral infections and cancer. However, an uncontrolled auto-reactive immune response accounts for autoimmunity. Consequently, these immune abnormalities are ascribed to the quantitative and functional changes in adaptive immune cells and their subsets, innate immunocytes, chemokines, cytokines and various surface receptors on immune cells. A greater understanding of the complex orchestration of the hepatic adaptive immune regulators during homeostasis and immune competence are much needed to identify relevant targets for clinical intervention to treat immunological disorders in the liver.
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66
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Tsuchiya Y, Naito T, Tenno M, Maruyama M, Koseki H, Taniuchi I, Naoe Y. ThPOK represses CXXC5, which induces methylation of histone H3 lysine 9 in Cd40lg promoter by association with SUV39H1: implications in repression of CD40L expression in CD8+ cytotoxic T cells. J Leukoc Biol 2016; 100:327-38. [PMID: 26896487 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.1a0915-396rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2015] [Accepted: 02/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
CD40 ligand is induced in CD4(+) Th cells upon TCR stimulation and provides an activating signal to B cells, making CD40 ligand an important molecule for Th cell function. However, the detailed molecular mechanisms, whereby CD40 ligand becomes expressed on the cell surface in T cells remain unclear. Here, we showed that CD40 ligand expression in CD8(+) cytotoxic T cells was suppressed by combined epigenetic regulations in the promoter region of the Cd40lg gene, such as the methylation of CpG dinucleotides, histone H3 lysine 9, histone H3 lysine 27, and histone H4 lysine 20. As the transcription factor Th-inducing pox virus and zinc finger/Kruppel-like factor (encoded by the Zbtb7b gene) is critical in Th cell development, we focused on the role of Th-inducing pox virus and zinc finger/Kruppel-like factor in CD40 ligand expression. We found that CD40 ligand expression is moderately induced by retroviral Thpok transduction into CD8(+) cytotoxic T cells, which was accompanied by a reduction of histone H3 lysine 9 methylation and histone H3 lysine 27 methylation in the promoter region of the Cd40lg gene. Th-inducing pox virus and zinc finger/Kruppel-like factor directly inhibited the expression of murine CXXC5, a CXXC-type zinc finger protein that induced histone H3 lysine 9 methylation, in part, through an interaction with the histone-lysine N-methyltransferase SUV39H1. In addition, to inhibit CD40 ligand induction in activated CD4(+) T cells by the CXXC5 transgene, our findings indicate that CXXC5 was one of the key molecules contributing to repressing CD40 ligand expression in CD8(+) cytotoxic T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yukako Tsuchiya
- Department of Mechanism of Aging, National Center for Geriatrics and Gerontology, Obu, Aichi, Japan
| | - Taku Naito
- Laboratory for Transcriptional Regulation, RIKEN Center for Integrative Medical Sciences, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan; and
| | - Mari Tenno
- Laboratory for Transcriptional Regulation, RIKEN Center for Integrative Medical Sciences, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan; and
| | - Mitsuo Maruyama
- Department of Mechanism of Aging, National Center for Geriatrics and Gerontology, Obu, Aichi, Japan
| | - Haruhiko Koseki
- Laboratory for Developmental Genetics, RIKEN Center for Integrative Medical Sciences, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Ichiro Taniuchi
- Laboratory for Transcriptional Regulation, RIKEN Center for Integrative Medical Sciences, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan; and
| | - Yoshinori Naoe
- Department of Mechanism of Aging, National Center for Geriatrics and Gerontology, Obu, Aichi, Japan;
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Abstract
The immune-mediated hepatobiliary diseases, primary biliary cirrhosis and primary sclerosing cholangitis are relatively rare, albeit and account for a significant amount of liver transplant activity and liver-related mortality globally. Precise disease mechanisms are yet to be described although a contributory role of genetic predisposition is firmly established. In addition to links with the major histocompatibility complex, a number of associations outside this region harbor additional loci which underscore the fundamental role of breaks in immune tolerance and mucosal immunogenicity in the pathogenesis of autoimmune biliary disease. We provide an overview of these key discoveries before discussing putative avenues of therapeutic exploitation based on existing findings.
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68
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Aslani S, Mahmoudi M, Karami J, Jamshidi AR, Malekshahi Z, Nicknam MH. Epigenetic alterations underlying autoimmune diseases. Autoimmunity 2016; 49:69-83. [DOI: 10.3109/08916934.2015.1134511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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69
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Webb GJ, Hirschfield GM. Using GWAS to identify genetic predisposition in hepatic autoimmunity. J Autoimmun 2016; 66:25-39. [PMID: 26347073 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2015.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2015] [Accepted: 08/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC), primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) and autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) represent the three major hepatic autoimmune conditions. Patient morbidity and mortality remain high across these three diseases, and an unmet need for rational therapy exists. Disease understanding has focused on combining clinical and laboratory based science to provide better insights into the joint host and environmental factors necessary for the initiation, and perpetuation, of hepato-biliary inflammation. Twin studies, family studies, population studies and an inter-relationship with other autoimmune phenomena suggest a genetic component to risk for each disease. Until recently, understanding of this genetic risk has been limited to HLA haplotypes. Associations with risk-conferring and protective HLA haplotypes are present in all three diseases. Over the last few years, genome-wide association studies (GWAS), and related genetic association studies, have greatly increased understanding of the genetic risk signature of these three diseases and autoimmunity in general. Here we consider the rationale for GWAS in general and with specific reference to hepatic autoimmunity. We consider the process of GWAS, and highlight major findings to date. Potential functional implications of key findings are discussed including the IL-12/STAT4 pathway in PBC and the CD28/IL-2 pathway in PSC. We describe the marked pleiotropy demonstrated by PBC and PSC, which is consistent with other autoimmune diseases. Further, we focus on specific gene associations including SH2B3, which is common to all three diseases, and FUT2 in PSC, which represents a link between environment and genetics. We review attempts to translate GWAS findings into basic laboratory models including in vivo systems and highlight where clinical observations relate to genetics. Finally we describe deficiencies in GWAS to date and consider future study of genetics in hepatic autoimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- G J Webb
- NIHR Birmingham Liver Biomedical Research Unit, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - G M Hirschfield
- NIHR Birmingham Liver Biomedical Research Unit, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK.
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70
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Floreani A, Franceschet I, Cazzagon N, Spinazzè A, Buja A, Furlan P, Baldo V, Gershwin ME. Extrahepatic autoimmune conditions associated with primary biliary cirrhosis. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol 2016; 48:192-7. [PMID: 24809534 DOI: 10.1007/s12016-014-8427-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
There is a paucity of information on extrahepatic autoimmune (EHA) conditions associated with primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) and on the impact of EHA conditions on PBC patients' survival. Our goal was to assess the association between PBC and other autoimmune diseases and the impact of EHA conditions on the natural history of PBC. We took advantage of 361 consecutive PBC patients enrolled between 1975 and 2012 (22 males, 339 females; mean follow-up 8 ± 6.9 years). Any associated EHA conditions, PBC histological stage at diagnosis, biochemical data, physiological history, and extrahepatic malignancies developing during the follow-up were recorded. Survival was analyzed by means of Kaplan-Meier curves. Importantly, 221 patients (61.2 %) had at least one EHA conditions: 45 patients (20.4 %) had Hashimoto thyroiditis; 7 (3.2 %) had Graves' thyroiditis; 65 (29.4 %) had Raynaud's phenomenon; 124 (56.1 %) had Sjogren's syndrome; 8 (3.6 %) had systemic lupus erythematosus; 22 (9.9 %) had scleroderma; 22 (9.9 %) had rheumatoid arthritis; 18 (8.1 %) had cutaneous autoimmune diseases; 8 (3.6 %) had vasculitis; 5 (1.4 %) had celiac disease; and 25 (13.1 %) had other EHA conditions. The proportion of patients with associated EHA conditions enrolled during representative periods (1975-1980, 1981-1990, 1991-2000, 2001-2010, 2011-2012) remained stable. No differences emerged between patients with versus without EHA conditions in terms of mean age at PBC diagnosis, antimitochondrial antibody (AMA), or antinuclear antibody (ANA) positivity, histological stage at diagnosis, smoking habits, alcohol consumption, or BMI >25. Multiple logistic regression analysis showed that only female gender was significantly associated with positivity for EHA conditions (OR 4.8; 95 % CI 1.6-13.7, p = 0.004). The mean survival after the diagnosis of PBC was much the same in patients with and without EHA conditions. In conclusion, EHA conditions are often associated with PBC, especially in female patients, but they do not reduce patient survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annarosa Floreani
- Department of Surgery, Oncology and Gastroenterology-DiSCOG, University of Padova, Via Giustiniani, 2, 35128, Padova, Italy,
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71
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Sun Y, Haapanen K, Li B, Zhang W, Van de Water J, Gershwin ME. Women and primary biliary cirrhosis. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol 2016; 48:285-300. [PMID: 25241227 DOI: 10.1007/s12016-014-8449-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Primary biliary cirrhosis occurs more frequently in women, and previous studies indicated that the average age of primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) onset makes pregnancy in PBC patients uncommon. However, more recently, improved diagnostic testing has enabled detection of PBC in younger women, including those of childbearing age. This has led investigators to become increasingly interested in the relationship between the ontogeny of PBC and pregnancy. Published cases indicate that the typical age for pregnant women to be diagnosed with PBC is in the early 30s, and that during gestation, pruritus and jaundice are the most common symptoms. During gestation, susceptible women may experience onset of PBC resulting from the drastic changes in female hormones; this would include not only the mitochondrial damage due to accumulation of bile acids but also changes in the immune response during the different stages of pregnancy that might play an important role in the breakdown of self-tolerance. The mechanisms underlying the potential relationship between PBC and pregnancy warrant further investigation. For women first diagnosed with PBC during gestation, or those for whom first appearance of a flare up occurs during and postpartum, investigation of the immune response throughout gestation could provide new avenues for immunologic therapeutic intervention and the discovery of new treatment strategies for PBC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Sun
- Division of Rheumatology, Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of California at Davis School of Medicine, 451 Health Sciences Drive, Suite 6510, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
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72
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Webb GJ, Siminovitch KA, Hirschfield GM. The immunogenetics of primary biliary cirrhosis: A comprehensive review. J Autoimmun 2015; 64:42-52. [PMID: 26250073 PMCID: PMC5014907 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2015.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2015] [Accepted: 07/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC), a classic autoimmune liver disease, is characterised by a progressive T cell predominant lymphocytic cholangitis, and a serologic pattern of reactivity in the form of specific anti-mitochondrial antibodies (AMA). CD4+ T cells are particularly implicated by PBC's cytokine signature, the presence of CD4+ T cells specific to mitochondrial auto-antigens, the expression of MHC II on injured biliary epithelial cells, and PBC's coincidence with other similar T cell mediated autoimmune conditions. CD4+ T cells are also central to current animal models of PBC, and their transfer typically also transfers disease. The importance of genetic risk to developing PBC is evidenced by a much higher concordance rate in monozygotic than dizygotic twins, increased AMA rates in asymptomatic relatives, and disproportionate rates of disease in siblings of PBC patients, PBC family members and certain genetically defined populations. Recently, high-throughput genetic studies have greatly expanded our understanding of the gene variants underpinning risk for PBC development, so linking genetics and immunology. Here we summarize genetic association data that has emerged from large scale genome-wide association studies and discuss the evidence for the potential functional significance of the individual genes and pathways identified; we particularly highlight associations in the IL-12-STAT4-Th1 pathway. HLA associations and epigenetic effects are specifically considered and individual variants are linked to clinical phenotypes where data exist. We also consider why there is a gap between calculated genetic risk and clinical data: so-called missing heritability, and how immunogenetic observations are being translated to novel therapies. Ultimately whilst genetic risk factors will only account for a proportion of disease risk, ongoing efforts to refine associations and understand biologic links to disease pathways are hoped to drive more rational therapy for patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- G J Webb
- NIHR Birmingham Liver Biomedical Research Unit, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - K A Siminovitch
- Mount Sinai Hospital, Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute, Toronto General Research Institute, and Departments of Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - G M Hirschfield
- NIHR Birmingham Liver Biomedical Research Unit, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK.
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73
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Abstract
There have been significant advances in our understanding of human autoimmunity that have led to improvements in classification and diagnosis and, most importantly, research advances in new therapies. The importance of autoimmunity and the mechanisms that lead to clinical disease were first recognized about 50 years ago following the pioneering studies of Macfarlane Burnett and his Nobel Prize-winning hypothesis of the 'forbidden clone'. Such pioneering efforts led to a better understanding not only of autoimmunity, but also of lymphoid cell development, thymic education, apoptosis and deletion of autoreactive cells. Contemporary theories suggest that the development of an autoimmune disease requires a genetic predisposition and environmental factors that trigger the immune pathways that lead, ultimately, to tissue destruction. Despite extensive research, there are no genetic tools that can be used clinically to predict the risk of autoimmune disease. Indeed, the concordance of autoimmune disease in identical twins is 12-67%, highlighting not only a role for environmental factors, but also the potential importance of stochastic or epigenetic phenomena. On the other hand, the identification of cytokines and chemokines, and their cognate receptors, has led to novel therapies that block pathological inflammatory responses within the target organ and have greatly improved the therapeutic effect in patients with autoimmune disease, particularly rheumatoid arthritis. Further advances involving the use of multiplex platforms for diagnosis and identification of new therapeutic agents should lead to major breakthroughs within the next decade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lifeng Wang
- Research Center for Biological Therapy, The Institute of Translational Hepatology, Beijing 302 Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Fu-Sheng Wang
- Research Center for Biological Therapy, The Institute of Translational Hepatology, Beijing 302 Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - M Eric Gershwin
- Division of Rheumatology, Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of California at Davis School of Medicine, Davis, CA, USA
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74
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Epigenetics and Primary Biliary Cirrhosis: a Comprehensive Review and Implications for Autoimmunity. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol 2015; 50:390-403. [DOI: 10.1007/s12016-015-8502-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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75
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Lleo A, Zhang W, Zhao M, Tan Y, Bernuzzi F, Zhu B, Liu Q, Tan Q, Malinverno F, Valenti L, Jiang T, Tan L, Liao W, Coppel R, Invernizzi P, Lu Q, Adams DH, Gershwin ME. DNA methylation profiling of the X chromosome reveals an aberrant demethylation on CXCR3 promoter in primary biliary cirrhosis. Clin Epigenetics 2015; 7:61. [PMID: 26150899 PMCID: PMC4491885 DOI: 10.1186/s13148-015-0098-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2015] [Accepted: 06/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Although the etiology of primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) remains enigmatic, there are several pieces of data supporting the thesis that a strong genetic predisposition and environmental factors interact to produce a selective loss of tolerance. The striking female predominance of PBC has suggested that this sex predisposition may be secondary to epigenetic alterations on the X chromosome. In the present study, we rigorously defined the X chromosome methylation profile of CD4, CD8, and CD14 cells from 30 PBC patients and 30 controls. Genomic DNA from sorted CD4, CD8, and CD14 subpopulations was isolated, sonicated, and immunoprecipitated for analysis of methylation. All products were hybridized to a custom-tiled four-plex array containing 27,728 CpG islands annotated by UCSC and 22,532 well-characterized RefSeq promoter regions. Furthermore, bisulfite sequencing was then used for validation on a subsequent group of independent samples from PBC patients and controls. Thence, expression levels of selected X-linked genes were evaluated by quantitative real-time PCR with cDNA samples from all subjects. Results We report herein that a total of 20, 15, and 19 distinct gene promoters reflected a significant difference in DNA methylation in CD4+ T, CD8+ T, and CD14+ cells in patients with PBC. Interestingly, there was hypermethylation of FUNDC2 in CD8+ T cells and a striking demethylation of CXCR3 in CD4+ T cells, which inversely correlated with CXCR3 expression levels in CD4+ T cells from early-stage PBC patients. Conclusions Our data provides a set of genes with epigenetic alteration likely to be indicators of autoimmunity and emphasizes the role of CXCR3 in the natural history of PBC. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13148-015-0098-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Lleo
- Liver Unit and Center for Autoimmune Liver Diseases, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Rozzano, Milan Italy
| | - Weici Zhang
- Division of Rheumatology, Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of California at Davis School of Medicine, Genome and Biomedical Sciences Facility, 451 Health Sciences Drive, Suite 6510, Davis, CA 95616 USA
| | - Ming Zhao
- Department of Dermatology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenomics, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan People's Republic of China
| | - Yixin Tan
- Department of Dermatology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenomics, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan People's Republic of China
| | - Francesca Bernuzzi
- Liver Unit and Center for Autoimmune Liver Diseases, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Rozzano, Milan Italy
| | - Bochen Zhu
- Department of Dermatology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenomics, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan People's Republic of China
| | - Qian Liu
- Department of Dermatology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenomics, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan People's Republic of China
| | - Qiqun Tan
- Department of Dermatology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenomics, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan People's Republic of China
| | - Federica Malinverno
- Migliavacca Center for the Study of Liver Disease, 1st Division of Gastroenterology, Fondazione Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS) Ca' Granda - Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Luca Valenti
- Internal Medicine, Fondazione Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS) Ca' Granda - Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Tingting Jiang
- Department of Dermatology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenomics, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan People's Republic of China
| | - Lina Tan
- Department of Dermatology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenomics, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan People's Republic of China
| | - Wei Liao
- Department of Dermatology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenomics, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan People's Republic of China
| | - Ross Coppel
- Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria Australia
| | - Pietro Invernizzi
- Liver Unit and Center for Autoimmune Liver Diseases, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Rozzano, Milan Italy.,Division of Rheumatology, Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of California at Davis School of Medicine, Genome and Biomedical Sciences Facility, 451 Health Sciences Drive, Suite 6510, Davis, CA 95616 USA
| | - Qianjin Lu
- Department of Dermatology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenomics, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan People's Republic of China
| | - David H Adams
- Centre for Liver Research and NIHR Biomedical Research Unit for Liver Disease, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, England UK
| | - M Eric Gershwin
- Division of Rheumatology, Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of California at Davis School of Medicine, Genome and Biomedical Sciences Facility, 451 Health Sciences Drive, Suite 6510, Davis, CA 95616 USA
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76
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The autoimmune basis of alopecia areata: A comprehensive review. Autoimmun Rev 2015; 14:81-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.autrev.2014.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2014] [Accepted: 10/05/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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77
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Webb GJ, Hirschfield GM. Follicles, germinal centers, and immune mechanisms in primary biliary cirrhosis. Hepatology 2015; 61:424-7. [PMID: 25294750 DOI: 10.1002/hep.27552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2014] [Accepted: 10/05/2014] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Gwilym J Webb
- Center for Liver Research and NIHR Biomedical Research Unit, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
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78
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Maverakis E, Kim K, Shimoda M, Gershwin ME, Patel F, Wilken R, Raychaudhuri S, Ruhaak LR, Lebrilla CB. Glycans in the immune system and The Altered Glycan Theory of Autoimmunity: a critical review. J Autoimmun 2015; 57:1-13. [PMID: 25578468 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2014.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 298] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2014] [Accepted: 12/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Herein we will review the role of glycans in the immune system. Specific topics covered include: the glycosylation sites of IgE, IgM, IgD, IgE, IgA, and IgG; how glycans can encode "self" identity by functioning as either danger associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) or self-associated molecular patterns (SAMPs); the role of glycans as markers of protein integrity and age; how the glycocalyx can dictate the migration pattern of immune cells; and how the combination of Fc N-glycans and Ig isotype dictate the effector function of immunoglobulins. We speculate that the latter may be responsible for the well-documented association between alterations of the serum glycome and autoimmunity. Due to technological limitations, the extent of these autoimmune-associated glycan alterations and their role in disease pathophysiology has not been fully elucidated. Thus, we also review the current technologies available for glycan analysis, placing an emphasis on Multiple Reaction Monitoring (MRM), a rapid high-throughput technology that has great potential for glycan biomarker research. Finally, we put forth The Altered Glycan Theory of Autoimmunity, which states that each autoimmune disease will have a unique glycan signature characterized by the site-specific relative abundances of individual glycan structures on immune cells and extracellular proteins, especially the site-specific glycosylation patterns of the different immunoglobulin(Ig) classes and subclasses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanual Maverakis
- Department of Dermatology, University of California, Davis School of Medicine, 3301 C Street, Suite 1400, Sacramento, CA 95816, USA.
| | - Kyoungmi Kim
- Department of Public Health Sciences, Division of Biostatistics, University of California, Davis Medical Center, Sacramento, CA 95816, USA
| | - Michiko Shimoda
- Department of Dermatology, University of California, Davis School of Medicine, 3301 C Street, Suite 1400, Sacramento, CA 95816, USA
| | - M Eric Gershwin
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Rheumatology, University of California, Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA
| | - Forum Patel
- Department of Dermatology, University of California, Davis School of Medicine, 3301 C Street, Suite 1400, Sacramento, CA 95816, USA
| | - Reason Wilken
- Department of Dermatology, University of California, Davis School of Medicine, 3301 C Street, Suite 1400, Sacramento, CA 95816, USA
| | - Siba Raychaudhuri
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Rheumatology, University of California, Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA
| | - L Renee Ruhaak
- Department of Public Health Sciences, Division of Biostatistics, University of California, Davis Medical Center, Sacramento, CA 95816, USA
| | - Carlito B Lebrilla
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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79
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Mousa HS, Lleo A, Invernizzi P, Bowlus CL, Gershwin ME. Advances in pharmacotherapy for primary biliary cirrhosis. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2014; 16:633-43. [PMID: 25543678 DOI: 10.1517/14656566.2015.998650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) is a chronic autoimmune liver disease mostly seen in middle-aged women characterized by progressive nonsuppurative destruction of small bile ducts resulting in intrahepatic cholestasis, parenchymal injury and ultimately end-stage liver disease. Despite major breakthroughs in our understanding of PBC, there remains only one FDA-approved agent for treatment: ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) to which one-third of patients are unresponsive. AREAS COVERED Biochemical response to treatment with UDCA is associated with excellent survival rates in PBC patients. However, there is a need for alternative treatments for nonresponders. Results from human epidemiological and genetic studies as well as preclinical studies in PBC animal models have provided a strong impetus for the development of new therapeutic agents. In this review, we discuss the recent advances in translational research in PBC focusing on promising therapeutic approaches, namely immune-based targeted therapies and agents targeting the synthesis and circulation of bile acids. EXPERT OPINION We are in a new era for the development of novel therapies for PBC. Data on fibrates, budesonide and obeticholic acid offer encouragement for nonresponders to UDCA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hani S Mousa
- Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Liver Unit and Center for Autoimmune Liver Diseases , Rozzano (MI) , Italy
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80
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Zhang J, Zhang W, Leung PS, Bowlus CL, Dhaliwal S, Coppel RL, Ansari AA, Yang GX, Wang J, Kenny TP, He XS, Mackay IR, Gershwin ME. Ongoing activation of autoantigen-specific B cells in primary biliary cirrhosis. Hepatology 2014; 60:1708-16. [PMID: 25043065 PMCID: PMC4211937 DOI: 10.1002/hep.27313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2014] [Accepted: 07/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED The serologic hallmark of primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC), the antimitochondrial response to the E2 component of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC-E2), has unique features, including continuous high titers of immunoglobulin M (IgM) and IgG reactivity throughout all stages of disease, capable not only of target enzyme inhibition, but also crossreactive with chemical xenobiotics that share molecular homology with the inner lipoyl domain of PDC-E2; such chemicals have been proposed as potential etiological agents. We used flow cytometry and enzyme-linked immunospot assay (ELISPOT) to examine B-cell subsets in 59 subjects, including 28 with PBC, 13 with primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC), and 18 healthy controls. Strikingly, in PBC, although there were no significant differences in B-cell phenotype subpopulations, 10% of the total IgG and IgA plasmablast population and 23% of the IgM plasmablast population were uniquely reactive with PDC-E2, detected in the CXCR7+ CCR10low plasmablast population. In contrast, plasmablast reactivity to a control antigen, tetanus toxoid, was minimal and similar in all groups. Additionally, we isolated plasmablast-derived polyclonal antibodies and compared reactivity with plasma-derived antibodies and noted a distinct noncirculating tissue source of xenobiotic crossreacting antibodies. The high levels of autoantigen specific peripheral plasmablasts indicate recent activation of naive or memory B cells and a continuous and robust activation. The presence of CXCR7+ CCR10low PDC-E2-specific ASCs suggests a mechanistic basis for the migration of circulating antigen specific plasmablasts to the mucosal epithelial ligands CXCL12 and CCL28. CONCLUSION Our findings suggest a sustained rigorous B-cell response in PBC, likely activated and perpetuated by cognate autoantigen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Zhang
- Division of Rheumatology, Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Weici Zhang
- Division of Rheumatology, Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Patrick S.C. Leung
- Division of Rheumatology, Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Christopher L. Bowlus
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Sandeep Dhaliwal
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Ross L. Coppel
- Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Aftab A. Ansari
- Department of Pathology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Guo-Xiang Yang
- Division of Rheumatology, Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Jinjun Wang
- Division of Rheumatology, Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Thomas P. Kenny
- Division of Rheumatology, Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Xiao-Song He
- Division of Rheumatology, Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Ian R. Mackay
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - M. Eric Gershwin
- Division of Rheumatology, Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of California, Davis, California, USA
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81
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Abstract
DNA methylation is a heritable, stable, and also reversible way of DNA modification; it can regulate gene expression without changing the nucleotide sequences. Because it takes part in regulation of immune responses, the loss of methylation homeostasis in immune cells will result in autoimmune disease by inducing aberrant gene expression. Primary immune thrombocytopenia (ITP) is an acquired autoimmune disease with many immune deficiencies. Recently, it was well documented that abnormal DNA methylation is also involved in the etiology of ITP. In this review, we elucidate the role of DNA methylation in autoimmune diseases by summarizing the DNA methylation-sensitive genes and the relationship between DNA methylation and ITP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huiyuan Li
- State Key Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, Institute of Hematology & Blood Diseases Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, PR China
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82
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Selmi C, Cavaciocchi F, Lleo A, Cheroni C, De Francesco R, Lombardi SA, De Santis M, Meda F, Raimondo MG, Crotti C, Folci M, Zammataro L, Mayo MJ, Bach N, Shimoda S, Gordon SC, Miozzo M, Invernizzi P, Podda M, Scavelli R, Martin MR, Seldin MF, Lasalle JM, Gershwin ME. Genome-wide analysis of DNA methylation, copy number variation, and gene expression in monozygotic twins discordant for primary biliary cirrhosis. Front Immunol 2014; 5:128. [PMID: 24734033 PMCID: PMC3975093 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2013] [Accepted: 03/13/2014] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) is an uncommon autoimmune disease with a homogeneous clinical phenotype that reflects incomplete disease concordance in monozygotic (MZ) twins. We have taken advantage of a unique collection consisting of genomic DNA and mRNA from peripheral blood cells of female MZ twins (n = 3 sets) and sisters of similar age (n = 8 pairs) discordant for disease. We performed a genome-wide study to investigate differences in (i) DNA methylation (using a custom tiled four-plex array containing tiled 50-mers 19,084 randomly chosen methylation sites), (ii) copy number variation (CNV) (with a chip including markers derived from the 1000 Genomes Project, all three HapMap phases, and recently published studies), and/or (iii) gene expression (by whole-genome expression arrays). Based on the results obtained from these three approaches we utilized quantitative PCR to compare the expression of candidate genes. Importantly, our data support consistent differences in discordant twins and siblings for the (i) methylation profiles of 60 gene regions, (ii) CNV of 10 genes, and (iii) the expression of 2 interferon-dependent genes. Quantitative PCR analysis showed that 17 of these genes are differentially expressed in discordant sibling pairs. In conclusion, we report that MZ twins and sisters discordant for PBC manifest particular epigenetic differences and highlight the value of the epigenetic study of twins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlo Selmi
- Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center , Milan , Italy ; Division of Rheumatology, Allergy, and Clinical Immunology, University of California at Davis , Davis, CA , USA
| | - Francesca Cavaciocchi
- Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center , Milan , Italy ; BIOMETRA Department, University of Milan , Milan , Italy
| | - Ana Lleo
- Liver Unit and Center for Autoimmune Liver Diseases, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center , Milan , Italy
| | | | | | - Simone A Lombardi
- Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center , Milan , Italy
| | - Maria De Santis
- Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center , Milan , Italy ; BIOMETRA Department, University of Milan , Milan , Italy
| | - Francesca Meda
- Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center , Milan , Italy
| | - Maria Gabriella Raimondo
- Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center , Milan , Italy
| | - Chiara Crotti
- Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center , Milan , Italy
| | - Marco Folci
- Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center , Milan , Italy
| | - Luca Zammataro
- Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center , Milan , Italy
| | | | - Nancy Bach
- Mt. Sinai University , New York, NY , USA
| | - Shinji Shimoda
- Clinical Research Center, National Nagasaki Medical Center , Nagasaki , Japan
| | | | - Monica Miozzo
- Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan , Milan , Italy ; Division of Pathology, Fondazione IRCCS Cà Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico , Milan , Italy
| | - Pietro Invernizzi
- Liver Unit and Center for Autoimmune Liver Diseases, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center , Milan , Italy
| | - Mauro Podda
- Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center , Milan , Italy
| | | | - Michelle R Martin
- Genome Center and M.I.N.D. Institute, University of California Davis , Davis, CA , USA
| | - Michael F Seldin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA, USA; Department of Internal Medicine, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Janine M Lasalle
- Genome Center and M.I.N.D. Institute, University of California Davis , Davis, CA , USA
| | - M Eric Gershwin
- Division of Rheumatology, Allergy, and Clinical Immunology, University of California at Davis , Davis, CA , USA
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83
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Selmi C, Cavaciocchi F, Lleo A, Cheroni C, De Francesco R, Lombardi SA, De Santis M, Meda F, Raimondo MG, Crotti C, Folci M, Zammataro L, Mayo MJ, Bach N, Shimoda S, Gordon SC, Miozzo M, Invernizzi P, Podda M, Scavelli R, Martin MR, Seldin MF, Lasalle JM, Gershwin ME. Genome-wide analysis of DNA methylation, copy number variation, and gene expression in monozygotic twins discordant for primary biliary cirrhosis. Front Immunol 2014. [PMID: 24734033 PMCID: PMC4132258 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) is an uncommon autoimmune disease with a homogeneous clinical phenotype that reflects incomplete disease concordance in monozygotic (MZ) twins. We have taken advantage of a unique collection consisting of genomic DNA and mRNA from peripheral blood cells of female MZ twins (n = 3 sets) and sisters of similar age (n = 8 pairs) discordant for disease. We performed a genome-wide study to investigate differences in (i) DNA methylation (using a custom tiled four-plex array containing tiled 50-mers 19,084 randomly chosen methylation sites), (ii) copy number variation (CNV) (with a chip including markers derived from the 1000 Genomes Project, all three HapMap phases, and recently published studies), and/or (iii) gene expression (by whole-genome expression arrays). Based on the results obtained from these three approaches we utilized quantitative PCR to compare the expression of candidate genes. Importantly, our data support consistent differences in discordant twins and siblings for the (i) methylation profiles of 60 gene regions, (ii) CNV of 10 genes, and (iii) the expression of 2 interferon-dependent genes. Quantitative PCR analysis showed that 17 of these genes are differentially expressed in discordant sibling pairs. In conclusion, we report that MZ twins and sisters discordant for PBC manifest particular epigenetic differences and highlight the value of the epigenetic study of twins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlo Selmi
- Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center , Milan , Italy ; Division of Rheumatology, Allergy, and Clinical Immunology, University of California at Davis , Davis, CA , USA
| | - Francesca Cavaciocchi
- Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center , Milan , Italy ; BIOMETRA Department, University of Milan , Milan , Italy
| | - Ana Lleo
- Liver Unit and Center for Autoimmune Liver Diseases, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center , Milan , Italy
| | | | | | - Simone A Lombardi
- Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center , Milan , Italy
| | - Maria De Santis
- Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center , Milan , Italy ; BIOMETRA Department, University of Milan , Milan , Italy
| | - Francesca Meda
- Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center , Milan , Italy
| | - Maria Gabriella Raimondo
- Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center , Milan , Italy
| | - Chiara Crotti
- Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center , Milan , Italy
| | - Marco Folci
- Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center , Milan , Italy
| | - Luca Zammataro
- Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center , Milan , Italy
| | | | - Nancy Bach
- Mt. Sinai University , New York, NY , USA
| | - Shinji Shimoda
- Clinical Research Center, National Nagasaki Medical Center , Nagasaki , Japan
| | | | - Monica Miozzo
- Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan , Milan , Italy ; Division of Pathology, Fondazione IRCCS Cà Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico , Milan , Italy
| | - Pietro Invernizzi
- Liver Unit and Center for Autoimmune Liver Diseases, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center , Milan , Italy
| | - Mauro Podda
- Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center , Milan , Italy
| | | | - Michelle R Martin
- Genome Center and M.I.N.D. Institute, University of California Davis , Davis, CA , USA
| | - Michael F Seldin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA, USA; Department of Internal Medicine, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Janine M Lasalle
- Genome Center and M.I.N.D. Institute, University of California Davis , Davis, CA , USA
| | - M Eric Gershwin
- Division of Rheumatology, Allergy, and Clinical Immunology, University of California at Davis , Davis, CA , USA
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84
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Yamagiwa S, Kamimura H, Takamura M, Aoyagi Y. Autoantibodies in primary biliary cirrhosis: Recent progress in research on the pathogenetic and clinical significance. World J Gastroenterol 2014; 20:2606-2612. [PMID: 24627596 PMCID: PMC3949269 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v20.i10.2606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2013] [Revised: 11/22/2013] [Accepted: 01/08/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) is a chronic progressive cholestatic liver disease characterized by immune-mediated destruction of the small- and medium-sized intrahepatic bile ducts and the presence of antimitochondrial antibodies (AMA) in the serum. AMA are detected in over 90% of patients with PBC, whereas their prevalence in the general population is extremely low, varying from 0.16% to 1%. Previous studies have shown that the unique characteristics of biliary epithelial cells undergoing apoptosis may result in a highly direct and very specific immune response to mitochondrial autoantigens. Moreover, recent studies have demonstrated that serum from AMA-positive PBC patients is reactive with a number of xenobiotic modified E2 subunits of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, which is not observed in the serum of normal individuals. These findings indicate that chemicals originating from the environment may be associated with a breakdown in the tolerance to mitochondrial autoantigens. While it is currently generally accepted that AMA are the most specific serological markers of PBC, more than 60 autoantibodies have been investigated in patients with PBC, and some have previously been considered specific to other autoimmune diseases. This review covers the recent progress in research on the pathogenetic and clinical significance of important autoantibodies in PBC. Determining the pathogenic role of those autoantibodies in PBC remains a priority of basic and clinical research.
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85
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Chang C. Unmet needs in the treatment of autoimmunity: from aspirin to stem cells. Autoimmun Rev 2014; 13:331-46. [PMID: 24462645 DOI: 10.1016/j.autrev.2014.01.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/13/2013] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
As rheumatologic diseases became understood to be autoimmune in nature, the drugs used to treat this group of conditions has evolved from herbal or plant derived anti-inflammatory agents, such as salicylates, quinine and colchicine to the many recently approved biological response modifiers. These new drugs, especially the anti-tumor necrosis factor agents, have shown remarkable efficacy in autoimmune diseases, and there are new agents under investigation that will provide additional treatment options. In between, the world was introduced to cortisone and all of its derivatives, as chemical synthesis led to better, more efficacious drugs with lesser side effects. Disease modifying anti-rheumatic agents have actually been around since the first half of the 20th century, but only began to be used in the treatment of autoimmune diseases in the 1970s and 1980s. One advantage is that they have been invaluable in their ability to offer "steroid sparing" to decrease the adverse effects of steroids. Research over the past decade has resulted in a new class of drugs that influence cytokine regulatory pathways such as the Janus associated kinase inhibitors. The promise of personalized medicine now permeates current research into new pharmacological agents for the treatment of autoimmune disease. The new appreciation for the gene-environment interaction in the pathogenesis of most diseases especially those as heterogeneous as autoimmune diseases, has led to our focus on targeted therapies. Add to that the new knowledge of epigenetics and how changes in DNA and histone structure affect expression of genes that can play a role in immune signaling, and we now have a new exciting frontier for cutting edge drug development. The history of treatment of autoimmune diseases is really only a little over a century, but so much has changed, leading to increasing lifespans and improved quality of life of those who suffer from these ailments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Chang
- Division of Allergy and Immunology, Thomas Jefferson University, Nemours/A.I. duPont Hospital for Children, 1600 Rockland Road, Wilmington, DE 19803, USA.
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86
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Tanaka H, Yang GX, Iwakoshi N, Knechtle SJ, Kawata K, Tsuneyama K, Leung P, Coppel RL, Ansari AA, Joh T, Bowlus C, Gershwin ME. Anti-CD40 ligand monoclonal antibody delays the progression of murine autoimmune cholangitis. Clin Exp Immunol 2014; 174:364-71. [PMID: 23981074 DOI: 10.1111/cei.12193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/21/2013] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
While there have been significant advances in our understanding of the autoimmune responses and the molecular nature of the target autoantigens in primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC), unfortunately these data have yet to be translated into new therapeutic agents. We have taken advantage of a unique murine model of autoimmune cholangitis in which mice expressing a dominant negative form of transforming growth factor β receptor II (dnTGFβRII), under the control of the CD4 promoter, develop an intense autoimmune cholangitis associated with serological features similar to human PBC. CD40-CD40 ligand (CD40L) is a major receptor-ligand pair that provides key signals between cells of the adaptive immune system, prompting us to determine the therapeutic potential of treating autoimmune cholangitis with anti-CD40L antibody (anti-CD40L; MR-1). Four-week-old dnTGFβRII mice were injected intraperitoneally with either anti-CD40L or control immunoglobulin (Ig)G at days 0, 2, 4 and 7 and then weekly until 12 or 24 weeks of age and monitored for the progress of serological and histological features of PBC, including rigorous definition of liver cellular infiltrates and cytokine production. Administration of anti-CD40L reduced liver inflammation significantly to 12 weeks of age. In addition, anti-CD40L initially lowered the levels of anti-mitochondrial autoantibodies (AMA), but these reductions were not sustained. These data indicate that anti-CD40L delays autoimmune cholangitis, but the effect wanes over time. Further dissection of the mechanisms involved, and defining the events that lead to the reduction in therapeutic effectiveness will be critical to determining whether such efforts can be applied to PBC.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Tanaka
- Division of Rheumatology, Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA, USA; Department of Gastroenterology and Metabolism, Nagoya City University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Nagoya, Japan
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87
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Hirschfield GM, Gershwin ME. The immunobiology and pathophysiology of primary biliary cirrhosis. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PATHOLOGY-MECHANISMS OF DISEASE 2013; 8:303-30. [PMID: 23347352 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-pathol-020712-164014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 216] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) is an autoimmune disease characterized by clinical homogeneity among patients, an overwhelming female predominance, production of a multilineage immune response to mitochondrial autoantigens, inflammation of small bile ducts, and in some patients the development of fibrosis and cirrhosis. The targets in this disease are small bile ducts, and the prototypic serologic response includes antimitochondrial antibodies (AMAs). Several key observations have greatly advanced our understanding of PBC. First, the multilineage immune response, including AMAs, is directed at the E2 component of the 2-oxo-dehydrogenase pathway, particularly PDC-E2. Second, such autoantibodies may be identified years before the clinical diagnosis of disease. Third, the autoreactive T cell precursor frequency for both CD4 and CD8 cells is significantly higher in liver and regional lymph node than in blood, so the multilineage antimitochondrial response may be required for the development of this disease. Fourth, the apotope of biliary cells contains intact PDC-E2; this apotope, in a setting that includes granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor-stimulated macrophages and AMAs, produces an intense proinflammatory response. Fifth, several mouse models of PBC highlight the importance of loss of tolerance to PDC-E2 as well as a critical role for the interleukin (IL)-12 signaling pathway. Finally, genome-wide association studies suggest an important role for the IL-12 pathway in disease susceptibility. Taken together, these findings have resulted in a better understanding of the mechanism for selective biliary cell destruction and have also suggested unique pathways for therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gideon M Hirschfield
- Centre for Liver Research, NIHR Biomedical Research Unit, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
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88
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Chen RC, Naiyanetr P, Shu SA, Wang J, Yang GX, Thomas PK, Guggenheim KC, Butler JD, Bowlus C, Tao MH, Kurth MJ, Ansari AA, Kaplan M, Coppel RL, Lleo A, Gershwin ME, Leung PS. Antimitochondrial antibody heterogeneity and the xenobiotic etiology of primary biliary cirrhosis. Hepatology 2013; 57. [PMID: 23184636 PMCID: PMC3601563 DOI: 10.1002/hep.26157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Antimitochondrial antibodies (AMAs) directed against the lipoyl domain of the E2 subunit of pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDC-E2) are detected in 95% of patients with primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) and are present before the onset of clinical disease. The recent demonstration that AMAs recognize xenobiotic modified PDC-E2 with higher titers than native PDC-E2 raises the possibility that the earliest events involved in loss of tolerance are related to xenobiotic modification. We hypothesized that reactivity to such xenobiotics would be predominantly immunoglobulin M (IgM) and using sera from a large cohort of PBC patients and controls (n = 516), we examined in detail sera reactivity against either 6,8-bis(acetylthio) octanoic acid (SAc)-conjugated bovine serum albumin (BSA), recombinant PDC-E2 (rPDC-E2) or BSA alone. Further, we also defined the relative specificity to the SAc moiety using inhibition enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA); SAc conjugate and rPDC-E2-specific affinity-purified antibodies were also examined for antigen specificity, isotype, and crossreactivity. Reactivity to SAc conjugates is predominantly IgM; such reactivity reflects a footprint of previous xenobiotic exposure. Indeed, this observation is supported by both direct binding, crossreactivity, and inhibition studies. In both early and late-stage PBC, the predominant Ig isotype to SAc is IgM, with titers higher with advanced stage disease. We also note that there was a higher level of IgM reactivity to SAc than to rPDC-E2 in early-stage versus late-stage PBC. Interestingly, this finding is particularly significant in light of the structural similarity between SAc and the reduced form of lipoic acid, a step which is similar to the normal physiological oxidation of lipoic acid. CONCLUSION Specific modifications of the disulfide bond within the lipoic-acid-conjugated PDC-E2 moiety, i.e., by an electrophilic agent renders PDC-E2 immunogenic in a genetically susceptible host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richy C.Y. Chen
- Division of Rheumatology/Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616
| | - Phornnop Naiyanetr
- Division of Rheumatology/Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616,Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Shang-An Shu
- Division of Rheumatology/Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616
| | - Jinjun Wang
- Division of Rheumatology/Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616
| | - Guo-Xiang Yang
- Division of Rheumatology/Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616
| | - P. Kenny Thomas
- Division of Rheumatology/Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616
| | | | | | | | - Mi-Hua Tao
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Mark J. Kurth
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Davis, CA 95616
| | - Aftab A. Ansari
- Department of Pathology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322
| | - Marshall Kaplan
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, New England Medical Center, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02111
| | - Ross L. Coppel
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Ana Lleo
- Center for Autoimmune Liver Diseases, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Rozzano (Milan), Italy
| | - M. Eric Gershwin
- Division of Rheumatology/Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616
| | - Patrick S.C. Leung
- Division of Rheumatology/Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616
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89
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Epigenetic considerations and the clinical reevaluation of the overlap syndrome between primary biliary cirrhosis and autoimmune hepatitis. J Autoimmun 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2012.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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90
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E4BP4 overexpression: A protective mechanism in CD4+ T cells from SLE patients. J Autoimmun 2013; 41:152-60. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2013.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2012] [Accepted: 01/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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91
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The critical importance of epigenetics in autoimmunity. J Autoimmun 2013; 41:1-5. [PMID: 23375849 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2013.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2013] [Accepted: 01/13/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Autoimmune diseases are characterized by aberrant immune responses against healthy cells and tissues, in which a given individual's genetic susceptibilities play a central role; however, the exact mechanisms underlying the development of these conditions remain for the most part unknown. In recent years, accumulating evidence has demonstrated that, in addition to genetics, other complementary mechanisms are involved in the pathogenesis of autoimmunity, in particular, epigenetics. Epigenetics is defined as stable and heritable patterns of gene expression that do not entail any alterations to the original DNA sequence. Epigenetic mechanisms primarily consist of DNA methylation, histone modifications and small non-coding RNA transcripts. Epigenetic marks can be affected by age and other environmental triggers, providing a plausible link between environmental factors and the onset and development of various human diseases. Because of their primary function in regulating timely gene expression, epigenetic mechanisms offer potential advantages in terms of interpreting the molecular basis of complicated diseases and providing new promising therapeutic avenues for their treatment. The present review focuses on recent progress made in elucidating the relationship between epigenetics and the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases, including systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, systemic sclerosis, primary Sjögren's syndrome, primary biliary cirrhosis, psoriasis and type 1 diabetes.
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92
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Shi TY, Zhang FC. Role of autoimmunity in primary biliary cirrhosis. World J Gastroenterol 2012; 18:7141-8. [PMID: 23326118 PMCID: PMC3544015 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v18.i48.7141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2012] [Revised: 07/16/2012] [Accepted: 08/14/2012] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) is an autoimmune liver disease characterized by the presence of serum autoantibodies and chronic nonsuppurative destructive cholangitis. The pathogenesis of PBC involves environmental factors, genetic predisposition and loss of immune tolerance. In recent years, it has become univocally accepted that an inappropriately activated immune response is one of the most important factors in PBC. In this study, the role of autoimmunity in PBC is summarized and a feasible research orientation is recommended.
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93
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Greer JM, McCombe PA. The role of epigenetic mechanisms and processes in autoimmune disorders. Biologics 2012; 6:307-27. [PMID: 23055689 PMCID: PMC3459549 DOI: 10.2147/btt.s24067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2012] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The lack of complete concordance of autoimmune disease in identical twins suggests that nongenetic factors play a major role in determining disease susceptibility. In this review, we consider how epigenetic mechanisms could affect the immune system and effector mechanisms in autoimmunity and/or the target organ of autoimmunity and thus affect the development of autoimmune diseases. We also consider the types of stimuli that lead to epigenetic modifications and how these relate to the epidemiology of autoimmune diseases and the biological pathways operative in different autoimmune diseases. Increasing our knowledge of these epigenetic mechanisms and processes will increase the prospects for controlling or preventing autoimmune diseases in the future through the use of drugs that target the epigenetic pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judith M Greer
- The University of Queensland, UQ Centre for Clinical Research, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Pamela A McCombe
- The University of Queensland, UQ Centre for Clinical Research, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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94
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You Z, Wang Q, Bian Z, Liu Y, Han X, Peng Y, Shen L, Chen X, Qiu D, Selmi CF, Gershwin ME, Ma X. The immunopathology of liver granulomas in primary biliary cirrhosis. J Autoimmun 2012; 39:216-21. [PMID: 22727562 PMCID: PMC3558985 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2012.05.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2012] [Revised: 05/24/2012] [Accepted: 05/24/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Liver granulomas and elevated serum IgM are commonly observed in patients with primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) but their pathogenetic significance remains largely unknown. To address this issue we performed an extensive immunostaining and colocalization study of markers associated with dendritic cells and IgM in a large cohort of tissue samples from PBC and control livers as well as from non-hepatic granulomatous diseases. First, the classical dendritic cell CD11c marker is highly expressed and more sensitive than classical hematoxylin-eosin staining in detecting granulomas associated with PBC and other conditions. Second, PBC cases with CD11c-positive granulomas have significantly higher serum IgM levels and earlier disease stages. Third, granulomas from PBC and other diseases demonstrate markers of dendritic cell immaturity, i.e. CD11b, reduced MHC II, IL-23, CCR7 and CD83 expression, and elevated C1q expression. Lastly, B cells and IgM-positive plasma cells are largely represented around PBC granulomas along with macrophages. In conclusion, our comprehensive immunohistochemical study suggests that dendritic cells are key to the pathogenesis of granulomas, regardless of their origin. More specifically, PBC liver granulomas may result from the interaction between immature dendritic cells and IgM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhengrui You
- Department of Gastroenterology, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai Institute of Digestive Disease, Shanghai, China
| | - Qixia Wang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai Institute of Digestive Disease, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhaolian Bian
- Department of Gastroenterology, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai Institute of Digestive Disease, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuan Liu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai Institute of Digestive Disease, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaofeng Han
- Department of Gastroenterology, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai Institute of Digestive Disease, Shanghai, China
| | - Yanshen Peng
- Department of Gastroenterology, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai Institute of Digestive Disease, Shanghai, China
| | - Lei Shen
- Department of Gastroenterology, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai Institute of Digestive Disease, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaoyu Chen
- Department of Gastroenterology, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai Institute of Digestive Disease, Shanghai, China
| | - Dekai Qiu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai Institute of Digestive Disease, Shanghai, China
| | - Carlo F. Selmi
- Division of Rheumatology, Allergy, and Clinical Immunology, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - M. Eric Gershwin
- Division of Rheumatology, Allergy, and Clinical Immunology, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Xiong Ma
- Department of Gastroenterology, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai Institute of Digestive Disease, Shanghai, China
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Liao J, Liang G, Xie S, Zhao H, Zuo X, Li F, Chen J, Zhao M, Chan TM, Lu Q. CD40L demethylation in CD4(+) T cells from women with rheumatoid arthritis. Clin Immunol 2012; 145:13-8. [PMID: 22889643 DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2012.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2012] [Revised: 07/09/2012] [Accepted: 07/11/2012] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
We have previously demonstrated that DNA demethylation of CD40L on the X chromosome is responsible for female susceptibility to systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). It is unknown whether aberrant methylation of the CD40L gene also contributes to the higher incidence of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) in females. In this study, we used real-time RT-PCR and flow cytometry to compare CD40L expression levels, and bisulfite sequencing to assess the methylation status of the CD40L promoter region. The results show that CD40L is upregrulated in CD4(+) T cells of female patients with RA. In addition, the CD40L promoter region in CD4(+) T cells from female RA patients was found to be demethylated, which corresponded with increased CD40L mRNA expression. These findings suggest that DNA demethylation contributes to CD40L expression in RA CD4(+) T cells and may in part explain the female preponderance of this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Liao
- Department of Dermatology, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, People's Republic of China
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96
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Uibo R, Kisand K, Yang CY, Gershwin ME. Primary biliary cirrhosis: a multi-faced interactive disease involving genetics, environment and the immune response. APMIS 2012; 120:857-71. [PMID: 23009110 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0463.2012.02914.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2012] [Accepted: 04/10/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) is considered a model autoimmune disease based on several features, including the presence of a highly directed and very specific immune response to mitochondrial autoantigens, a female predominance, a targeted destruction of the biliary epithelium, and homogeneity between patients. It is essentially a chronic progressive cholestatic liver disease characterized by immune-mediated destruction of small- and medium-sized intrahepatic bile ducts. There is considerable variation in the incidence and prevalence of the disease between regions of the world, although such differences likely reflect not only a true disparity in disease but also differences in awareness; for example, in the United States, PBC is often detected in an asymptomatic stage based on multi-phasic clinical testing. There has been considerable progress at defining the immune response in this disease, including quantitation of autoreactive T cells against PDC-E2, the major mitochondrial autoantigen. The overwhelming data suggests that patients develop PBC based on a genetic predisposition and loss of tolerance to one or more environmental agents. In this review, we will present an updated overview of PBC and place it in the context of autoimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raivo Uibo
- Institute of General and Molecular Pathology, Centre of Excellence for Translational Medicine, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia.
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97
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Bianchi I, Lleo A, Gershwin ME, Invernizzi P. The X chromosome and immune associated genes. J Autoimmun 2011; 38:J187-92. [PMID: 22178198 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2011.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 242] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2011] [Accepted: 11/22/2011] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The X chromosome is known to contain the largest number of immune-related genes of the whole human genome. For this reason, X chromosome has recently become subject of great interest and attention and numerous studies have been aimed at understanding the role of genes on the X chromosome in triggering and maintaining the autoimmune aggression. Autoimmune diseases are indeed a growing heath burden affecting cumulatively up to 10% of the general population. It is intriguing that most X-linked primary immune deficiencies carry significant autoimmune manifestations, thus illustrating the critical role played by products of single gene located on the X chromosome in the onset, function and homeostasis of the immune system. Again, the plethora of autoimmune stigmata observed in patients with Turner syndrome, a disease due to the lack of one X chromosome or the presence of major X chromosome deletions, indicate that X-linked genes play a unique and major role in autoimmunity. There have been several reports on a role of X chromosome gene dosage through inactivation or duplication in women with autoimmune diseases, for example through a higher rate of circulating cells with a single X chromosome (i.e. with X monosomy). Finally, a challenge for researchers in the coming years will be to dissect the role for the large number of X-linked microRNAs from the perspective of autoimmune disease development. Taken together, X chromosome might well constitute the common trait of the susceptibility to autoimmune diseases, other than to explain the female preponderance of these conditions. This review will focus on the available evidence on X chromosome changes and discuss their potential implications and limitations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilaria Bianchi
- Center for Autoimmune Liver Diseases, Department of Medicine, IRCCS Istituto Clinico Humanitas, Rozzano, Italy
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98
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Selmi C, Brunetta E, Raimondo MG, Meroni PL. The X chromosome and the sex ratio of autoimmunity. Autoimmun Rev 2011; 11:A531-7. [PMID: 22155196 DOI: 10.1016/j.autrev.2011.11.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The number of human conditions that are currently considered to be autoimmune diseases (AID) has been steadily growing over the past decades and it is now estimated that over 10 million people are affected in the United States. One of the major shared features among AID is the predominance in the female sex which in some cases changes with the age at disease diagnosis. Numerous hypotheses have been formulated based on intuitive scientific backgrounds to justify this sex imbalance, i.e. sex hormones and reproductive factors, fetal microchimerism, other sex-related environmental factors, a skewing of the X-chromosome inactivation patterns, and major defects in sex chromosomes. Nevertheless, none of these hypotheses has thus far gathered enough convincing evidence and in most cases data are conflicting, as well illustrated by the reports on fetal microchimerism in systemic sclerosis or primary biliary cirrhosis. The present article will critically discuss the main hypotheses (loss of mosaicism, reactivation, and haploinsufficiency) that have been proposed based on findings in female patients with specific AID along with two additional mechanisms (X-chromosome vulnerability and X-linked polyamine genes) that have been observed in AID models. Further, recent data have significantly shifted the paradigm of X chromosome inactivation by demonstrating that a large number of genes can variably escape silencing on one or both chromosomes. As a result we may hypothesize that more than one mechanism may contribute to the female susceptibility to tolerance breakdown while the possibility that unknown factors may indeed protect men from AID should not be overlooked.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlo Selmi
- Division of Rheumatology, Allergy, and Clinical Immunology, University of California, Davis, CA, USA.
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