51
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Rybak AP, Bristow RG, Kapoor A. Prostate cancer stem cells: deciphering the origins and pathways involved in prostate tumorigenesis and aggression. Oncotarget 2015; 6:1900-19. [PMID: 25595909 PMCID: PMC4385825 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.2953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2015] [Accepted: 12/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The cells of the prostate gland are dependent on cell signaling pathways to regulate their growth, maintenance and function. However, perturbations in key signaling pathways, resulting in neoplastic transformation of cells in the prostate epithelium, are likely to generate subtypes of prostate cancer which may subsequently require different treatment regimes. Accumulating evidence supports multiple sources of stem cells in the prostate epithelium with distinct cellular origins for prostate tumorigenesis documented in animal models, while human prostate cancer stem-like cells (PCSCs) are typically enriched by cell culture, surface marker expression and functional activity assays. As future therapies will require a deeper understanding of its cellular origins as well as the pathways that drive PCSC maintenance and tumorigenesis, we review the molecular and functional evidence supporting dysregulation of PI3K/AKT, RAS/MAPK and STAT3 signaling in PCSCs, the development of castration resistance, and as a novel treatment approach for individual men with prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian P Rybak
- McMaster Institute of Urology, Division of Urology, Department of Surgery, McMaster University, ON, Canada.,St. Joseph's Hospital, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Robert G Bristow
- Princess Margaret Cancer Centre (University Health Network), ON, Canada.,Departments of Radiation Oncology and Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Anil Kapoor
- McMaster Institute of Urology, Division of Urology, Department of Surgery, McMaster University, ON, Canada.,St. Joseph's Hospital, Hamilton, ON, Canada
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52
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Shibata M, Shen MM. Stem cells in genetically-engineered mouse models of prostate cancer. Endocr Relat Cancer 2015; 22:T199-208. [PMID: 26341780 PMCID: PMC4618022 DOI: 10.1530/erc-15-0367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The cancer stem cell model proposes that tumors have a hierarchical organization in which tumorigenic cells give rise to non-tumorigenic cells, with only a subset of stem-like cells able to propagate the tumor. In the case of prostate cancer, recent analyses of genetically engineered mouse (GEM) models have provided evidence supporting the existence of cancer stem cells in vivo. These studies suggest that cancer stem cells capable of tumor propagation exist at various stages of tumor progression from prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia (PIN) to advanced metastatic and castration-resistant disease. However, studies of stem cells in prostate cancer have been limited by available approaches for evaluating their functional properties in cell culture and transplantation assays. Given the role of the tumor microenvironment and the putative cancer stem cell niche, future studies using GEM models to analyze cancer stem cells in their native tissue microenvironment are likely to be highly informative.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maho Shibata
- Departments of MedicineGenetics and Development, Urology, and Systems Biology, Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York 10032, USA
| | - Michael M Shen
- Departments of MedicineGenetics and Development, Urology, and Systems Biology, Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York 10032, USA
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53
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Strand DW, Goldstein AS. The many ways to make a luminal cell and a prostate cancer cell. Endocr Relat Cancer 2015; 22:T187-97. [PMID: 26307022 PMCID: PMC4893788 DOI: 10.1530/erc-15-0195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Research in the area of stem/progenitor cells has led to the identification of multiple stem-like cell populations implicated in prostate homeostasis and cancer initiation. Given that there are multiple cells that can regenerate prostatic tissue and give rise to prostate cancer, our focus should shift to defining the signaling mechanisms that drive differentiation and progenitor self-renewal. In this article, we will review the literature, present the evidence and raise important unanswered questions that will help guide the field forward in dissecting critical mechanisms regulating stem-cell differentiation and tumor initiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas W Strand
- Department of UrologyUniversity of Texas Southwestern, Dallas, Texas, USADepartment of Molecular and Medical PharmacologyDepartment of Urology, David Geffen School of Medicine, Broad Stem Cell Research Center, Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Andrew S Goldstein
- Department of UrologyUniversity of Texas Southwestern, Dallas, Texas, USADepartment of Molecular and Medical PharmacologyDepartment of Urology, David Geffen School of Medicine, Broad Stem Cell Research Center, Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
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54
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Lee SH, Shen MM. Cell types of origin for prostate cancer. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2015; 37:35-41. [PMID: 26506127 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceb.2015.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2015] [Accepted: 10/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Analyses of cell types of origin for prostate cancer should result in new insights into mechanisms of tumor initiation, and may lead to improved prognosis and selection of appropriate therapies. Here, we review studies using a range of methodologies to investigate the cell of origin for mouse and human prostate cancer. Notably, analyses using tissue recombination assays support basal epithelial cells as a cell of origin, whereas in vivo lineage-tracing studies in genetically-engineered mice implicate luminal cells. We describe how these results can be potentially reconciled by a conceptual distinction between cells of origin and cells of mutation, and outline how new experimental approaches can address the potential relationship between cell types of origin and disease outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suk Hyung Lee
- Department of Medicine, Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Genetics & Development, Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Urology, Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Systems Biology, Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Michael M Shen
- Department of Medicine, Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Genetics & Development, Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Urology, Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Systems Biology, Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA.
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55
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Clément F, Zhu HH, Gao WQ, Delay E, Maguer-Satta V. Quantifying Epithelial Early Common Progenitors from Long-Term Primary or Cell Line Sphere Culture. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 35:1E.7.1-1E.7.8. [PMID: 26544537 DOI: 10.1002/9780470151808.sc01e07s35] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Here, a protocol to quantify epithelial early common progenitor/stem cells grown as spheres in non-adherent culture conditions is described. This protocol is based on the combination of two functional tests: the sphere assay to maintain and enrich early progenitor/stem cells, and the epithelial colony-forming cells (E-CFC) assay to identify and quantify further differentiated epithelial progenitors. Primary spheres mainly contain progenitors and rare stem/early common progenitor cells while secondary and tertiary spheres contain progenitor cells derived from the early common progenitor/stem cell population maintained through passages and partially differentiated. Spheres are enzymatically and mechanically dissociated; the derived cells are subsequently plated on irradiated NIH-3T3 fibroblasts for further processing, as in the E-CFC assay. The principle of this assay is to quantify the number of epithelial colonies generated by cells present in the different sequential spheres. This assay has therefore been named the early common progenitor-derived colonies assay (ECP-DC).
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Affiliation(s)
- Flora Clément
- INSERM U1052, Centre de Recherche en Cancérologie de Lyon, Lyon, France.,CNRS UMR5286, Centre de Recherche en Cancérologie de Lyon, Lyon, France.,Université de Lyon, Université Lyon 1, Lyon, France
| | - Helen He Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Renji-Med X Clinical Stem Cell Research Center, Ren Ji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China.,School of Biomedical Engineering & Med-X Research Institute, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Wei-Qiang Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Renji-Med X Clinical Stem Cell Research Center, Ren Ji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China.,School of Biomedical Engineering & Med-X Research Institute, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Emmanuel Delay
- INSERM U1052, Centre de Recherche en Cancérologie de Lyon, Lyon, France.,CNRS UMR5286, Centre de Recherche en Cancérologie de Lyon, Lyon, France.,Université de Lyon, Université Lyon 1, Lyon, France.,Department of Tumor Escape Signaling, Centre de Recherche en Cancérologie de Lyon, Lyon, France.,Centre Léon Bérard, Lyon, France
| | - Véronique Maguer-Satta
- INSERM U1052, Centre de Recherche en Cancérologie de Lyon, Lyon, France.,CNRS UMR5286, Centre de Recherche en Cancérologie de Lyon, Lyon, France.,Université de Lyon, Université Lyon 1, Lyon, France.,Department of Tumor Escape Signaling, Centre de Recherche en Cancérologie de Lyon, Lyon, France
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56
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Mandon M, Hermo L, Cyr DG. Isolated Rat Epididymal Basal Cells Share Common Properties with Adult Stem Cells. Biol Reprod 2015; 93:115. [PMID: 26400399 DOI: 10.1095/biolreprod.115.133967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2015] [Accepted: 09/15/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
There is little information on the function of epididymal basal cells. These cells secrete prostaglandins, can metabolize radical oxygen species, and have apical projections that are components of the blood-epididymis barrier. The objective of this study was to develop a reproducible protocol to isolate rat epididymal basal cells and to characterize their function by gene expression profiling. Integrin-alpha6 was used to isolate a highly purified population of basal cells. Microarray analysis indicated that expression levels of 552 genes were enriched in basal cells relative to other cell types. Among these genes, 45 were expressed at levels of 5-fold or greater. These highly expressed genes coded for proteins implicated in cell adhesion, cytoskeletal function, ion transport, cellular signaling, and epidermal function, and included proteases and antiproteases, signal transduction, and transcription factors. Several highly expressed genes have been reported in adult stem cells, suggesting that basal cells may represent an epididymal stem cell population. A basal cell culture was established that showed that these basal cells can differentiate in vitro from keratin (KRT) 5-positive cells to cells that express KRT8 and connexin 26, a marker of columnar cells. These data provide novel information on epididymal basal cell gene expression and suggest that these cells can act as adult stem cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marion Mandon
- Laboratory for Reproductive Toxicology, Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique-Institut Armand-Frappier, Université du Québec, Laval, Quebec, Canada
| | - Louis Hermo
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Daniel G Cyr
- Laboratory for Reproductive Toxicology, Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique-Institut Armand-Frappier, Université du Québec, Laval, Quebec, Canada Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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57
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Sackmann-Sala L, Angelergues A, Boutillon F, d'Acremont B, Maidenberg M, Oudard S, Goffin V. Human and murine prostate basal/stem cells are not direct targets of prolactin. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2015; 220:133-42. [PMID: 25888939 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2015.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2014] [Revised: 03/25/2015] [Accepted: 04/07/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Local overexpression of prolactin (PRL) in the prostate of Pb-PRL transgenic mice induces benign prostate tumors exhibiting marked amplification of the epithelial basal/stem cell compartment. However, PRL-activated intracellular signaling seems to be restricted to luminal cells, suggesting that basal/stem cells may not be direct targets of PRL. Given their described role as prostate cancer-initiating cells, it is important to understand the mechanisms that regulate basal/stem cells. In this study, we evaluated whether PRL can act directly on these cells, by growing them as prostaspheres. For this, primary 3D prostasphere cultures were prepared from unfractionated cells isolated from freshly harvested human and mouse benign prostate tissues and subjected to PRL stimulation in vitro. None of the various concentrations of PRL tested showed any effects on the sizes or numbers of the prostaspheres generated. In addition, neither activation of canonical PRL-induced signaling pathways (Stat5, Stat3 or Erk1/2) nor increased expression of the proliferation marker Ki-67 were detected by immunostaining in PRL-stimulated prostaspheres. Consistent with the absence of response, PRL receptor mRNA levels were generally undetectable in mouse sphere cells. We conclude that human and mouse prostate basal/stem cells are not direct targets of PRL action. The observed amplification of basal/stem cells in Pb-PRL prostates might be due to paracrine mechanisms originating from PRL action on other cell compartments. Our current efforts are aimed at unraveling these mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucila Sackmann-Sala
- Institut Necker Enfants Malades (INEM), Inserm U1151 - CNRS UMR 8253, Equipe "Physiopathologie des hormones PRL/GH", Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Faculté de Médecine, 14 rue Maria Helena Vieira da Silva - CS 61431, Bâtiment Leriche, 75993 Paris Cedex 14, France.
| | - Antoine Angelergues
- Institut Necker Enfants Malades (INEM), Inserm U1151 - CNRS UMR 8253, Equipe "Physiopathologie des hormones PRL/GH", Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Faculté de Médecine, 14 rue Maria Helena Vieira da Silva - CS 61431, Bâtiment Leriche, 75993 Paris Cedex 14, France; Service de Cancérologie Médicale, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Université Paris Descartes, 20 rue Leblanc, 75015 Paris, France.
| | - Florence Boutillon
- Institut Necker Enfants Malades (INEM), Inserm U1151 - CNRS UMR 8253, Equipe "Physiopathologie des hormones PRL/GH", Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Faculté de Médecine, 14 rue Maria Helena Vieira da Silva - CS 61431, Bâtiment Leriche, 75993 Paris Cedex 14, France
| | - Bruno d'Acremont
- Service d'Urologie, Fondation Saint Jean de Dieu - Clinique Oudinot, 19 rue Oudinot, 75007 Paris, France.
| | - Marc Maidenberg
- Service d'Urologie, Fondation Saint Jean de Dieu - Clinique Oudinot, 19 rue Oudinot, 75007 Paris, France.
| | - Stéphane Oudard
- Service de Cancérologie Médicale, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Université Paris Descartes, 20 rue Leblanc, 75015 Paris, France.
| | - Vincent Goffin
- Institut Necker Enfants Malades (INEM), Inserm U1151 - CNRS UMR 8253, Equipe "Physiopathologie des hormones PRL/GH", Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Faculté de Médecine, 14 rue Maria Helena Vieira da Silva - CS 61431, Bâtiment Leriche, 75993 Paris Cedex 14, France.
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58
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Calderon-Gierszal EL, Prins GS. Directed Differentiation of Human Embryonic Stem Cells into Prostate Organoids In Vitro and its Perturbation by Low-Dose Bisphenol A Exposure. PLoS One 2015. [PMID: 26222054 PMCID: PMC4519179 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0133238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies using rodent and adult human prostate stem-progenitor cell models suggest that developmental exposure to the endocrine disruptor Bisphenol-A (BPA) can predispose to prostate carcinogenesis with aging. Unknown at present is whether the embryonic human prostate is equally susceptible to BPA during its natural developmental window. To address this unmet need, we herein report the construction of a pioneer in vitro human prostate developmental model to study the effects of BPA. The directed differentiation of human embryonic stem cells (hESC) into prostatic organoids in a spatial system was accomplished with precise temporal control of growth factors and steroids. Activin-induced definitive endoderm was driven to prostate specification by combined exposure to WNT10B and FGF10. Matrigel culture for 20–30 days in medium containing R-Spondin-1, Noggin, EGF, retinoic acid and testosterone was sufficient for mature prostate organoid development. Immunofluorescence and gene expression analysis confirmed that organoids exhibited cytodifferentiation and functional properties of the human prostate. Exposure to 1 nM or 10 nM BPA throughout differentiation culture disturbed early morphogenesis in a dose-dependent manner with 1 nM BPA increasing and 10 nM BPA reducing the number of branched structures formed. While differentiation of branched structures to mature organoids seemed largely unaffected by BPA exposure, the stem-like cell population increased, appearing as focal stem cell nests that have not properly entered lineage commitment rather than the rare isolated stem cells found in normally differentiated structures. These findings provide the first direct evidence that low-dose BPA exposure targets hESC and perturbs morphogenesis as the embryonic cells differentiate towards human prostate organoids, suggesting that the developing human prostate may be susceptible to disruption by in utero BPA exposures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther L. Calderon-Gierszal
- Departments of Urology and Physiology & Biophysics, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Gail S. Prins
- Departments of Urology and Physiology & Biophysics, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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59
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Uemura KI, Ohta K, Kanazawa T, Hayashi T, Tanoue R, Yoshitomi M, Hirashima S, Suekane S, Matsuoka K, Igawa T, Nakamura KI. Subcutaneous transplantation promotes organ formation of the fetal rat urogenital sinus. Acta Histochem 2015; 117:512-20. [PMID: 25858530 DOI: 10.1016/j.acthis.2015.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2014] [Revised: 03/07/2015] [Accepted: 03/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study is to develop a novel experimental model of the subcutaneous transplantation of fetal urogenital sinus (UGS) into normal and castrated adult male rats for the pathophysiological investigation of the normal and developing prostate. Fetal UGS obtained from 20-day-old male rat embryos was subcutaneously transplanted into 7-week-old normal and castrated male rats. We observed the growth pattern, histopathological characteristics and immunohistochemical localization of cytokeratin 5 (CK 5), cytokeratin 8 (CK 8) and androgen receptor (AR) in the transplanted tissues. Almost all of the transplanted UGS organs gradually increased in weight over time in the non-castrated recipient animals, and the histopathological observations and immunohistochemical analysis of CK 5 and CK 8 revealed that the morphological changes in the tissues were in accordance with the features of normal prostate development. The histological characteristics included glandular epithelial dominant and stromal dominant area, with an increase in the glandular epithelial dominant areas over time and resemblance among a portion of the transplanted tissues within a certain period during the developmental course to the histopathology of human benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). The effects of androgens and resemblance in the immunohistochemical localization pattern changes in AR to that observed in the normal differentiating rat prostate were also noted. We conclude that the subcutaneous space provides an adequate microenvironment for UGS growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kei-ichiro Uemura
- Division of Microscopic and Developmental Anatomy, Department of Anatomy, Kurume University School of Medicine, Kurume, Fukuoka, Japan; Department of Urology, Kurume University School of Medicine, Kurume, Fukuoka, Japan.
| | - Keisuke Ohta
- Division of Microscopic and Developmental Anatomy, Department of Anatomy, Kurume University School of Medicine, Kurume, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Tomonoshin Kanazawa
- Division of Microscopic and Developmental Anatomy, Department of Anatomy, Kurume University School of Medicine, Kurume, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Tokumasa Hayashi
- Department of Urology, Kurume University School of Medicine, Kurume, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Ryuichiro Tanoue
- Division of Microscopic and Developmental Anatomy, Department of Anatomy, Kurume University School of Medicine, Kurume, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Munetake Yoshitomi
- Division of Microscopic and Developmental Anatomy, Department of Anatomy, Kurume University School of Medicine, Kurume, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Shingo Hirashima
- Division of Microscopic and Developmental Anatomy, Department of Anatomy, Kurume University School of Medicine, Kurume, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Shigetaka Suekane
- Department of Urology, Kurume University School of Medicine, Kurume, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Kei Matsuoka
- Department of Urology, Kurume University School of Medicine, Kurume, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Tsukasa Igawa
- Department of Urology, Kurume University School of Medicine, Kurume, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Kei-ichiro Nakamura
- Division of Microscopic and Developmental Anatomy, Department of Anatomy, Kurume University School of Medicine, Kurume, Fukuoka, Japan
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60
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Huang Y, Hamana T, Liu J, Wang C, An L, You P, Chang JYF, Xu J, McKeehan WL, Wang F. Prostate Sphere-forming Stem Cells Are Derived from the P63-expressing Basal Compartment. J Biol Chem 2015; 290:17745-17752. [PMID: 26032419 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.661033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2015] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Prostate stem cells (P-SCs) are capable of giving rise to all three lineages of prostate epithelial cells, including basal, luminal, and neuroendocrine cells. Multiple methods have been used to identify P-SCs in adult prostates. These include in vivo renal capsule implantation of a single epithelial cell with urogenital mesenchymal cells, in vitro prostasphere and organoid cultures, and lineage tracing with castration-resistant Nkx3.1 expression (CARN), in conjunction with expression of cell type-specific markers. Both organoid culture and CARN tracing show the existence of P-SCs in the luminal compartment. Although prostasphere cells predominantly express basal cell-specific cytokeratin and P63, the lineage of prostasphere-forming cells in the P-SC hierarchy remains to be determined. Using lineage tracing with P63(CreERT2), we show here that the sphere-forming P-SCs are P63-expressing cells and reside in the basal compartment. Therefore we designate them as basal P-SCs (P-bSCs). P-bSCs are capable of differentiating into AR(+) and CK18(+) organoid cells, but organoid cells cannot form spheres. We also report that prostaspheres contain quiescent stem cells. Therefore, the results show that P-bSCs represent stem cells that are early in the hierarchy of overall prostate tissue stem cells. Understanding the contribution of the two types of P-SCs to prostate development and prostate cancer stem cells and how to manipulate them may open new avenues for control of prostate cancer progression and relapse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanqing Huang
- Center for Cancer and Stem Cell Biology, Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Houston, Texas 77030
| | - Tomoaki Hamana
- Center for Cancer and Stem Cell Biology, Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Houston, Texas 77030
| | - Junchen Liu
- Center for Cancer and Stem Cell Biology, Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Houston, Texas 77030
| | - Cong Wang
- Wenzhou Medical College, Wenzhou, 325030 Zhejiang, China
| | - Lei An
- Center for Cancer and Stem Cell Biology, Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Houston, Texas 77030
| | - Pan You
- Center for Cancer and Stem Cell Biology, Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Houston, Texas 77030; Xiamen Zhongshan Hospital, Xiamen, 361004 Fujian, China
| | - Julia Y F Chang
- Center for Cancer and Stem Cell Biology, Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Houston, Texas 77030
| | - Jianming Xu
- Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030
| | - Wallace L McKeehan
- Center for Cancer and Stem Cell Biology, Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Houston, Texas 77030
| | - Fen Wang
- Center for Cancer and Stem Cell Biology, Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Houston, Texas 77030; Wenzhou Medical College, Wenzhou, 325030 Zhejiang, China; Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, College of Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, College Station, Texas 77807.
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61
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Huang Y, Hamana T, Liu J, Wang C, An L, You P, Chang JYF, Xu J, Jin C, Zhang Z, McKeehan WL, Wang F. Type 2 Fibroblast Growth Factor Receptor Signaling Preserves Stemness and Prevents Differentiation of Prostate Stem Cells from the Basal Compartment. J Biol Chem 2015; 290:17753-17761. [PMID: 26032417 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.661066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Prostate stem cells (P-SCs) are capable of giving rise to all three lineages of prostate epithelial cells, which include basal, luminal, and neuroendocrine cells. Two types of P-SCs have been identified in both human and mouse adult prostates based on prostasphere or organoid cultures, cell lineage tracing, renal capsule implantation, and expression of luminal- and basal-specific proteins. The sphere-forming P-SCs are from the basal cell compartment that express P63, and are therefore designated as basal P-SCs (P-bSCs). Luminal P-SCs (P-lSCs) express luminal cytokeratins and Nkx3.1. Herein, we report that the type 2 FGF receptor (FGFR2) signaling axis is crucial for preserving stemness and preventing differentiation of P-bSCs. FGFR2 signaling mediated by FGFR substrate 2α (FRS2α) is indispensable for formation and maintenance of prostaspheres derived from P63(+) P-bSCs. Ablation of Fgfr2 in P63(+) cells in vitro causes the disintegration of prostaspheres. Ablation of Fgfr2 in vivo reduces the number of P63-expressing basal cells and enriches luminal cells. This suggests a basal stem cell-to-luminal cell differentiation. In addition, ablation of Fgfr2 in P63(+) cells causes defective postnatal development of the prostate. Therefore, the data indicate that FGFR2 signaling is critical for preserving stemness and preventing differentiation of P-bSCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanqing Huang
- Center for Cancer and Stem Cell Biology, Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Houston, Texas 77030
| | - Tomoaki Hamana
- Center for Cancer and Stem Cell Biology, Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Houston, Texas 77030
| | - Junchen Liu
- Center for Cancer and Stem Cell Biology, Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Houston, Texas 77030
| | - Cong Wang
- Wenzhou Medical College, Wenzhou, 325030 Zhejiang, China
| | - Lei An
- Center for Cancer and Stem Cell Biology, Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Houston, Texas 77030
| | - Pan You
- Center for Cancer and Stem Cell Biology, Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Houston, Texas 77030; Xiamen Zhongshan Hospital, Xiamen, 361004 Fujian, China
| | - Julia Y F Chang
- Center for Cancer and Stem Cell Biology, Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Houston, Texas 77030
| | - Jianming Xu
- Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030
| | - Chengliu Jin
- Center for Cancer and Stem Cell Biology, Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Houston, Texas 77030
| | | | - Wallace L McKeehan
- Center for Cancer and Stem Cell Biology, Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Houston, Texas 77030
| | - Fen Wang
- Center for Cancer and Stem Cell Biology, Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Houston, Texas 77030; Wenzhou Medical College, Wenzhou, 325030 Zhejiang, China; Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, College of Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, College Station, Texas 77807.
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Liu H, Cadaneanu RM, Lai K, Zhang B, Huo L, An DS, Li X, Lewis MS, Garraway IP. Differential gene expression profiling of functionally and developmentally distinct human prostate epithelial populations. Prostate 2015; 75:764-76. [PMID: 25663004 PMCID: PMC4409819 DOI: 10.1002/pros.22959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2014] [Accepted: 12/05/2014] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Human fetal prostate buds appear in the 10th gestational week as solid cords, which branch and form lumens in response to androgen 1. Previous in vivo analysis of prostate epithelia isolated from benign prostatectomy specimens indicated that Epcam⁺ CD44⁻ CD49f(Hi) basal cells possess efficient tubule initiation capability relative to other subpopulations 2. Stromal interactions and branching morphogenesis displayed by adult tubule-initiating cells (TIC) are reminiscent of fetal prostate development. In the current study, we evaluated in vivo tubule initiation by human fetal prostate cells and determined expression profiles of fetal and adult epithelial subpopulations in an effort to identify pathways used by TIC. METHODS Immunostaining and FACS analysis based on Epcam, CD44, and CD49f expression demonstrated the majority (99.9%) of fetal prostate epithelial cells (FC) were Epcam⁺ CD44⁻ with variable levels of CD49f expression. Fetal populations isolated via cell sorting were implanted into immunocompromised mice. Total RNA isolation from Epcam⁺ CD44⁻ CD49f(Hi) FC, adult Epcam⁺ CD44⁻ CD49f(Hi) TIC, Epcam⁺ CD44⁺ CD49f(Hi) basal cells (BC), and Epcam⁺ CD44⁻ CD49f(Lo) luminal cells (LC) was performed, followed by microarray analysis of 19 samples using the Affymetrix Gene Chip Human U133 Plus 2.0 Array. Data was analyzed using Partek Genomics Suite Version 6.4. Genes selected showed >2-fold difference in expression and P < 5.00E-2. Results were validated with RT-PCR. RESULTS Grafts retrieved from Epcam⁺ CD44⁻ fetal cell implants displayed tubule formation with differentiation into basal and luminal compartments, while only stromal outgrowths were recovered from Epcam- fetal cell implants. Hierarchical clustering revealed four distinct groups determined by antigenic profile (TIC, BC, LC) and developmental stage (FC). TIC and BC displayed basal gene expression profiles, while LC expressed secretory genes. FC had a unique profile with the most similarities to adult TIC. Functional, network, and canonical pathway identification using Ingenuity Pathway Analysis Version 7.6 compiled genes with the highest differential expression (TIC relative to BC or LC). Many of these genes were found to be significantly associated with prostate tumorigenesis. CONCLUSIONS Our results demonstrate clustering gene expression profiles of FC and adult TIC. Pathways associated with TIC are known to be deregulated in cancer, suggesting a cell-of-origin role for TIC versus re-emergence of pathways common to these cells in tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haibo Liu
- Department of Urology, David Geffen School of Medicine at
UCLALos Angeles, California
- Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCLALos Angeles, California
| | - Radu M Cadaneanu
- Department of Urology, David Geffen School of Medicine at
UCLALos Angeles, California
- Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCLALos Angeles, California
| | - Kevin Lai
- Department of Urology, David Geffen School of Medicine at
UCLALos Angeles, California
- Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCLALos Angeles, California
| | - Baohui Zhang
- Department of Urology, David Geffen School of Medicine at
UCLALos Angeles, California
- Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCLALos Angeles, California
| | - Lihong Huo
- Department of Urology, David Geffen School of Medicine at
UCLALos Angeles, California
- Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCLALos Angeles, California
| | - Dong Sun An
- Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCLALos Angeles, California
- UCLA School of NursingLos Angeles, California
- Broad Stem Cell Center, UCLALos Angeles, California
| | - Xinmin Li
- Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCLALos Angeles, California
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, David
Geffen School of Medicine at UCLALos Angeles, California
| | - Michael S Lewis
- West Los Angeles VA Hospital, Greater Los Angeles
Veterans Affairs Healthcare SystemLos Angeles, California
| | - Isla P Garraway
- Department of Urology, David Geffen School of Medicine at
UCLALos Angeles, California
- Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCLALos Angeles, California
- Broad Stem Cell Center, UCLALos Angeles, California
- West Los Angeles VA Hospital, Greater Los Angeles
Veterans Affairs Healthcare SystemLos Angeles, California
- *Correspondence to: Isla P. Garraway, Department of Urology, David Geffen
School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA. E-mail:
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McDougall ARA, Tolcos M, Hooper SB, Cole TJ, Wallace MJ. Trop2: from development to disease. Dev Dyn 2015; 244:99-109. [PMID: 25523132 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.24242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2014] [Revised: 12/08/2014] [Accepted: 12/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Trop2 was first discovered as a biomarker of invasive trophoblast cells. Since then most research has focused on its role in tumourigenesis because it is highly expressed in the vast majority of human tumours and animal models of cancer. It is also highly expressed in stem cells and in many organs during development. RESULTS We review the multifaceted role of Trop2 during development and tumourigenesis, including its role in regulating cell proliferation and migration, self-renewal, and maintenance of basement membrane integrity. We discuss the evolution of Trop2 and its related protein Epcam (Trop1), including their distinct roles. Mutation of Trop2 leads to gelatinous drop-like corneal dystrophy, whereas over-expression of Trop2 in human tumours promotes tumour aggressiveness and increases mortality. Although Trop2 expression is sufficient to promote tumour growth, the surprising discovery that Trop2-null mice have an increased risk of tumour development has highlighted the complexity of Trop2 signaling. Recently, studies have begun to identify the mechanisms underlying TROP2’s functions, including regulated intramembrane proteolysis or specific interactions with integrin b1 and claudin proteins. CONCLUSIONS Understanding the mechanisms underlying TROP2 signaling will clarify its role during development, aid in the development of better cancer treatments and unlock a promising new direction in regenerative medicine.
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In vitro modeling of the prostate cancer microenvironment. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2014; 79-80:214-21. [PMID: 24816064 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2014.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2013] [Revised: 04/15/2014] [Accepted: 04/29/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Prostate cancer is the most commonly diagnosed malignancy in men and advanced disease is incurable. Model systems are a fundamental tool for research and many in vitro models of prostate cancer use cancer cell lines in monoculture. Although these have yielded significant insight they are inherently limited by virtue of their two-dimensional (2D) growth and inability to include the influence of tumour microenvironment. These major limitations can be overcome with the development of newer systems that more faithfully recreate and mimic the complex in vivo multi-cellular, three-dimensional (3D) microenvironment. This article presents the current state of in vitro models for prostate cancer, with particular emphasis on 3D systems and the challenges that remain before their potential to advance our understanding of prostate disease and aid in the development and testing of new therapeutic agents can be realised.
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65
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Kwon OJ, Xin L. Prostate epithelial stem and progenitor cells. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL UROLOGY 2014; 2:209-218. [PMID: 25374923 PMCID: PMC4219311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2014] [Accepted: 08/30/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The classic androgen ablation and replacement experiment demonstrates that prostate epithelia possess extensive regenerative capacities and implies the existence of the prostate stem/progenitor cells. These cells may serve as the cells of origin for prostate cancer and their intrinsic property may dictate the clinical behaviors of the resulting diseases. Therefore, detailed characterization of these cells will potentially benefit disease prevention, diagnosis and prognosis. In this review, we describe several major in vitro and in vivo approaches that have been employed in the studies of the prostate stem cell activities, summarize the major progress that has been made during the last two decades regarding the identity of prostate stem/progenitor cells and their niches, and discuss some remaining outstanding questions in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oh-Joon Kwon
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of MedicineUSA
| | - Li Xin
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of MedicineUSA
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Baylor College of MedicineUSA
- Dan L. Duncan Cancer Center, Baylor College of MedicineUSA
- Baylor College of MedicineOne Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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Single luminal epithelial progenitors can generate prostate organoids in culture. Nat Cell Biol 2014; 16:951-61, 1-4. [PMID: 25241035 PMCID: PMC4183706 DOI: 10.1038/ncb3047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 245] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2014] [Accepted: 09/01/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The intrinsic ability to display self-organizing morphogenetic properties in ex vivo culture may represent a general property of tissue stem cells. Here we show that single luminal stem/progenitor cells can generate prostate organoids in a three-dimensional culture system in the absence of stroma. Organoids generated from CARNs (castration-resistant Nkx3.1-expressing cells) or normal prostate epithelium exhibit tissue architecture containing luminal and basal cells, undergo long-term expansion in culture, and display functional androgen receptor signaling. Lineage-tracing demonstrates that luminal cells are favored for organoid formation, and generate basal cells in culture. Furthermore, tumor organoids can initiate from CARNs after oncogenic transformation, and from mouse models of prostate cancer, and can facilitate analyses of drug response. Finally, we provide evidence supporting the feasibility of organoid studies of human prostate tissue. Our studies underscore the progenitor properties of luminal cells, and identify in vitro approaches for studying prostate biology.
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67
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Refining the role for adult stem cells as cancer cells of origin. Trends Cell Biol 2014; 25:11-20. [PMID: 25242116 DOI: 10.1016/j.tcb.2014.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2014] [Revised: 08/22/2014] [Accepted: 08/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Significant progress has been made to identify the cells at the foundation of tumorigenesis, the cancer cell of origin (CCO). The majority of data points towards resident adult stem cells (ASCs) or primitive progenitors as the CCO for those cancers studied, highlighting the importance of stem cells not only as propagators but also as initiators of cancer. Recent data suggest tumor initiation at the CCOs can be regulated through both intrinsic and extrinsic signals and that the identity of the CCOs and their propensity to initiate tumorigenesis is context dependent. In this review, we summarize some of the recent findings regarding CCOs and solid tumor initiation and highlight its relation with bona fide human cancer.
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68
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Karthaus WR, Iaquinta PJ, Drost J, Gracanin A, van Boxtel R, Wongvipat J, Dowling CM, Gao D, Begthel H, Sachs N, Vries RGJ, Cuppen E, Chen Y, Sawyers CL, Clevers HC. Identification of multipotent luminal progenitor cells in human prostate organoid cultures. Cell 2014; 159:163-175. [PMID: 25201529 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2014.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 506] [Impact Index Per Article: 50.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2014] [Revised: 07/08/2014] [Accepted: 08/18/2014] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The prostate gland consists of basal and luminal cells arranged as pseudostratified epithelium. In tissue recombination models, only basal cells reconstitute a complete prostate gland, yet murine lineage-tracing experiments show that luminal cells generate basal cells. It has remained challenging to address the molecular details of these transitions and whether they apply to humans, due to the lack of culture conditions that recapitulate prostate gland architecture. Here, we describe a 3D culture system that supports long-term expansion of primary mouse and human prostate organoids, composed of fully differentiated CK5+ basal and CK8+ luminal cells. Organoids are genetically stable, reconstitute prostate glands in recombination assays, and can be experimentally manipulated. Single human luminal and basal cells give rise to organoids, yet luminal-cell-derived organoids more closely resemble prostate glands. These data support a luminal multilineage progenitor cell model for prostate tissue and establish a robust, scalable system for mechanistic studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wouter R Karthaus
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences and University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CT, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Phillip J Iaquinta
- Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Jarno Drost
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences and University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CT, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Ana Gracanin
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences and University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CT, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Ruben van Boxtel
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences and University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CT, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - John Wongvipat
- Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Catherine M Dowling
- Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Dong Gao
- Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Harry Begthel
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences and University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CT, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Norman Sachs
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences and University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CT, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Robert G J Vries
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences and University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CT, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Edwin Cuppen
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences and University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CT, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Yu Chen
- Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Charles L Sawyers
- Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute
| | - Hans C Clevers
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences and University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CT, Utrecht, Netherlands.
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Castillo V, Valenzuela R, Huidobro C, Contreras HR, Castellon EA. Functional characteristics of cancer stem cells and their role in drug resistance of prostate cancer. Int J Oncol 2014; 45:985-94. [PMID: 24990514 PMCID: PMC4121425 DOI: 10.3892/ijo.2014.2529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2014] [Accepted: 04/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer stem cells (CSCs) have the ability to self-renew and differentiate to give rise to heterogeneous phenotype of the tumor cells. It is believed that these cells are involved in metastasis, recurrence and therapy resistance in various cancers. CSCs have been identified in prostate cancer (PCa), one of the most diagnosed malignancies in men over the world, for which chemotherapy resistance is a major problem in the treatment of castration-resistant advanced stages. Molecular signatures, gene expression and functional features have been reported for PCa CSCs. Most data come from cell lines which may not represent the actual tumor. In the present work, a CSCs enriched population obtained from PCa explants was functionally characterized and analyzed for drug resistance. Tumorsphere cultures positive for ABCG2 transporter, CD133, CD44, cytokeratins 5 and 18 (CK5 and CK18) and negatives for androgen receptor (AR) and prostate-specific antigen (PSA) showed higher clonogenic capacity, holoclone-forming ability, colony-forming capacity in soft agar and lower proliferative and apoptotic rate than control adherent cell cultures. Furthermore, exposing tumorsphere cultures to ABCG2 substrate drugs resulted in a high survival rate compared with control PCa cells. This high drug resistance was decreased using a selective inhibitor of ABCG2. According to these results, tumorspheres from PCa explants showed a functional stem phenotype and a marked drug resistance, probably mediated by high expression of the ABCG2 transporter, which might be considered as a suitable therapeutic target for CSCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viviana Castillo
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Andrology, Physiology and Biophysics Program, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Santiago 8380453, Chile
| | - Rodrigo Valenzuela
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Andrology, Physiology and Biophysics Program, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Santiago 8380453, Chile
| | - Christian Huidobro
- Urology Service, Clinical Hospital, University of Chile, Santiago 8380453, Chile
| | - Hector R Contreras
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Andrology, Physiology and Biophysics Program, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Santiago 8380453, Chile
| | - Enrique A Castellon
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Andrology, Physiology and Biophysics Program, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Santiago 8380453, Chile
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Abstract
The cancer stem cell hypothesis postulates that a single stem-like cancer cell is able to produce all cancer cell types found in a tumor. These cells are also thought to be the causative agents of relapse following therapy. In order to confirm the importance of cancer stem cells in tumor formation and patient prognosis, their role in prostate cancer must be comprehensively studied. This review describes current methods and markers for isolating and characterizing prostate cancer stem cells, including assays for self-renewal, multipotency and resistance to therapy. In particular the advantages and limitations of these approaches are analyzed. The review will also examine novel methods for studying the lineage of cancer stem cells in vivo using transgenic mouse models. These lineage tracing approaches have significant advantages and, if a number of challenges can be addressed, offer great potential for understanding the significance of cancer stem cells in human prostate cancer.
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71
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Ricci E, Mattei E, Dumontet C, Eaton CL, Hamdy F, van der Pluije G, Cecchini M, Thalmann G, Clezardin P, Colombel M. Increased expression of putative cancer stem cell markers in the bone marrow of prostate cancer patients is associated with bone metastasis progression. Prostate 2013; 73:1738-46. [PMID: 24115186 DOI: 10.1002/pros.22689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2012] [Accepted: 12/03/2012] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The number of cells positive for the α-6 and α-2 integrin subunits and the c-Met receptor in primary tumors and bone biopsies from prostate cancer patients has been correlated with metastasis and disease progression. The objective of this study was to quantify disseminated tumour cells present in bone marrow in prostate cancer patients using specific markers and determine their correlation with metastasis and survival. METHODS Patients were included at different stage of prostate cancer disease, from localised to metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. Healthy men were used as a control group. Bone marrow samples were collected and nucleated cells separated. These were stained for CD45, α-2, α-6 integrin subunits and c-Met and samples were processed for analysis and quantification of CD45-/α2+/α6+/c-met + cells using flow cytometry. Clinical and pathological parameters were assessed and survival measured. Statistical analyses were made of associations between disease specific parameters, bone marrow flow cytometry data, prostate-specific antigen (PSA) progression free survival and bone metastases progression free survival. RESULTS For all markers, the presence of more than 0.1% positive cells in bone marrow aspirates was significantly associated with the risk of biochemical progression, the risk of developing metastasis and death from prostate cancer. CONCLUSIONS Quantification of cells carrying putative stem cell markers in bone marrow is a potential indicator of disease progression. Functional studies on isolated cells are needed to show more specifically their property for metastatic spread in prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Estelle Ricci
- Service d'Urologie et Chirurgie de la Transplantation, Université Lyon 1, Lyon, France
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Frank SB, Miranti CK. Disruption of prostate epithelial differentiation pathways and prostate cancer development. Front Oncol 2013; 3:273. [PMID: 24199173 PMCID: PMC3813973 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2013.00273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2013] [Accepted: 10/18/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
One of the foremost problems in the prostate cancer (PCa) field is the inability to distinguish aggressive from indolent disease, which leads to difficult prognoses and thousands of unnecessary surgeries. This limitation stems from the fact that the mechanisms of tumorigenesis in the prostate are poorly understood. Some genetic alterations are commonly reported in prostate tumors, including upregulation of Myc, fusion of Ets genes to androgen-regulated promoters, and loss of Pten. However, the specific roles of these aberrations in tumor initiation and progression are poorly understood. Likewise, the cell of origin for PCa remains controversial and may be linked to the aggressive potential of the tumor. One important clue is that prostate tumors co-express basal and luminal protein markers that are restricted to their distinct cell types in normal tissue. Prostate epithelium contains layer-specific stem cells as well as rare bipotent cells, which can differentiate into basal or luminal cells. We hypothesize that the primary oncogenic cell of origin is a transient-differentiating bipotent cell. Such a cell must maintain tight temporal and spatial control of differentiation pathways, thus increasing its susceptibility for oncogenic disruption. In support of this hypothesis, many of the pathways known to be involved in prostate differentiation can be linked to genes commonly altered in PCa. In this article, we review what is known about important differentiation pathways (Myc, p38MAPK, Notch, PI3K/Pten) in the prostate and how their misregulation could lead to oncogenesis. Better understanding of normal differentiation will offer new insights into tumor initiation and may help explain the functional significance of common genetic alterations seen in PCa. Additionally, this understanding could lead to new methods for classifying prostate tumors based on their differentiation status and may aid in identifying more aggressive tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sander B Frank
- Laboratory of Integrin Signaling and Tumorigenesis, Van Andel Research Institute , Grand Rapids, MI , USA ; Genetics Graduate Program, Michigan State University , East Lansing, MI , USA
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Gangavarapu KJ, Azabdaftari G, Morrison CD, Miller A, Foster BA, Huss WJ. Aldehyde dehydrogenase and ATP binding cassette transporter G2 (ABCG2) functional assays isolate different populations of prostate stem cells where ABCG2 function selects for cells with increased stem cell activity. Stem Cell Res Ther 2013; 4:132. [PMID: 24405526 PMCID: PMC3854760 DOI: 10.1186/scrt343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2013] [Accepted: 10/09/2013] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION High expression of aldehyde dehydrogenase1A1 (ALDH1A1) is observed in many organs and tumors and may identify benign and cancer stem cell populations. METHODS In the current study, the stem cell characteristics were determined in cells isolated from human prostate cell lines and clinical prostate specimens based upon the ALDEFLUOR™ assay. Cells isolated based on the ALDEFLUOR™ assay were compared to cells isolated based on ATP binding cassette transporter G2 (ABCG2) activity using the side population assay. To test for stem cell characteristics of self-renewal and multipotency, cells with high and low ALDH1A1 activity, based on the ALDEFLUOR™ assay (ALDHHi and ALDH Low), were isolated from prostate clinical specimens and were recombined with rat urogenital sinus mesenchyme to induce prostate gland formation. RESULTS The percentage of ALDH Hi cells in prostate cell lines (RWPE-1, RWPE-2, CWR-R1, and DU-145) was 0.5 to 6%, similarly in non-tumor and tumor clinical specimens the percentage of ALDH Hi cells was 0.6 to 4%. Recombinants using ALDH Hi cells serially generated prostate tissue up to three generations with as few as 250 starting cells. Immunohistochemical analysis of the recombinants using ALDHHi cells contained prostatic glands frequently expressing androgen receptor (AR), p63, chromogranin A, ALDH1A1, ABCG2, and prostate specific antigen (PSA), compared to their ALDH Low counterparts. Inhibition of ALDH resulted in the reduction of sphere formation capabilities in the CWR-R1, but not in the RWPE-2 and DU-145, prostate cell lines. ABCG2 inhibition resulted in a more robust decrease of sphere formation in androgen sensitive cell lines, CWR-R1 and RWPE-2, but not androgen insensitive DU-145. ALDH1A1 expression was enriched in ALDH Hi cells and non-side population cells. ABCG2 expression was only enriched in side population cells. CONCLUSIONS The percentage of ALDHHi cells in prostate cell lines and prostate tissue was consistently higher compared to cells with high ABCG2 activity, identified with the side population assay. The expression of the stem and differentiation markers indicates the ALDH Hi recombinants contained cells with self-renewal and multipotency activity. When the two assays were directly compared, cells with the side population phenotype demonstrated more stem cell potential in the tissue recombination assay compared to ALDH Hi cells. The increased stem cell potential of side population cells in the tissue recombination assay and the decrease in sphere formation when ABCG2 is inhibited indicates that the side population enriches for prostate stem cells.
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Petkova N, Hennenlotter J, Sobiesiak M, Todenhöfer T, Scharpf M, Stenzl A, Bühring HJ, Schwentner C. Surface CD24 distinguishes between low differentiated and transit-amplifying cells in the basal layer of human prostate. Prostate 2013; 73:1576-90. [PMID: 23836489 DOI: 10.1002/pros.22708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2012] [Accepted: 06/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and prostate cancer (PCa) are common abnormalities in elderly men. It is considered that epithelial stem cells are involved in the etiology and development of both diseases. To distinguish aberrant from normal cells, the knowledge about primary epithelial stem/progenitor cells (ES/P) is essential. The aim of this study was to examine the role of surface markers to distinguish between different subsets of prostate basal epithelium. METHODS The expression pattern of prostate tissue single cell suspensions was analyzed by flow cytometry using different markers. Sorted cell populations were examined for their clonogenic capacity and the resulted colonies were analyzed with flow cytometry, Western blot, and qPCR for stem cell, basal, and luminal epithelium markers. Additionally, the histological localization of the examined markers was determined using immunofluorescence. RESULTS Using the combination of CD49f, Trop-2, and surface CD24, basal cell subsets with distinct differentiation capacities were dissected (CD49f(+) Trop-2(+) CD24(-) and CD49f(+) Trop-2(+) CD24(+) ). Although cells from the two subsets gave rise to similar basal colonies, qPCR of primary tissue revealed that higher levels of basal marker expression were detected in the CD49f(+) Trop-2(+) CD24(-) subset. Immunofluorescence analysis showed a prominent expression of CD24 by luminal and basal cells. CONCLUSIONS Subsets with distinct differentiation capacities within the basal epithelium (CD49f(+) Trop-2(+) CD24(-) and CD49f(+) Trop-2(+) CD24(+) ) can be distinguished in human prostate. CD24 is a marker expressed on the basal transit-amplifying cells (transition cells) and may play a role in the differentiation and migration of ES/P cells to the luminal layer. The knowledge of this mechanism is of relevance for treatment of both diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neli Petkova
- Department of Urology, University Hospital Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
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Prostate stem cells in the development of benign prostate hyperplasia and prostate cancer: emerging role and concepts. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2013; 2013:107954. [PMID: 23936768 PMCID: PMC3722776 DOI: 10.1155/2013/107954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2013] [Revised: 06/14/2013] [Accepted: 06/14/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Benign Prostate hyperplasia (BPH) and prostate cancer (PCa) are the most common prostatic disorders affecting elderly men. Multiple factors including hormonal imbalance, disruption of cell proliferation, apoptosis, chronic inflammation, and aging are thought to be responsible for the pathophysiology of these diseases. Both BPH and PCa are considered to be arisen from aberrant proliferation of prostate stem cells. Recent studies on BPH and PCa have provided significant evidence for the origin of these diseases from stem cells that share characteristics with normal prostate stem cells. Aberrant changes in prostate stem cell regulatory factors may contribute to the development of BPH or PCa. Understanding these regulatory factors may provide insight into the mechanisms that convert quiescent adult prostate cells into proliferating compartments and lead to BPH or carcinoma. Ultimately, the knowledge of the unique prostate stem or stem-like cells in the pathogenesis and development of hyperplasia will facilitate the development of new therapeutic targets for BPH and PCa. In this review, we address recent progress towards understanding the putative role and complexities of stem cells in the development of BPH and PCa.
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Kroon P, Berry PA, Stower MJ, Rodrigues G, Mann VM, Simms M, Bhasin D, Chettiar S, Li C, Li PK, Maitland NJ, Collins AT. JAK-STAT blockade inhibits tumor initiation and clonogenic recovery of prostate cancer stem-like cells. Cancer Res 2013; 73:5288-98. [PMID: 23824741 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-13-0874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Interleukin (IL)-6 overexpression and constitutive STAT3 activation occur in many cancers, including prostate cancer. However, their contribution to prostate stem and progenitor cells has not been explored. In this study, we show that stem-like cells from patients with prostate cancer secrete higher levels of IL-6 than their counterparts in non-neoplastic prostate. Tumor grade did not influence the levels of expression or secretion. Stem-like and progenitor cells expressed the IL-6 receptor gp80 with concomitant expression of pSTAT3. Blockade of activated STAT3, by either anti-IL-6 antibody siltuximab (CNTO 328) or LLL12, a specific pSTAT3 inhibitor, suppressed the clonogenicity of the stem-like cells in patients with high-grade disease. In a murine xenograft model used to determine the in vivo effects of pSTAT3 suppression, LLL12 treatment effectively abolished outgrowth of a patient-derived castrate-resistant tumor. Our results indicate that the most primitive cells in prostate cancer require pSTAT3 for survival, rationalizing STAT3 as a therapeutic target to treat advanced prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Kroon
- Yorkshire Cancer Research Unit, Department of Biology, York
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77
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Zhao H, Sun N, Young SR, Nolley R, Santos J, Wu JC, Peehl DM. Induced pluripotency of human prostatic epithelial cells. PLoS One 2013; 8:e64503. [PMID: 23717621 PMCID: PMC3661502 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0064503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2012] [Accepted: 04/15/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells are a valuable resource for discovery of epigenetic changes critical to cell type-specific differentiation. Although iPS cells have been generated from other terminally differentiated cells, the reprogramming of normal adult human basal prostatic epithelial (E-PZ) cells to a pluripotent state has not been reported. Here, we attempted to reprogram E-PZ cells by forced expression of Oct4, Sox2, c-Myc, and Klf4 using lentiviral vectors and obtained embryonic stem cell (ESC)-like colonies at a frequency of 0.01%. These E-PZ-iPS-like cells with normal karyotype gained expression of pluripotent genes typical of iPS cells (Tra-1-81, SSEA-3, Nanog, Sox2, and Oct4) and lost gene expression characteristic of basal prostatic epithelial cells (CK5, CK14, and p63). E-PZ-iPS-like cells demonstrated pluripotency by differentiating into ectodermal, mesodermal, and endodermal cells in vitro, although lack of teratoma formation in vivo and incomplete demethylation of pluripotency genes suggested only partial reprogramming. Importantly, E-PZ-iPS-like cells re-expressed basal epithelial cell markers (CD44, p63, MAO-A) in response to prostate-specific medium in spheroid culture. Androgen induced expression of androgen receptor (AR), and co-culture with rat urogenital sinus further induced expression of prostate-specific antigen (PSA), a hallmark of secretory cells, suggesting that E-PZ-iPS-like cells have the capacity to differentiate into prostatic basal and secretory epithelial cells. Finally, when injected into mice, E-PZ-iPS-like cells expressed basal epithelial cell markers including CD44 and p63. When co-injected with rat urogenital mesenchyme, E-PZ-iPS-like cells expressed AR and expression of p63 and CD44 was repressed. DNA methylation profiling identified epigenetic changes in key pathways and genes involved in prostatic differentiation as E-PZ-iPS-like cells converted to differentiated AR- and PSA-expressing cells. Our results suggest that iPS-like cells derived from prostatic epithelial cells are pluripotent and capable of prostatic differentiation; therefore, provide a novel model for investigating epigenetic changes involved in prostate cell lineage specification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongjuan Zhao
- Department of Urology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Ning Sun
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Sarah R. Young
- Department of Urology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Rosalie Nolley
- Department of Urology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Jennifer Santos
- Department of Urology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Joseph C. Wu
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Donna M. Peehl
- Department of Urology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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78
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Pringle S, Van Os R, Coppes RP. Concise Review: Adult Salivary Gland Stem Cells and a Potential Therapy for Xerostomia. Stem Cells 2013; 31:613-9. [DOI: 10.1002/stem.1327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2012] [Accepted: 12/17/2012] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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79
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Yoshioka T, Otero J, Chen Y, Kim YM, Koutcher JA, Satagopan J, Reuter V, Carver B, de Stanchina E, Enomoto K, Greenberg NM, Scardino PT, Scher HI, Sawyers CL, Giancotti FG. β4 Integrin signaling induces expansion of prostate tumor progenitors. J Clin Invest 2013; 123:682-99. [PMID: 23348745 PMCID: PMC3561800 DOI: 10.1172/jci60720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2012] [Accepted: 10/25/2012] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The contextual signals that regulate the expansion of prostate tumor progenitor cells are poorly defined. We found that a significant fraction of advanced human prostate cancers and castration-resistant metastases express high levels of the β4 integrin, which binds to laminin-5. Targeted deletion of the signaling domain of β4 inhibited prostate tumor growth and progression in response to loss of p53 and Rb function in a mouse model of prostate cancer (PB-TAg mice). Additionally, it suppressed Pten loss-driven prostate tumorigenesis in tissue recombination experiments. We traced this defect back to an inability of signaling-defective β4 to sustain self-renewal of putative cancer stem cells in vitro and proliferation of transit-amplifying cells in vivo. Mechanistic studies indicated that mutant β4 fails to promote transactivation of ErbB2 and c-Met in prostate tumor progenitor cells and human cancer cell lines. Pharmacological inhibition of ErbB2 and c-Met reduced the ability of prostate tumor progenitor cells to undergo self-renewal in vitro. Finally, we found that β4 is often coexpressed with c-Met and ErbB2 in human prostate cancers and that combined pharmacological inhibition of these receptor tyrosine kinases exerts antitumor activity in a mouse xenograft model. These findings indicate that the β4 integrin promotes prostate tumorigenesis by amplifying ErbB2 and c-Met signaling in tumor progenitor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshiaki Yoshioka
- Cell Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center (MSKCC), New York, New York, USA.
Departments of Molecular Pathology and Tumor Pathology, Akita University Graduate School of Medicine, Akita, Japan.
Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program,
Department of Medicine,
Department of Medical Physics,
Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, and
Department of Pathology, Memorial Hospital, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA.
Antitumor Assessment Core, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA.
Division of Clinical Research, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA.
Department of Surgery, Memorial Hospital, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA
| | - Javier Otero
- Cell Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center (MSKCC), New York, New York, USA.
Departments of Molecular Pathology and Tumor Pathology, Akita University Graduate School of Medicine, Akita, Japan.
Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program,
Department of Medicine,
Department of Medical Physics,
Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, and
Department of Pathology, Memorial Hospital, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA.
Antitumor Assessment Core, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA.
Division of Clinical Research, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA.
Department of Surgery, Memorial Hospital, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA
| | - Yu Chen
- Cell Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center (MSKCC), New York, New York, USA.
Departments of Molecular Pathology and Tumor Pathology, Akita University Graduate School of Medicine, Akita, Japan.
Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program,
Department of Medicine,
Department of Medical Physics,
Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, and
Department of Pathology, Memorial Hospital, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA.
Antitumor Assessment Core, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA.
Division of Clinical Research, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA.
Department of Surgery, Memorial Hospital, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA
| | - Young-Mi Kim
- Cell Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center (MSKCC), New York, New York, USA.
Departments of Molecular Pathology and Tumor Pathology, Akita University Graduate School of Medicine, Akita, Japan.
Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program,
Department of Medicine,
Department of Medical Physics,
Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, and
Department of Pathology, Memorial Hospital, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA.
Antitumor Assessment Core, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA.
Division of Clinical Research, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA.
Department of Surgery, Memorial Hospital, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA
| | - Jason A. Koutcher
- Cell Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center (MSKCC), New York, New York, USA.
Departments of Molecular Pathology and Tumor Pathology, Akita University Graduate School of Medicine, Akita, Japan.
Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program,
Department of Medicine,
Department of Medical Physics,
Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, and
Department of Pathology, Memorial Hospital, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA.
Antitumor Assessment Core, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA.
Division of Clinical Research, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA.
Department of Surgery, Memorial Hospital, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA
| | - Jaya Satagopan
- Cell Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center (MSKCC), New York, New York, USA.
Departments of Molecular Pathology and Tumor Pathology, Akita University Graduate School of Medicine, Akita, Japan.
Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program,
Department of Medicine,
Department of Medical Physics,
Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, and
Department of Pathology, Memorial Hospital, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA.
Antitumor Assessment Core, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA.
Division of Clinical Research, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA.
Department of Surgery, Memorial Hospital, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA
| | - Victor Reuter
- Cell Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center (MSKCC), New York, New York, USA.
Departments of Molecular Pathology and Tumor Pathology, Akita University Graduate School of Medicine, Akita, Japan.
Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program,
Department of Medicine,
Department of Medical Physics,
Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, and
Department of Pathology, Memorial Hospital, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA.
Antitumor Assessment Core, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA.
Division of Clinical Research, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA.
Department of Surgery, Memorial Hospital, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA
| | - Brett Carver
- Cell Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center (MSKCC), New York, New York, USA.
Departments of Molecular Pathology and Tumor Pathology, Akita University Graduate School of Medicine, Akita, Japan.
Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program,
Department of Medicine,
Department of Medical Physics,
Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, and
Department of Pathology, Memorial Hospital, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA.
Antitumor Assessment Core, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA.
Division of Clinical Research, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA.
Department of Surgery, Memorial Hospital, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA
| | - Elisa de Stanchina
- Cell Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center (MSKCC), New York, New York, USA.
Departments of Molecular Pathology and Tumor Pathology, Akita University Graduate School of Medicine, Akita, Japan.
Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program,
Department of Medicine,
Department of Medical Physics,
Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, and
Department of Pathology, Memorial Hospital, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA.
Antitumor Assessment Core, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA.
Division of Clinical Research, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA.
Department of Surgery, Memorial Hospital, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA
| | - Katsuhiko Enomoto
- Cell Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center (MSKCC), New York, New York, USA.
Departments of Molecular Pathology and Tumor Pathology, Akita University Graduate School of Medicine, Akita, Japan.
Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program,
Department of Medicine,
Department of Medical Physics,
Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, and
Department of Pathology, Memorial Hospital, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA.
Antitumor Assessment Core, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA.
Division of Clinical Research, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA.
Department of Surgery, Memorial Hospital, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA
| | - Norman M. Greenberg
- Cell Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center (MSKCC), New York, New York, USA.
Departments of Molecular Pathology and Tumor Pathology, Akita University Graduate School of Medicine, Akita, Japan.
Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program,
Department of Medicine,
Department of Medical Physics,
Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, and
Department of Pathology, Memorial Hospital, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA.
Antitumor Assessment Core, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA.
Division of Clinical Research, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA.
Department of Surgery, Memorial Hospital, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA
| | - Peter T. Scardino
- Cell Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center (MSKCC), New York, New York, USA.
Departments of Molecular Pathology and Tumor Pathology, Akita University Graduate School of Medicine, Akita, Japan.
Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program,
Department of Medicine,
Department of Medical Physics,
Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, and
Department of Pathology, Memorial Hospital, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA.
Antitumor Assessment Core, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA.
Division of Clinical Research, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA.
Department of Surgery, Memorial Hospital, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA
| | - Howard I. Scher
- Cell Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center (MSKCC), New York, New York, USA.
Departments of Molecular Pathology and Tumor Pathology, Akita University Graduate School of Medicine, Akita, Japan.
Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program,
Department of Medicine,
Department of Medical Physics,
Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, and
Department of Pathology, Memorial Hospital, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA.
Antitumor Assessment Core, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA.
Division of Clinical Research, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA.
Department of Surgery, Memorial Hospital, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA
| | - Charles L. Sawyers
- Cell Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center (MSKCC), New York, New York, USA.
Departments of Molecular Pathology and Tumor Pathology, Akita University Graduate School of Medicine, Akita, Japan.
Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program,
Department of Medicine,
Department of Medical Physics,
Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, and
Department of Pathology, Memorial Hospital, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA.
Antitumor Assessment Core, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA.
Division of Clinical Research, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA.
Department of Surgery, Memorial Hospital, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA
| | - Filippo G. Giancotti
- Cell Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center (MSKCC), New York, New York, USA.
Departments of Molecular Pathology and Tumor Pathology, Akita University Graduate School of Medicine, Akita, Japan.
Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program,
Department of Medicine,
Department of Medical Physics,
Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, and
Department of Pathology, Memorial Hospital, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA.
Antitumor Assessment Core, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA.
Division of Clinical Research, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA.
Department of Surgery, Memorial Hospital, MSKCC, New York, New York, USA
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80
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Abstract
Prostate cancer (PCa) remains one of the most prevalent malignancies affecting men in the western world. The etiology for PCa development and molecular mechanisms underlying castration-resistant progression are incompletely understood. Emerging evidence from many tumor systems has shown the existence of distinct subpopulations of stem like-cancer cells termed cancer stem cells (CSCs), which may be involved in tumor initiation, progression, metastasis and therapy resistance. Prostate cancer stem cells (PCSCs) have also been identified using different experimental strategies in distinct model systems. In this brief review, we summarize our current knowledge of normal prostate stem/progenitor cells, highlight recent progress on PCSCs, expound on the potential cell-of-origin for PCa and discuss the involvement of PCSCs in PCa progression and castration resistance. Elucidation of the phenotypic and functional properties and molecular regulation of PCSCs will help us better understand PCa biology and may lead to development of novel therapeutics targeting castration-resistant PCa cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Chen
- Department of Molecular Carcinogenesis, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Smithville, TX, USA
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81
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Foster BA, Gangavarapu KJ, Mathew G, Azabdaftari G, Morrison CD, Miller A, Huss WJ. Human prostate side population cells demonstrate stem cell properties in recombination with urogenital sinus mesenchyme. PLoS One 2013; 8:e55062. [PMID: 23383057 PMCID: PMC3561453 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0055062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2012] [Accepted: 12/22/2012] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Stem cell enrichment provides a tool to examine prostate stem cells obtained from benign and malignant tissue. Functional assays can enrich stem cells based on common stem cell phenotypes, such as high ATP binding cassette (ABC) transporter mediated efflux of Hoechst substrates (side population assay). This functional assay is based upon mechanisms that protect cells from environmental insult thus contributing to the survival and protection of the stem cell population. We have isolated and analyzed cells digested from twelve clinical prostate specimens based on the side population assay. Prostate stem cell properties of the isolated cells were tested by serial recombination with rat urogenital mesenchyme. Recombinants with side population cells demonstrate an increase in the frequency of human ductal growth and the number of glands per recombinant when compared to recombinants with non-side population cells. Isolated cells were capable of prostatic growth for up to three generations in the recombination assay with as little as 125 sorted prostate cells. The ability to reproducibly use cells isolated by fluorescence activated cell sorting from human prostate tissue is an essential step to a better understanding of human prostate stem cell biology. ABC transporter G2 (ABCG2) was expressed in recombinants from side population cells indicating the side population cells have self-renewal properties. Epithelial cell differentiation of recombinants was determined by immunohistochemical analysis for expression of the basal, luminal, and neuroendocrine markers, p63, androgen receptor, prostate specific antigen, and chromogranin A, respectively. Thus, the ABCG2 expressing side population demonstrates multipotency and self-renewal properties indicating stem cells are within this population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara A Foster
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, NY, USA
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82
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Powers GL, Marker PC. Recent advances in prostate development and links to prostatic diseases. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-SYSTEMS BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 2013; 5:243-56. [PMID: 23335485 DOI: 10.1002/wsbm.1208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The prostate is a branched ductal-acinar gland that is part of the male reproductive tract. Prostate development depends upon the integration of steroid hormone signals, paracrine interactions between the stromal and epithelial tissue layers, and the actions of cell autonomous factors. Several genes and signaling pathways are known to be required for one or more steps of prostate development including epithelial budding, duct elongation, branching morphogenesis, and/or cellular differentiation. Recent progress in the field of prostate development has included the application of genome-wide technologies including serial analysis of gene expression, expression profiling microarrays, and other large-scale approaches to identify new genes and pathways that are essential for prostate development. The aggregation of experimental results into online databases by organized multilab projects including the Genitourinary Developmental Molecular Atlas Project has also accelerated the understanding of molecular pathways that function during prostate development and identified links between prostate anatomy and molecular signaling. Rapid progress has also recently been made in understanding the nature and role of candidate stem cells in the developing and adult prostate. This has included the identification of putative prostate stem cell markers, lineage tracing, and organ reconstitution studies. However, several issues regarding their origin, precise nature, and possible role(s) in disease remain unresolved. Nevertheless, several links between prostatic developmental mechanisms and the pathogenesis of prostatic diseases including benign prostatic hyperplasia and prostate cancer have led to recent progress on targeting developmental pathways as therapeutic strategies for these diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ginny L Powers
- Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
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83
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84
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López J, Ruíz G, Organista-Nava J, Gariglio P, García-Carrancá A. Human papillomavirus infections and cancer stem cells of tumors from the uterine cervix. Open Virol J 2012; 6:232-40. [PMID: 23341858 PMCID: PMC3547319 DOI: 10.2174/1874357901206010232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2012] [Revised: 08/16/2012] [Accepted: 08/27/2012] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Different rate of development of productive infections (as low grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasias), or high grade lesions and cervical malignant tumors associated with infections of the Transformation zone (TZ) by High-Risk Human Papillomavirus (HR-HPV), could suggest that different epithelial host target cells could exist. If there is more than one target cell, their differential infection by HR-HPV may play a central role in the development of cervical cancer. Recently, the concept that cancer might arise from a rare population of cells with stem cell-like properties has received support in several solid tumors, including cervical cancer (CC). According to the cancer stem cell (CSC) hypothesis, CC can now be considered a disease in which stem cells of the TZ are converted to cervical cancer stem cells by the interplay between HR-HPV viral oncogenes and cellular alterations that are thought to be finally responsible for tumor initiation and maintenance. Current studies of CSC could provide novel insights regarding tumor initiation and progression, their relation with viral proteins and interplay with the tumor micro-environment. This review will focus on the biology of cervical cancer stem cells, which might contribute to our understanding of the mechanisms responsible for cervical tumor development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacqueline López
- Programa de Doctorado en Ciencias Bioquímicas, Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México
(UNAM), Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Graciela Ruíz
- Departamento de Genética y Biología Molecular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto
Politécnico Nacional (CINVESTAV del IPN), Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Jorge Organista-Nava
- Programa de Doctorado en Ciencias Biomédicas, Instituto de Fisiología Celular (IFC), UNAM, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Patricio Gariglio
- Departamento de Genética y Biología Molecular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto
Politécnico Nacional (CINVESTAV del IPN), Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Alejandro García-Carrancá
- Unidad de Investigación Biomédica en Cáncer, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, UNAM & División de
Investigación Básica, Instituto Nacional de Cancerología (INCan), Secretaría de Salud (SSA), Mexico City, Mexico
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85
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Peek EM, Li DR, Zhang H, Kim HP, Zhang B, Garraway IP, Chin AI. Stromal modulation of bladder cancer-initiating cells in a subcutaneous tumor model. Am J Cancer Res 2012; 2:745-751. [PMID: 23226620 PMCID: PMC3512189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2012] [Accepted: 11/19/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The development of new cancer therapeutics would benefit from incorporating efficient tumor models that mimic human disease. We have developed a subcutaneous bladder tumor regeneration system that recapitulates primary human bladder tumor architecture by recombining benign human fetal bladder stromal cells with SW780 bladder carcinoma cells. As a first step, SW780 cells were seeded in ultra low attachment cultures in order to select for sphere-forming cells, the putative cancer stem cell (CSC) phenotype. Spheroids were combined with primary human fetal stromal cells or vehicle control and injected subcutaneously with Matrigel into NSG mice. SW780 bladder tumors that formed in the presence of stroma showed accelerated growth, muscle invasion, epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT), decreased differentiation, and greater activation of growth pathways compared to tumors formed in the absence of fetal stroma. Tumors grown with stroma also demonstrated a greater similarity to typical malignant bladder architecture, including the formation of papillary structures. In an effort to determine if cancer cells from primary tumors could form similar structures in vivo using this recombinatorial approach, putative CSCs, sorted based on the CD44(+)CD49f(+) antigenic profile, were collected and recombined with fetal bladder stromal cells and Matrigel prior to subcutaneous implantation. Retrieved grafts contained tumors that exhibited the same structure as the original primary human tumor. Primary bladder tumor regeneration using human fetal bladder stroma may help elucidate the influences of stroma on tumor growth and development, as well as provide an efficient and accessible system for therapeutic testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth M Peek
- UCLA Department of UrologyLos Angeles, California
- Eli & Edythe Broad Center of Regenerative Medicine & Stem Cell Research, UCLALos Angeles, California
- Molecular Biology Institute at UCLALos Angeles, California
| | - David R Li
- UCLA Department of UrologyLos Angeles, California
- Eli & Edythe Broad Center of Regenerative Medicine & Stem Cell Research, UCLALos Angeles, California
| | - Hanwei Zhang
- UCLA Department of UrologyLos Angeles, California
- Eli & Edythe Broad Center of Regenerative Medicine & Stem Cell Research, UCLALos Angeles, California
| | - Hyun Pyo Kim
- UCLA Department of UrologyLos Angeles, California
- Eli & Edythe Broad Center of Regenerative Medicine & Stem Cell Research, UCLALos Angeles, California
| | - Baohui Zhang
- UCLA Department of UrologyLos Angeles, California
| | - Isla P Garraway
- UCLA Department of UrologyLos Angeles, California
- Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCLALos Angeles, California
| | - Arnold I Chin
- UCLA Department of UrologyLos Angeles, California
- Eli & Edythe Broad Center of Regenerative Medicine & Stem Cell Research, UCLALos Angeles, California
- Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCLALos Angeles, California
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86
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Yamamoto H, Masters JR, Dasgupta P, Chandra A, Popert R, Freeman A, Ahmed A. CD49f is an efficient marker of monolayer- and spheroid colony-forming cells of the benign and malignant human prostate. PLoS One 2012; 7:e46979. [PMID: 23071686 PMCID: PMC3470557 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0046979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2011] [Accepted: 09/11/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Stem cells may play a role in the development and maintenance of proliferative diseases of the prostate such as prostate cancer and benign prostatic hyperplasia. Cell membrane protein markers, CD49f, CD133 and CD44, have been shown to identify putative prostate stem cells, but a lack of consensus exists with regards to the most efficient marker(s) for stem-like cell identification. This study aimed to determine whether previously reported markers had equal capacity to select monolayer and spheroid colony-forming cells (CFCs), which were used as surrogate readouts of stem-like cells, and to characterize the expression of CD49f, CD44 and CD133 by flow cytometry and immunohistochemistry. In benign prostate cells, CD49f+, CD44+, and CD133+ cells represented 5.6±3.1%, 28.2±4.1% and 0.10±0.06% of total cells. Both monolayer- and spheroid-CFCs existed at a frequency of approximately 0.5% of total cells. CD49f+, CD44+, and CD133+ subpopulations differed significantly in their ability to select benign CFCs. The highest recovery of CFCs was achieved by CD49f+ selection (98%), whereas CD44+ or CD133+ selection led to poor CFC-recovery (17% and 3%, respectively). For the first time, we show highly efficient recovery of CFCs from advanced prostate cancer by CD49f+, but not by CD44+ or CD133+ selection. Furthermore, CD133 expression (AC133 clone) could not be detected in benign prostate cells by either immunohistochemistry or flow cytometry. We conclude that CD49f, but not previously described stem cell markers CD133 and CD44, to be optimal for selection of monolayer- and spheroid-CFCs in the benign and malignant prostate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hidekazu Yamamoto
- Prostate Cancer Research Center, Division of Surgery and Interventional Science, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - John R. Masters
- Prostate Cancer Research Center, Division of Surgery and Interventional Science, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Prokar Dasgupta
- Department of Urology, Guy's and St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, Great Maze Pond, London, United Kingdom
- MRC Centre for Transplantation, King's Health Partners, Guy's Hospital, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ashish Chandra
- Department of Histopathology, Guy's and St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Rick Popert
- Department of Urology, Guy's and St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, Great Maze Pond, London, United Kingdom
| | - Alex Freeman
- Department of Histopathology, University College London Hospital, London, United Kingdom
| | - Aamir Ahmed
- Prostate Cancer Research Center, Division of Surgery and Interventional Science, University College London, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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87
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Abstract
The detailed understanding of adult tissue stem cells has significance for both regenerative medicine and oncology. This perspective will discuss how major advances in our ability to identify and monitor these cells, which include genetic lineage tracing, FACS purification, and robust in vitro clonogenic assays, have changed our view of their roles in many organs. Label retention and quiescence are no longer considered obligatory stem cell features. Furthermore, some tissues have more than one type of stem cell, each used in only particular situations of regenerative stress. Thus, there is no "one size fits all" adult tissue stem cell paradigm.
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88
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Hance MW, Dole K, Gopal U, Bohonowych JE, Jezierska-Drutel A, Neumann CA, Liu H, Garraway IP, Isaacs JS. Secreted Hsp90 is a novel regulator of the epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) in prostate cancer. J Biol Chem 2012; 287:37732-44. [PMID: 22989880 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m112.389015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most frequently diagnosed malignancy in men, and the second highest contributor of male cancer related lethality. Disease mortality is due primarily to metastatic spread, highlighting the urgent need to identify factors involved in this progression. Activation of the genetic epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) program is implicated as a major contributor of PCa progression. Initiation of EMT confers invasive and metastatic behavior in preclinical models and is correlated with poor clinical prognosis. Extracellular Hsp90 (eHsp90) promotes cell motility and invasion in cancer cells and metastasis in preclinical models, however, the mechanistic basis for its widespread tumorigenic function remains unclear. We have identified a novel and pivotal role for eHsp90 in driving EMT events in PCa. In support of this notion, more metastatic PCa lines exhibited increased eHsp90 expression relative to their lineage-related nonmetastatic counterparts. We demonstrate that eHsp90 promoted cell motility in an ERK and matrix metalloproteinase-2/9-dependent manner, and shifted cellular morphology toward a mesenchymal phenotype. Conversely, inhibition of eHsp90 attenuated pro-motility signaling, blocked PCa migration, and shifted cell morphology toward an epithelial phenotype. Last, we report that surface eHsp90 was found in primary PCa tumor specimens, and elevated eHsp90 expression was associated with increased levels of matrix metalloproteinase-2/9 transcripts. We conclude that eHsp90 serves as a driver of EMT events, providing a mechanistic basis for its ability to promote cancer progression and metastasis in preclinical models. Furthermore, its newly identified expression in PCa specimens, and potential regulation of pro-metastatic genes, supports a putative clinical role for eHsp90 in PCa progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael W Hance
- Department of Cell, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina 29425, USA
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89
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Phosphorylation of the androgen receptor by PIM1 in hormone refractory prostate cancer. Oncogene 2012; 32:3992-4000. [PMID: 22986532 PMCID: PMC3527659 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2012.412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2011] [Revised: 07/13/2012] [Accepted: 07/25/2012] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Integration of cellular signaling pathways with androgen receptor (AR) signaling can be achieved through phosphorylation of AR by cellular kinases. However, the kinases responsible for phosphorylating the androgen receptor at numerous sites and the functional consequences of AR phosphorylation are only partially understood. Bioinformatic analysis revealed AR serine 213 (S213) as a putative substrate for PIM1, a kinase overexpressed in prostate cancer. Therefore, phosphorylation of AR serine 213 by PIM1 was examined using a phosphorylation site-specific antibody. Wild type PIM1, but not catalytically inactive PIM1, specifically phosphorylated AR but not an AR serine to alanine mutant (S213A). In vitro kinase assays confirmed that PIM1 can phosphorylate AR S213 in a ligand independent manner and cell type specific phosphorylation was observed in prostate cancer cell lines. Upon PIM1 overexpression AR phosphorylation was observed in the absence of hormone and was further increased in the presence of hormone in LNCaP, LNCaP-abl, and VCaP cells. Moreover, phosphorylation of AR was reduced in the presence of PIM kinase inhibitors. An examination of AR mediated transcription showed that reporter gene activity was reduced in the presence of PIM1 and wild type AR, but not S213A mutant AR. Androgen mediated transcription of endogenous PSA, Nkx3.1, and IGFBP5 was also decreased in the presence of PIM1 whereas IL6, cyclin A1, and caveolin 2 were increased. Immunohistochemical analysis of prostate cancer tissue microarrays showed significant P-AR S213 expression that was associated with hormone refractory prostate cancers, likely identifying cells with catalytically active PIM1. In addition, prostate cancers expressing a high level of P-AR S213 were twice as likely to be from biochemically recurrent cancers. Thus, AR phosphorylation by PIM1 at S213 impacts gene transcription and is highly prevalent in aggressive prostate cancer.
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90
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Chen S, Principessa L, Isaacs JT. Human prostate cancer initiating cells isolated directly from localized cancer do not form prostaspheres in primary culture. Prostate 2012; 72:1478-89. [PMID: 22396312 PMCID: PMC3578386 DOI: 10.1002/pros.22503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2012] [Accepted: 01/25/2012] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recent experimental studies suggest that hierarchical expansion from a minor population of cancer cells with an unlimited self-renewal capacity, termed cancer initiating cells (CICs), drives both lethality and heterogeneity of prostate cancer. Human prostate CICs have been established from only two primary prostate cancer patients, with the remaining established CIC lines being derived from metastatic sites from <10 patients. This suggests that the established CIC lines are significant "outliers" and may not be representative of the prostate CICs seen clinically. Thus, there is an urgent need to develop new approaches to achieve the "routine" establishment of CIC containing lines, particularly derived from primary prostate cancers. METHODS In the present studies, we confirmed that in serum free, high Ca(2+) (i.e., DMEN: F12) growth factor defined (GFD) media plus androgen, a large (n = 10) series of established human prostate cancer cell lines derived from both localized and metastatic sites characteristically self-associate in suspension and grow as unattached spheroids, termed prostaspheres which contain CICs based upon their self-renewal in vitro and tumorigenicity in vivo. RESULTS Unfortunately, however, while dissociated single cells from human primary prostate cancer tissues are viable, contain CICs as documented by their ability to take and proliferate as xenografts, and produce prostaspheres when plated with serum free, high Ca(2+) /GFD-media plus androgen onto standard tissue culture flask, these prostasphere do not contain CICs. CONCLUSION The development of reproducibly methods to culture CICs isolated directly from localized cancers is still an urgent unmeet need of the prostate cancer research community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuangling Chen
- Chemical Therapeutic Program, The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center at Johns Hopkins, Baltimore, Maryland 21231, USA.
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91
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Oldridge EE, Pellacani D, Collins AT, Maitland NJ. Prostate cancer stem cells: are they androgen-responsive? Mol Cell Endocrinol 2012; 360:14-24. [PMID: 21802490 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2011.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2011] [Revised: 06/29/2011] [Accepted: 07/01/2011] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The prostate gland is highly dependent on androgens for its development, growth and function. Consequently, the prostatic epithelium predominantly consists of androgen-dependent luminal cells, which express the androgen receptor at high levels. In contrast, androgens are not required for the survival of the androgen-responsive, but androgen-independent, basal compartment in which stem cells reside. Basal and luminal cells are linked in a hierarchical pathway, which most probably exists as a continuum with different stages of phenotypic change. Prostate cancer is also characterised by heterogeneity, which is reflected in its response to treatment. The putative androgen receptor negative cancer stem cell (CSC) is likely to form a resistant core after most androgen-based therapies, contributing to the evolution of castration-resistant disease. The development of CSC-targeted therapies is now of crucial importance and identifying the phenotypic differences between CSCs and both their progeny will be key in this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma E Oldridge
- YCR Cancer Research Unit, Department of Biology, University of York, Wentworth Way, York, YO10 5DD, UK
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92
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Jiao J, Hindoyan A, Wang S, Tran LM, Goldstein AS, Lawson D, Chen D, Li Y, Guo C, Zhang B, Fazli L, Gleave M, Witte ON, Garraway IP, Wu H. Identification of CD166 as a surface marker for enriching prostate stem/progenitor and cancer initiating cells. PLoS One 2012; 7:e42564. [PMID: 22880034 PMCID: PMC3411798 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0042564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2012] [Accepted: 07/09/2012] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
New therapies for late stage and castration resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) depend on defining unique properties and pathways of cell sub-populations capable of sustaining the net growth of the cancer. One of the best enrichment schemes for isolating the putative stem/progenitor cell from the murine prostate gland is Lin-;Sca1+;CD49fhi (LSChi), which results in a more than 10-fold enrichment for in vitro sphere-forming activity. We have shown previously that the LSChi subpopulation is both necessary and sufficient for cancer initiation in the Pten-null prostate cancer model. To further improve this enrichment scheme, we searched for cell surface molecules upregulated upon castration of murine prostate and identified CD166 as a candidate gene. CD166 encodes a cell surface molecule that can further enrich sphere-forming activity of WT LSChi and Pten null LSChi. Importantly, CD166 could enrich sphere-forming ability of benign primary human prostate cells in vitro and induce the formation of tubule-like structures in vivo. CD166 expression is upregulated in human prostate cancers, especially CRPC samples. Although genetic deletion of murine CD166 in the Pten null prostate cancer model does not interfere with sphere formation or block prostate cancer progression and CRPC development, the presence of CD166 on prostate stem/progenitors and castration resistant sub-populations suggest that it is a cell surface molecule with the potential for targeted delivery of human prostate cancer therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Jiao
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- Institute for Molecular Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Antreas Hindoyan
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- Institute for Molecular Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Shunyou Wang
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Linh M. Tran
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- Institute for Molecular Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Andrew S. Goldstein
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Devon Lawson
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Donghui Chen
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Yunfeng Li
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- Institute for Molecular Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Changyong Guo
- Department of Urology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Baohui Zhang
- Department of Urology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Ladan Fazli
- The Vancouver Prostate Centre and University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Martin Gleave
- The Vancouver Prostate Centre and University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Owen N. Witte
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- Institute for Molecular Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Isla P. Garraway
- Department of Urology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- * E-mail: (IG); (HW)
| | - Hong Wu
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- Institute for Molecular Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- * E-mail: (IG); (HW)
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93
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94
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Pellakuru LG, Iwata T, Gurel B, Schultz D, Hicks J, Bethel C, Yegnasubramanian S, De Marzo AM. Global levels of H3K27me3 track with differentiation in vivo and are deregulated by MYC in prostate cancer. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2012; 181:560-9. [PMID: 22713676 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2012.04.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2011] [Revised: 03/12/2012] [Accepted: 04/12/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Cancer cells and stem cells share a number of biological characteristics including abundant amounts of decondensed chromatin. However, the molecular correlates and the factors involved in altering chromatin structure in cancer cells are not well known. Here, we report that less differentiated stem-like cells in the basal compartment of human and mouse prostate contain lower levels of the polycomb heterochromatin marker H3K27me3 than more differentiated luminal cells. This link to differentiated normal cells is also found in a number of other human and rodent tissues characterized by hierarchical differentiation. In addition to MYC's traditional role as a gene-specific transcription factor, recent studies indicate that MYC also affects global chromatin structure where it is required to maintain "open" or active chromatin. We now demonstrate that in both MYC-driven prostate cancers in mice and human prostate cancers, global levels of H3K27me3 are reduced in prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia and invasive adenocarcinoma lesions. Moreover, decreased levels of H3K27me3 correlate with increased markers of disease aggressiveness (eg, Gleason score and pathological stage). In vitro, experimentally forced reductions in MYC levels result in increased global levels of H3K27me3. These findings suggest that increased levels of decondensed chromatin in both normal progenitor cells and cancer cells are associated with global loss of H3K27me3, which is linked to MYC overexpression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laxmi G Pellakuru
- Department of Pathology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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95
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Hu WY, Shi GB, Hu DP, Nelles JL, Prins GS. Actions of estrogens and endocrine disrupting chemicals on human prostate stem/progenitor cells and prostate cancer risk. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2012; 354:63-73. [PMID: 21914459 PMCID: PMC3249013 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2011.08.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2011] [Revised: 08/22/2011] [Accepted: 08/23/2011] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Estrogen reprogramming of the prostate gland as a function of developmental exposures (aka developmental estrogenization) results in permanent alterations in structure and gene expression that lead to an increased incidence of prostatic lesions with aging. Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) with estrogenic activity have been similarly linked to an increased prostate cancer risk. Since it has been suggested that stem cells and cancer stem cells are potential targets of cancer initiation and disease management, it is highly possible that estrogens and EDCs influence the development and progression of prostate cancer through reprogramming and transforming the prostate stem and early stage progenitor cells. In this article, we review recent literature highlighting the effects of estrogens and EDCs on prostate cancer risk and discuss recent advances in prostate stem/progenitor cell research. Our laboratory has recently developed a novel prostasphere model using normal human prostate stem/progenitor cells and established that these cells express estrogen receptors (ERs) and are direct targets of estrogen action. Further, using a chimeric in vivo prostate model derived from these normal human prostate progenitor cells, we demonstrated for the first time that estrogens initiate and promote prostatic carcinogenesis in an androgen-supported environment. We herein discuss these findings and highlight new evidence using our in vitro human prostasphere assay for perturbations in human prostate stem cell self-renewal and differentiation by natural steroids as well as EDCs. These findings support the hypothesis that tissue stem cells may be direct EDC targets which may underlie life-long reprogramming as a consequence of developmental and/or transient adult exposures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Yang Hu
- Department of Urology, University of Illinois at Chicago, 820 South Wood Street, Suite 132, M/C 955, Chicago, IL, 60612, USA
| | - Guang-Bin Shi
- Department of Urology, University of Illinois at Chicago, 820 South Wood Street, Suite 132, M/C 955, Chicago, IL, 60612, USA
| | - Dan-Ping Hu
- Department of Urology, University of Illinois at Chicago, 820 South Wood Street, Suite 132, M/C 955, Chicago, IL, 60612, USA
| | - Jason L Nelles
- Department of Urology, University of Illinois at Chicago, 820 South Wood Street, Suite 132, M/C 955, Chicago, IL, 60612, USA
| | - Gail S. Prins
- Department of Urology, University of Illinois at Chicago, 820 South Wood Street, Suite 132, M/C 955, Chicago, IL, 60612, USA
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96
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Guo C, Liu H, Zhang BH, Cadaneanu RM, Mayle AM, Garraway IP. Epcam, CD44, and CD49f distinguish sphere-forming human prostate basal cells from a subpopulation with predominant tubule initiation capability. PLoS One 2012; 7:e34219. [PMID: 22514625 PMCID: PMC3326009 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0034219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2011] [Accepted: 02/27/2012] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Human prostate basal cells expressing alpha-6 integrin (CD49f(Hi)) and/or CD44 form prostaspheres in vitro. This functional trait is often correlated with stem/progenitor (S/P) activity, including the ability to self-renew and induce differentiated tubules in vivo. Antigenic profiles that distinguish tubule-initiating prostate stem cells (SCs) from progenitor cells (PCs) and mature luminal cells (LCs) with less regenerative potential are unknown. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPLE FINDINGS Prostasphere assays and RT-PCR analysis was performed following FACS separation of total benign prostate cells based upon combinations of Epcam, CD44, and/or CD49f expression. Epithelial cell fractions were isolated, including Epcam(+)CD44(+) and Epcam+CD44+CD49f(Hi) basal cells that formed abundant spheres. When non-sphere-forming Epcam(+)CD44(-) cells were fractionated based upon CD49f expression, a distinct subpopulation (Epcam(+)CD44(-)CD49f(Hi)) was identified that possessed a basal profile similar to Epcam(+)CD44(+)CD49f(Hi) sphere-forming cells (p63(+)AR(Lo)PSA(-)). Evaluation of tubule induction capability of fractionated cells was performed, in vivo, via a fully humanized prostate tissue regeneration assay. Non-sphere-forming Epcam(+)CD44(-) cells induced significantly more prostate tubular structures than Epcam(+)CD44(+) sphere-forming cells. Further fractionation based upon CD49f co-expression identified Epcam(+)CD44(-)CD49f(Hi) (non-sphere-forming) basal cells with significantly increased tubule induction activity compared to Epcam(+)CD44(-)CD49f(Lo) (true) luminal cells. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE Our data delineates antigenic profiles that functionally distinguish human prostate epithelial subpopulations, including putative SCs that display superior tubule initiation capability and induce differentiated ductal/acini structures, sphere-forming PCs with relatively decreased tubule initiation activity, and terminally differentiated LCs that lack both sphere-forming and tubule-initiation activity. The results clearly demonstrate that sphere-forming ability is not predictive of tubule-initiation activity. The subpopulations identified are of interest because they may play distinct roles as cells of origin in the development of prostatic diseases, including cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changyong Guo
- Department of Urology, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Haibo Liu
- Department of Urology, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Bao-Hui Zhang
- Department of Urology, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Radu M. Cadaneanu
- Department of Urology, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Aqila M. Mayle
- Department of Urology, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- Greater Los Angeles Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Isla P. Garraway
- Department of Urology, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- Greater Los Angeles Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
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97
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Tu SM, Lin SH. Prostate cancer stem cells. Clin Genitourin Cancer 2012; 10:69-76. [PMID: 22421313 DOI: 10.1016/j.clgc.2012.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2011] [Revised: 12/27/2011] [Accepted: 01/19/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Stem cells have long been implicated in prostate gland formation. The prostate undergoes regression after androgen deprivation and regeneration after testosterone replacement. Regenerative studies suggest that these cells are found in the proximal ducts and basal layer of the prostate. Many characteristics of prostate cancer indicate that it originates from stem cells. For example, the putative androgen receptor-negative (AR(-)) status of prostate stem cells renders them inherently insensitive to androgen blockade therapy. The androgen-regulated gene fusion TMPRSS2-ERG could be used to clarify both the cells of origin and the evolution of prostate cancer cells. In this review, we show that the hypothesis that distinct subtypes of cancer result from abnormalities within specific cell types-the stem cell theory of cancer-may instigate a major paradigm shift in cancer research and therapy. Ultimately, the stem cell theory of cancers will affect how we practice clinical oncology: our diagnosis, monitoring, and therapy of prostate and other cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shi-Ming Tu
- Department of Genitourinary Medical Oncology, The University of Texas, MD, Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030-3721, USA.
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98
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Wang G, Wang Z, Sarkar FH, Wei W. Targeting prostate cancer stem cells for cancer therapy. DISCOVERY MEDICINE 2012; 13:135-142. [PMID: 22369972 PMCID: PMC3367460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Prostate cancer is the most common malignant neoplasm in men and the second most frequent cause of cancer death for males in the United States. Recently, emerging evidence suggests that prostate cancer stem cells (CSCs) may play a critical role in the development and progression of prostate cancer. Therefore, targeting prostate CSCs for the prevention of tumor progression and treatment of prostate cancer could become a novel strategy for better treatment of patients diagnosed with prostate cancer. In this review article, we will summarize the most recent advances in the prostate CSCs field, with particular emphasis on targeting prostate CSCs to treat prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guocan Wang
- Department of Cancer Biology, The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77230
| | - Zhiwei Wang
- Department of Pathology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215
| | - Fazlul H. Sarkar
- Department of Pathology, Karmanos Cancer Institute, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48201
| | - Wenyi Wei
- Department of Pathology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215
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99
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Haffner MC, Chaux A, Meeker AK, Esopi DM, Gerber J, Pellakuru LG, Toubaji A, Argani P, Iacobuzio-Donahue C, Nelson WG, Netto GJ, De Marzo AM, Yegnasubramanian S. Global 5-hydroxymethylcytosine content is significantly reduced in tissue stem/progenitor cell compartments and in human cancers. Oncotarget 2012; 2:627-37. [PMID: 21896958 PMCID: PMC3248214 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 336] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
DNA methylation at the 5-position of cytosines (5mC) represents an important epigenetic modification involved in tissue differentiation and is frequently altered in cancer. Recent evidence suggests that 5mC can be converted to 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC) in an enzymatic process involving members of the TET protein family. Such 5hmC modifications are known to be prevalent in DNA of embryonic stem cells and in the brain, but the distribution of 5hmC in the majority of embryonic and adult tissues has not been rigorously explored. Here, we describe an immunohistochemical detection method for 5hmC and the application of this technique to study the distribution of 5hmC in a large set of mouse and human tissues. We found that 5hmC was abundant in the majority of embryonic and adult tissues. Additionally, the level of 5hmC closely tracked with the differentiation state of cells in hierarchically organized tissues. The highest 5hmC levels were observed in terminally differentiated cells, while less differentiated tissue stem/progenitor cell compartments had very low 5hmC levels. Furthermore, 5hmC levels were profoundly reduced in carcinoma of the prostate, breast and colon compared to normal tissues. Our findings suggest a distinct role for 5hmC in tissue differentiation, and provide evidence for its large-scale loss in cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael C Haffner
- Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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Abstract
Isolation of prostate epithelial cells with stem/progenitor characteristics may enable further evaluation of the hierarchy of prostate glandular development and malignant transformation. Prostate epithelial cells capable of sphere formation in semisolid cultures possess stem/progenitor cell characteristics. This is demonstrated by self-renewal (via indefinite passaging) and in vivo differentiation into prostate tubules with discreet basal and luminal layers. Here, we describe a method for isolating prostate stem/progenitor cells from human tissues via in vitro prostasphere formation. Prostate tissue regeneration using human prostaspheres is also described, enabling the differentiation potential of sphere-forming cells to be observed.
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