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Developments in the Search for Small-Molecule Inhibitors for Treatment of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus. Antiviral Res 2014. [DOI: 10.1128/9781555815493.ch12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Human coronavirus OC43 nucleocapsid protein binds microRNA 9 and potentiates NF-κB activation. J Virol 2013; 88:54-65. [PMID: 24109243 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02678-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The human coronavirus OC43 is a major contributor to the common cold worldwide, though due to its low mortality rate, little research has focused on this human pathogen. The nucleocapsid is an essential structural protein with conserved functions across the coronavirus family. While a multitude of studies have examined nucleocapsid function, none have described the effects of OC43 nucleocapsid on the transcription factor NF-κB. We report that the nucleocapsid protein of OC43 causes potentiation of NF-κB activation. This prolonged activation is the direct result of the ability of the nucleocapsid to bind RNA, specifically microRNA 9 (miR-9), which is a negative regulator of NF-κB. This previously undescribed interaction between virus and host is a potential mechanism of immune evasion in RNA viruses.
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Jauregui AR, Savalia D, Lowry VK, Farrell CM, Wathelet MG. Identification of residues of SARS-CoV nsp1 that differentially affect inhibition of gene expression and antiviral signaling. PLoS One 2013; 8:e62416. [PMID: 23658627 PMCID: PMC3639174 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0062416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2012] [Accepted: 03/25/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
An epidemic of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) led to the identification of an associated coronavirus, SARS-CoV. This virus evades the host innate immune response in part through the expression of its non-structural protein (nsp) 1, which inhibits both host gene expression and virus- and interferon (IFN)-dependent signaling. Thus, nsp1 is a promising target for drugs, as inhibition of nsp1 would make SARS-CoV more susceptible to the host antiviral defenses. To gain a better understanding of nsp1 mode of action, we generated and analyzed 38 mutants of the SARS-CoV nsp1, targeting 62 solvent exposed residues out of the 180 amino acid protein. From this work, we identified six classes of mutants that abolished, attenuated or increased nsp1 inhibition of host gene expression and/or antiviral signaling. Each class of mutants clustered on SARS-CoV nsp1 surface and suggested nsp1 interacts with distinct host factors to exert its inhibitory activities. Identification of the nsp1 residues critical for its activities and the pathways involved in these activities should help in the design of drugs targeting nsp1. Significantly, several point mutants increased the inhibitory activity of nsp1, suggesting that coronaviruses could evolve a greater ability to evade the host response through mutations of such residues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew R Jauregui
- Infectious Disease Program, Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA
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54
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Chang TH, Chen SR, Yu CY, Lin YS, Chen YS, Kubota T, Matsuoka M, Lin YL. Dengue virus serotype 2 blocks extracellular signal-regulated kinase and nuclear factor-κB activation to downregulate cytokine production. PLoS One 2012; 7:e41635. [PMID: 22927911 PMCID: PMC3425550 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0041635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2012] [Accepted: 06/22/2012] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Dengue virus (DENV) infection is the most common mosquito-borne viral disease threatening human health around the world. Type I interferon (IFN) and cytokine production are crucial in the innate immune system. We previously reported that DENV serotype 2 (DENV-2) induced low levels of interferon regulatory factor 3 and NF-κB activation, thus leading to reduced production of IFN-β in the early phase of infection. Here, we determined whether DENV infection not only hampers type I IFN activation but also cytokine production triggered by Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling. Methodology/Principal Findings We used quantitative RT-PCR and found that only low levels of IFN-β and inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin 10 (IL-10), IL-12 and tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) mRNA were detected in DENV-2–infected bone-marrow–derived dendritic cells. Furthermore, DENV-2 infection repressed cytokine production triggered by TLR signaling. To elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying this suppression event, we measured NF-κB activation by p65 nuclear translocation and luciferase reporter assay and found that NF-κB activation triggered by TLR ligands was blocked by DENV-2 infection. As well, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) activity was suppressed by DENV-2 infection. Conclusions/Significance To downregulate the host innate immunity, DENV-2 by itself is a weak inducer of type I IFN and cytokines, furthermore DENV-2 can also block the TLR-triggered ERK–NF-κB activation and cytokine production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsung-Hsien Chang
- Department of Medical Education and Research, Kaohsiung Veterans General Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- * E-mail: (THC); (YLL)
| | - Siang-Ru Chen
- Department of Medical Education and Research, Kaohsiung Veterans General Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Yi Yu
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - You-Sheng Lin
- Department of Medical Education and Research, Kaohsiung Veterans General Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Department of Biological Sciences, National Sun Yat-Sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Yao-Shen Chen
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Kaohsiung Veterans General Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Section of Microbiology, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Kaohsiung Veterans General Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Toru Kubota
- Department of Virology III, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Mayumi Matsuoka
- Department of Bacteriology II, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yi-Ling Lin
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
- * E-mail: (THC); (YLL)
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55
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Batra S, Balamayooran G, Sahoo MK. Nuclear factor-κB: a key regulator in health and disease of lungs. Arch Immunol Ther Exp (Warsz) 2011; 59:335-51. [PMID: 21786215 PMCID: PMC7079756 DOI: 10.1007/s00005-011-0136-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2011] [Accepted: 03/02/2011] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Rel/NF-κB transcription factors play a key role in modulating the response of immunoregulatory genes including cytokines and chemokines, cell adhesion molecules, acute phase proteins, and anti-microbial peptides. Furthermore, an array of genes important for angiogenesis, tumor invasion and metastasis is also regulated by nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB). Close association of NF-κB with inflammation and tumorigenesis makes it an attractive target for basic research as well as for pharmaceutical industries. Studies involving various animal and cellular models have revealed the importance of NF-κB in pathobiology of lung diseases. This review (a) describes structures, activities, and regulation of NF-κB family members; (b) provides information which implicates NF-κB in pathogenesis of pulmonary inflammation and cancer; and (c) discusses information about available synthetic and natural compounds which target NF-κB or specific components of NF-κB signal transduction pathway and which may provide the foundation for development of effective therapy for lung inflammation and bronchogenic carcinomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanjay Batra
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, 70803, USA.
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56
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Barnard DL, Kumaki Y. Recent developments in anti-severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus chemotherapy. Future Virol 2011; 6:615-631. [PMID: 21765859 DOI: 10.2217/fvl.11.33] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) emerged in early 2003 to cause a very severe acute respiratory syndrome, which eventually resulted in a 10% case-fatality rate. Owing to excellent public health measures that isolated focus cases and their contacts, and the use of supportive therapies, the epidemic was suppressed to the point that further cases have not appeared since 2005. However, despite intensive research since then (over 3500 publications), it remains an untreatable disease. The potential for re-emergence of the SARS-CoV or a similar virus with unknown but potentially serious consequences remains high. This is due in part to the extreme genetic variability of RNA viruses such as the coronaviruses, the many animal reservoirs that seem to be able host the SARS-CoV in which reassortment or recombination events could occur and the ability coronaviruses have to transmit relatively rapidly from species to species in a short period of time. Thus, it seems prudent to continue to explore and develop antiviral chemotherapies to treat SARS-CoV infections. To this end, the various efficacious anti-SARS-CoV therapies recently published from 2007 to 2010 are reviewed in this article. In addition, compounds that have been tested in various animal models and were found to reduce virus lung titers and/or were protective against death in lethal models of disease, or otherwise have been shown to ameliorate the effects of viral infection, are also reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dale L Barnard
- Utah State University, Institute for Antiviral Research, Department of Animal, Dairy & Veterinary Science, 5600 Old Main Hill, Logan, UT 84322, USA
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57
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Abstract
The nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) family of transcription factors plays a central part in the host response to infection by microbial pathogens, by orchestrating the innate and acquired host immune responses. The NF-κB proteins are activated by diverse signalling pathways that originate from many different cellular receptors and sensors. Many successful pathogens have acquired sophisticated mechanisms to regulate the NF-κB signalling pathways by deploying subversive proteins or hijacking the host signalling molecules. Here, we describe the mechanisms by which viruses and bacteria micromanage the host NF-κB signalling circuitry to favour the continued survival of the pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masmudur M Rahman
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, 1600 SW Archer Road, PO Box 100266, Gainesville, Florida, USA
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Small interfering RNA effectively inhibits the expression of SARS coronavirus membrane gene at two novel targeting sites. Molecules 2010; 15:7197-207. [PMID: 20956884 PMCID: PMC6259191 DOI: 10.3390/molecules15107197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2010] [Accepted: 09/15/2010] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Small interfering RNA (siRNA) is a class of duplex RNA molecules of 21-25 nt nucleotides in length functioning post-transcriptionally to downregulate targeted gene expression. The membrane (M) protein of severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV) is highly abundant during viral infections and is a critical element for viral assembly. Nucleotide substitution in the viral genome occurs frequently during SARS-CoV infection. In the current study, we analyzed the M gene sequences derived from 15 SARS-CoV isolates and uncovered six nucleotide substitutions among these isolates. Interestingly, these nucleotide substitutions are all located at the 5’ half of the M gene. Based on this information and previous reports, we created two novel siRNAs targeting two unexplored and well conserved regions in the M gene. The effects of these two siRNAs were tested by semi-quantitative RT-PCR and EGFP-M fusion gene expression. The results demonstrated that both siRNAs effectively and specifically blocked the targeted gene expression. Real time quantitative RT-PCR (qRT-PCR) revealed that siRNA targeting the 3’ half of the M gene (si-M2) induced more potent inhibition than that targeting the 5’ half (si-M1). Both si-M1 and si-M2 significantly downregulated M gene mediated upregulation of interferon β expression. Thus, our results indicate that SARS-CoV M gene specific siRNA might function in a sequence-dependent manner.
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59
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Emmott E, Rodgers MA, Macdonald A, McCrory S, Ajuh P, Hiscox JA. Quantitative proteomics using stable isotope labeling with amino acids in cell culture reveals changes in the cytoplasmic, nuclear, and nucleolar proteomes in Vero cells infected with the coronavirus infectious bronchitis virus. Mol Cell Proteomics 2010; 9:1920-36. [PMID: 20467043 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m900345-mcp200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Virus-host interactions involve complex interplay between viral and host factors, rendering them an ideal target for proteomic analysis. Here we detail a high throughput quantitative proteomics analysis of Vero cells infected with the coronavirus infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), a positive strand RNA virus that replicates in the cytoplasm. Stable isotope labeling with amino acids in cell culture (SILAC) was used in conjunction with LC-MS/MS to identify and quantify 1830 cellular and two viral proteins from IBV-infected cells. Fractionation of cells into cytoplasmic, nuclear, and nucleolar extracts was used to reduce sample complexity and provide information on the trafficking of proteins between the different compartments. Each fraction showed a proportion of proteins exhibiting >or=2-fold changes in abundance. Ingenuity Pathway Analysis revealed that proteins that changed in response to infection could be grouped into different functional categories. These included proteins regulated by NF-kappaB- and AP-1-dependent pathways and proteins involved in the cytoskeleton and molecular motors. A luciferase-based reporter gene assay was used to validate the up-regulation of AP-1- and NF-kappaB-dependent transcription in IBV-infected cells and confirmed using immunofluorescence. Immunofluorescence was used to validate changes in the subcellular localization of vimentin and myosin VI in IBV-infected cells. The proteomics analysis also confirmed the presence of the viral nucleocapsid protein as localizing in the cytoplasm, nucleus, and nucleolus and the viral membrane protein in the cytoplasmic fraction. This research is the first application of SILAC to study total host cell proteome changes in response to positive sense RNA virus infection and illustrates the versatility of this technique as applied to infectious disease research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward Emmott
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
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Exacerbated innate host response to SARS-CoV in aged non-human primates. PLoS Pathog 2010; 6:e1000756. [PMID: 20140198 PMCID: PMC2816697 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 258] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2009] [Accepted: 01/06/2010] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The emergence of viral respiratory pathogens with pandemic potential, such as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and influenza A H5N1, urges the need for deciphering their pathogenesis to develop new intervention strategies. SARS-CoV infection causes acute lung injury (ALI) that may develop into life-threatening acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) with advanced age correlating positively with adverse disease outcome. The molecular pathways, however, that cause virus-induced ALI/ARDS in aged individuals are ill-defined. Here, we show that SARS-CoV-infected aged macaques develop more severe pathology than young adult animals, even though viral replication levels are similar. Comprehensive genomic analyses indicate that aged macaques have a stronger host response to virus infection than young adult macaques, with an increase in differential expression of genes associated with inflammation, with NF-κB as central player, whereas expression of type I interferon (IFN)-β is reduced. Therapeutic treatment of SARS-CoV-infected aged macaques with type I IFN reduces pathology and diminishes pro-inflammatory gene expression, including interleukin-8 (IL-8) levels, without affecting virus replication in the lungs. Thus, ALI in SARS-CoV-infected aged macaques developed as a result of an exacerbated innate host response. The anti-inflammatory action of type I IFN reveals a potential intervention strategy for virus-induced ALI. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) infection causes acute lung injury that may develop into the life-threatening acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) in mostly elderly individuals. Although SARS-CoV infection can be fatal, most patients recover, suggesting that protective host responses are operational to combat the viral infection. Therefore, we used age as predisposing factor to obtain insight into the pathogenesis of SARS-CoV. In this study, we show that SARS-CoV-infected aged macaques developed significantly more pathology than young adult animals, which could not be contributed to differences in viral replication. Using comparative microarray analyses, it was shown that although the nature of the host response to SARS-CoV infection was similar in aged and young adult macaques, the severity was significantly different, with aged macaques displaying an increase in differential expression of genes associated with inflammation. Interestingly, type I IFN-β mRNA levels correlated negatively with gross pathology. Therapeutic treatment of aged macaques with type I IFN reduced pathology without affecting virus replication. However, pro-inflammatory gene expression was significantly diminished. Thus, modulation of the host response by type I IFNs provides a promising outlook for novel intervention strategies.
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Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is a respiratory illness with variable symptoms that was recognized as the first near-pandemic infectious disease of the twenty-first century. A novel human coronavirus, named SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV), derived from SARS patients was reported as the etiologic agent of SARS. Studying the signaling pathways of SARS-infected cells is key to understanding the molecular mechanism of SARS viral infection. Cell death is observed in cultured Vero E6 cells after SARS-CoV infection. From SARS-CoV infection to cell death, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) is a key participant in the determination of cell death and survival. Two signaling pathways comprising signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) and p90 ribosomal S6 kinase (p90RSK) are downstream of p38 MAPK. AKT and JNK (Jun NH2-terminal kinase) signaling pathways are important to establish persistent infection of SARS-CoV in Vero E6 cells. Expression studies of SARS-CoV proteins indicate that the viral proteins are able to activate signaling pathways of host cells. The study of signaling pathways in SARS-CoV patients is difficult to perform compared with in vitro studies due to the effects of the human immune system. This review highlights recent progress in characterizing signal transduction pathways in SARS-CoV-infected cells in vitro and in vivo.
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Siu KL, Kok KH, Ng MHJ, Poon VKM, Yuen KY, Zheng BJ, Jin DY. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus M protein inhibits type I interferon production by impeding the formation of TRAF3.TANK.TBK1/IKKepsilon complex. J Biol Chem 2009; 284:16202-16209. [PMID: 19380580 PMCID: PMC2713514 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109.008227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 232] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus is highly pathogenic in humans and
evades innate immunity at multiple levels. It has evolved various strategies to counteract
the production and action of type I interferons, which mobilize the front-line defense
against viral infection. In this study we demonstrate that SARS coronavirus M protein
inhibits gene transcription of type I interferons. M protein potently antagonizes the
activation of interferon-stimulated response element-dependent transcription by
double-stranded RNA, RIG-I, MDA5, TBK1, IKKϵ, and virus-induced signaling adaptor
(VISA) but has no influence on the transcriptional activity of this element when IRF3 or
IRF7 is overexpressed. M protein physically associates with RIG-I, TBK1, IKKϵ, and
TRAF3 and likely sequesters some of them in membrane-associated cytoplasmic compartments.
Consequently, the expression of M protein prevents the formation of
TRAF3·TANK·TBK1/IKKϵ complex and thereby inhibits
TBK1/IKKϵ-dependent activation of IRF3/IRF7 transcription factors. Taken together,
our findings reveal a new mechanism by which SARS coronavirus circumvents the production
of type I interferons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kam-Leung Siu
- From the Departments of Biochemistry, 21 Sassoon Road, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
| | - Kin-Hang Kok
- From the Departments of Biochemistry, 21 Sassoon Road, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
| | - Ming-Him James Ng
- From the Departments of Biochemistry, 21 Sassoon Road, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
| | - Vincent K M Poon
- Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong, 21 Sassoon Road, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
| | - Kwok-Yung Yuen
- Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong, 21 Sassoon Road, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
| | - Bo-Jian Zheng
- Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong, 21 Sassoon Road, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
| | - Dong-Yan Jin
- From the Departments of Biochemistry, 21 Sassoon Road, Pokfulam, Hong Kong.
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