Stem Cell Membrane-Coated Nanogels for Highly Efficient In Vivo Tumor Targeted Drug Delivery

Current progress of mesenchymal stem cell membrane-camouflaged nanoparticles for targeted therapy

Nanodrug delivery systems have been widely used in disease treatment. However, weak drug targeting, easy to be cleared by the immune system, and low biocompatibility are great obstacles for drug delivery. As an important part of cell information transmission and behavior regulation, cell membrane can be used as drug coating material which represents a promising strategy and can overcome these limitations. Mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) membrane, as a new carrier, has the characteristics of active targeting and immune escape of MSC, and has broad application potential in tumor treatment, inflammatory disease, tissue regeneration and other fields. Here, we review recent progress on the use of MSC membrane-coated nanoparticles for therapy and drug delivery, aiming to provide guidance for the design and clinical application of membrane carrier in the future.

Recent advancements to engineer mesenchymal stem cells and their extracellular vesicles for targeting and destroying tumors

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have the ability to migrate into tumor sites and release growth factors to modulate the tumor microenvironment. MSC therapy have shown a dual role in cancers, promoting or inhibiting. However, MSCs could be used as a carrier of anticancer agents for targeted tumor therapy. Recent technical improvements also allow engineering MSCs to improve tumor-targeting properties, protect anticancer agents, and decrease the cytotoxicity of drugs. While some of MSC functions are mediated through their secretome, MSCs-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) are also proposed as a possible viechle for cancer therapy. EVs allow efficient loading of anticancer agents and have an intrinsic ability to target tumor cells, making them suitable for targeted therapy of tumors. In addition, the specificity and selectivity of EVs to the tumor sites could be enhanced by surface modification. In this review, we addressed the current approaches used for engineering MSCs and EVs to effectively target tumor sites and deliver anticancer agents.

Biomimetic cell membrane-coated poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles for biomedical applications

Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs) are commonly used for drug delivery because of their favored biocompatibility and suitability for sustained and controlled drug release. To prolong NP circulation time, enable target-specific drug delivery and overcome physiological barriers, NPs camouflaged in cell membranes have been developed and evaluated to improve drug delivery. Here, we discuss recent advances in cell membrane-coated PLGA NPs, their preparation methods, and their application to cancer therapy, management of inflammation, treatment of cardiovascular disease and control of infection. We address the current challenges and highlight future research directions needed for effective use of cell membrane-camouflaged NPs.

Nucleus-Targeting Manganese Dioxide Nanoparticles Coated with the Human Umbilical Cord Mesenchymal Stem Cell Membrane for Cancer Cell Therapy

Recently, development of drug delivery systems for accurate delivery of antitumor drugs to tumor sites to improve their antitumor efficacy has attracted great interest in the area of cancer immunotherapy. In this report, an intelligent biodegradable hollow manganese dioxide (HMnO₂) nanoparticle (NP) with a human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell (hUC-MSC) membrane coating was designed to exert efficient chemo-immunotherapy for cancer treatment. A TAT peptide-modified membrane structure was constructed for nuclear targeting. Our findings showed that this new nanoreactor inherited the active targeting capability of MSCs and exhibited tumoritropic accumulation significantly at the cancerous parts. Compared with other formulations, intravenous injection of the NPs markedly inhibited tumor growth, relapse, and metastasis. Moreover, we found that the NPs effectively boosted dendritic cell maturation and recruited effector T cells into tumors. Overall, this work demonstrates the great potential of applying MSC membrane-coated manganese dioxide NPs as nucleus-targeting nanocarriers in cancer chemo-immunotherapy.

Biomimetic camouflaged nanoparticles with selective cellular internalization and migration competences

In the last few years, nanotechnology has revolutionized the potential treatment of different diseases. However, the use of nanoparticles for drug delivery might be limited by their immune clearance, poor biocompatibility and systemic immunotoxicity. Hypotheses for overcoming rejection from the body and increasing their biocompatibility include coating nanoparticles with cell membranes. Additionally, source cell-specific targeting has been reported when coating nanoparticles with tumor cells membranes. Here we show that coating mesoporous silica nanoparticles with membranes derived from preosteoblastic cells could be employed to develop potential treatments of certain bone diseases. These nanoparticles were selected because of their well-established drug delivery features. On the other hand MC3T3-E1 cells were selected because of their systemic migration capabilities towards bone defects. The coating process was here optimized ensuring their drug loading and delivery features. More importantly, our results demonstrated how camouflaged nanocarriers presented cellular selectivity and migration capability towards the preosteoblastic source cells, which might constitute the inspiration for future bone disease treatments. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: This work presents a new nanoparticle formulation for drug delivery able to selectively target certain cells. This approach is based on Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles coated with cell membranes to overcome the potential rejection from the body and increase their biocompatibility prolonging their circulation time. We have employed membranes derived from preosteoblastic cells for the potential treatment of certain bone diseases. Those cells have shown systemic migration capabilities towards bone defects. The coating process was optimized and their appropriate drug loading and releasing abilities were confirmed. The important novelty of this work is that the camouflaged nanocarriers presented cellular selectivity and migration capability towards the preosteoblastic source cells, which might constitute the inspiration for future bone disease treatments.

Synergistic treatment of osteosarcoma with biomimetic nanoparticles transporting doxorubicin and siRNA

Introduction

Osteosarcoma tumors are the most common malignant bone tumors in children and adolescents. Their treatment usually requires surgical removal of all detectable cancerous tissue and multidrug chemotherapy; however, the prognosis for patients with unresectable or recurrent osteosarcoma is unfavorable. To make chemotherapy safer and more effective for osteosarcoma patients, biomimetic nanoparticles (NPs) camouflaged by mesenchymal stem cell membranes (MSCMs) were synthesized to induce osteosarcoma cell apoptosis by co-delivering the anticancer drug doxorubicin hydrochloride(DOX) and a small interfering RNA (siRNA). Importantly, these NPs have high biocompatibility and tumor-homing ability. This study aimed to improve the efficacy of osteosarcoma therapy by using the synergistic combination of DOX and an siRNA targeting the apoptosis suppressor gene survivin.

Methods

Biomimetic NPs (DOX/siSUR-PLGA@MSCM NPs) were synthesized by coloading DOX and survivin siRNA (siSUR) into poly (lactide-co-glycolide acid) (PLGA) via a double-emulsion solvent evaporation method. The NPs were camouflaged by MSCMs to deliver both DOX and survivin-targeting siRNA and characterized and evaluated in terms of cellular uptake, in vitro release, in vitro and in vivo antitumor effects, and biosafety.

Results

DOX/siSUR-PLGA@MSCM NPs had good tumor-homing ability due to the MSCMs modification. The drug-laden biomimetic NPs had good antitumor effects in homozygous MG63 tumor-bearing mice due to the synergistic effect of the drug combination.

Conclusion

DOX/siSUR-PLGA@MSCM NPs can show improved therapeutic effects in osteosarcoma patients due to the combination of a chemotherapeutic drug and gene therapy based on their good tumor targeting and biosafety.

The role of cell membrane-coated nanoparticles as a novel treatment approach in glioblastoma

Glioblastoma multiform (GBM) is the most prevalent and deadliest primary brain malignancy in adults, whose median survival rate does not exceed 15 months after diagnosis. The conventional treatment of GBM, including maximal safe surgery followed by chemotherapy and radiotherapy, usually cannot lead to notable improvements in the disease prognosis and the tumor always recurs. Many GBM characteristics make its treatment challenging. The most important ones are the impermeability of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), preventing chemotherapeutic drugs from reaching in adequate amounts to the tumor site, intratumoral heterogeneity, and roles of glioblastoma stem cells (GSCs). To overcome these barriers, the recently-developed drug-carrying approach using nanoparticles (NPs) may play a significant role. NPs are tiny particles, usually less than 100 nm showing various diagnostic and therapeutic medical applications. In this regard, cell membrane (CM)-coated NPs demonstrated several promising effects in GBM in pre-clinical studies. They benefit from fewer adverse effects due to their specific targeting of tumor cells, biocompatibility because of their CM surfaces, prolonged half-life, easy penetrating of the BBB, and escaping from the immune reaction, making them an attractive option for GBM treatment. To date, CM-coated NPs have been applied to enhance the effectiveness of major therapeutic approaches in GBM treatment, including chemotherapy, immunotherapy, gene therapy, and photo-based therapies. Despite the promising results in pre-clinical studies regarding the effectiveness of CM-coated NPs in GBM, significant barriers like high expenses, complex preparation processes, and unknown long-term effects still hinder its mass production for the clinic. In this regard, the current study aims to provide an overview of different characteristics of CM-coated NPs and comprehensively investigate their application as a novel treatment approach in GBM.

Nanotechnology-based cell-mediated delivery systems for cancer therapy and diagnosis

The global prevalence of cancer is increasing, necessitating new additions to traditional treatments and diagnoses to address shortcomings such as ineffectiveness, complications, and high cost. In this context, nano and microparticulate carriers stand out due to their unique properties such as controlled release, higher bioavailability, and lower toxicity. Despite their popularity, they face several challenges including rapid liver uptake, low chemical stability in blood circulation, immunogenicity concerns, and acute adverse effects. Cell-mediated delivery systems are important topics to research because of their biocompatibility, biodegradability, prolonged delivery, high loading capacity, and targeted drug delivery capabilities. To date, a variety of cells including blood, immune, cancer, and stem cells, sperm, and bacteria have been combined with nanoparticles to develop efficient targeted cancer delivery or diagnosis systems. The review paper aimed to provide an overview of the potential applications of cell-based delivery systems in cancer therapy and diagnosis.

Targeting drugs to tumours using cell membrane-coated nanoparticles

Traditional cancer therapeutics, such as chemotherapies, are often limited by their non-specific nature, causing harm to non-malignant tissues. Over the past several decades, nanomedicine researchers have sought to address this challenge by developing nanoscale platforms capable of more precisely delivering drug payloads. Cell membrane-coated nanoparticles (CNPs) are an emerging class of nanocarriers that have demonstrated considerable promise for biomedical applications. Consisting of a synthetic nanoparticulate core camouflaged by a layer of naturally derived cell membranes, CNPs are adept at operating within complex biological environments; depending on the type of cell membrane utilized, the resulting biomimetic nanoformulation is conferred with several properties typically associated with the source cell, including improved biocompatibility, immune evasion and tumour targeting. In comparison with traditional functionalization approaches, cell membrane coating provides a streamlined method for creating multifunctional and multi-antigenic nanoparticles. In this Review, we discuss the history and development of CNPs as well as how these platforms have been used for cancer therapy. The application of CNPs for drug delivery, phototherapy and immunotherapy will be described in detail. Translational efforts are currently under way and further research to address key areas of need will ultimately be required to facilitate the successful clinical adoption of CNPs.

Imaging-Guided Biomimetic M1 Macrophage Membrane-Camouflaged Magnetic Nanorobots for Photothermal Immunotargeting Cancer Therapy

Biohybrid micro/nanorobots have demonstrated improved therapeutic outcomes for targeting and treating diseases in preclinical trials. However, in vivo applications remain challenging due to a lack of sufficient targeting. Based on evidence that immune cells play a role in the immune modulation in the tumor microenvironment, we developed M1 macrophage membrane-coated magnetic photothermal nanocomplexes (MPN) for photoacoustic (PA) imaging-guided tumor therapy. The MPN were able to inherit the protein from the original macrophage cells and exert a targeted immunosuppression role. Integrating black phosphorus quantum dots and DOX also greatly enhanced reactive oxygen species generation and chemo-phototherapy efficacy. The results suggest that the MPN can be employed as an excellent tumor immunotargeting nanorobotic platform for modulating the tumor microenvironment under PA imaging and magnetic guidance and, thus, exert synergistic therapeutic efficacies.

Nanodecoys: A Quintessential Candidate to Augment Theranostic Applications for a Plethora of Diseases

Nanoparticles (NPs) designed for various theranostic purposes have hugely impacted scientific research in the field of biomedicine, bringing forth hopes of a future revolutionized area called nanomedicine. A budding advancement in this area is the conjugation of various cell membranes onto nanoparticles to develop biomimetic cells called 'Nanodecoys' (NDs), which can imitate the functioning of natural cells. This technology of coating cell membranes on NPs has enhanced the working capabilities of nano-based techniques by initiating effective navigation within the bodily system. Due to the presence of multiple functional moieties, nanoparticles coated with cell membranes hold the ability to interact with complex biological microenvironments inside the body with ease. Although developed with the initial motive to increase the time of circulation in the bloodstream and stability by coating membranes of red blood cells, it has further outstretched a wide range of cell lines, such as mesenchymal stem cells, beta cells, thrombocytes, white blood cells, and cancer cells. Thus, these cells and the versatile properties they bring along with them open up a brand-new domain in the biomedical industry where different formulations of nanoparticles can be used in appropriate dosages to treat a plethora of diseases. This review comprises recent investigations of nanodecoys in biomedical applications.

Biomimetic cell-derived nanocarriers in cancer research

Nanoparticles have now long demonstrated capabilities that make them attractive to use in biology and medicine. Some of them, such as lipid nanoparticles (SARS-CoV-2 vaccines) or metallic nanoparticles (contrast agents) are already approved for their use in the clinic. However, considering the constantly growing body of different formulations and the huge research around nanomaterials the number of candidates reaching clinical trials or being commercialized is minimal. The reasons behind being related to the "synthetic" and "foreign" character of their surface. Typically, nanomaterials aiming to develop a function or deliver a cargo locally, fail by showing strong off-target accumulation and generation of adverse responses, which is connected to their strong recognition by immune phagocytes primarily. Therefore, rendering in negligible numbers of nanoparticles developing their intended function. While a wide range of coatings has been applied to avoid certain interactions with the surrounding milieu, the issues remained. Taking advantage of the natural cell membranes, in an approach that resembles a cell transfer, the use of cell-derived surfaces has risen as an alternative to artificial coatings or encapsulation methods. Biomimetic technologies are based on the use of isolated natural components to provide autologous properties to the nanoparticle or cargo being encapsulated, thus, improving their therapeutic behavior. The main goal is to replicate the (bio)-physical properties and functionalities of the source cell and tissue, not only providing a stealthy character to the core but also taking advantage of homotypic properties, that could prove relevant for targeted strategies. Such biomimetic formulations have the potential to overcome the main issues of approaches to provide specific features and identities synthetically. In this review, we provide insight into the challenges of nano-biointerfaces for drug delivery; and the main applications of biomimetic materials derived from specific cell types, focusing on the unique strengths of the fabrication of novel nanotherapeutics in cancer therapy.

Cell-Derived Vesicles for Nanoparticles' Coating: Biomimetic Approaches for Enhanced Blood Circulation and Cancer Therapy

Cancer nanomedicines are designed to encapsulate different therapeutic agents, prevent their premature release, and deliver them specifically to cancer cells, due to their ability to preferentially accumulate in tumor tissue. However, after intravenous administration, nanoparticles immediately interact with biological components that facilitate their recognition by the immune system, being rapidly removed from circulation. Reports show that less than 1% of the administered nanoparticles effectively reach the tumor site. This suboptimal pharmacokinetic profile is pointed out as one of the main factors for the nanoparticles' suboptimal therapeutic effectiveness and poor translation to the clinic. Therefore, an extended blood circulation time may be crucial to increase the nanoparticles' chances of being accumulated in the tumor and promote a site-specific delivery of therapeutic agents. For that purpose, the understanding of the forces that govern the nanoparticles' interaction with biological components and the impact of the physicochemical properties on the in vivo fate will allow the development of novel and more effective nanomedicines. Therefore, in this review, the nano-bio interactions are summarized. Moreover, the application of cell-derived vesicles for extending the blood circulation time and tumor accumulation is reviewed, focusing on the advantages and shortcomings of each cell source.

Nanoparticle-Based Delivery Systems for Vaccines

Vaccination is still the most cost-effective way to combat infectious illnesses. Conventional vaccinations may have low immunogenicity and, in most situations, only provide partial protection. A new class of nanoparticle-based vaccinations has shown considerable promise in addressing the majority of the shortcomings of traditional and subunit vaccines. This is due to recent breakthroughs in chemical and biological engineering, which allow for the exact regulation of nanoparticle size, shape, functionality, and surface characteristics, resulting in improved antigen presentation and robust immunogenicity. A blend of physicochemical, immunological, and toxicological experiments can be used to accurately characterize nanovaccines. This narrative review will provide an overview of the current scenario of the nanovaccine.

Upconversion Nanoparticle-Based Cell Membrane-Coated cRGD Peptide Bioorthogonally Labeled Nanoplatform for Glioblastoma Treatment

Glioblastoma is hard to be eradicated partly because of the obstructive blood-brain barrier (BBB) and the dynamic autophagy activities of glioblastoma. Here, hydroxychloroquine (HDX)-loaded yolk-shell upconversion nanoparticle (UCNP)@Zn0.5Cd0.5S nanoparticle coating with the cyclic Arg-Gly-Asp (cRGD)-grafted glioblastoma cell membrane for near-infrared (NIR)-triggered treatment of glioblastoma is prepared for the first time. UCNPs@Zn0.5Cd0.5S (abbreviated as YSN, yolk-shell nanoparticle) under NIR radiation will generate reactive oxygen species for imposing cytotoxicity. HDX, the only available autophagy inhibitor in clinical studies, can enhance cytotoxicity by preventing damaged organelles from being recycled. The cRGD-decorated cell membrane allowed the HDX-loaded nanoparticles to efficiently bypass the BBB and specifically target glioblastoma cells. Exceptional treatment efficacy of the NIR-triggered chemotherapy and photodynamic therapy was achieved in U87 cells and in the mouse glioblastoma model as well. Our results provided proof-of-concept evidence that HDX@YSN@CCM@cRGD could overcome the delivery barriers and achieve targeted treatment of glioblastoma.

Recent advances in surface modification of micro- and nano-scale biomaterials with biological membranes and biomolecules

Surface modification of biomaterial can improve its biocompatibility and add new biofunctions, such as targeting specific tissues, communication with cells, and modulation of intracellular trafficking. Here, we summarize the use of various natural materials, namely, cell membrane, exosomes, proteins, peptides, lipids, fatty acids, and polysaccharides as coating materials on micron- and nano-sized particles and droplets with the functions imparted by coating with different materials. We discuss the applicability, operational parameters, and limitation of different coating techniques, from the more conventional approaches such as extrusion and sonication to the latest innovation seen on the microfluidics platform. Methods commonly used in the field to examine the coating, including its composition, physical dimension, stability, fluidity, permeability, and biological functions, are reviewed.

Design principles of bioinspired interfaces for biomedical applications in therapeutics and imaging

In the past two decades, we have witnessed rapid developments in nanotechnology, especially in biomedical applications such as drug delivery, biosensing, and bioimaging. The most commonly used nanomaterials in biomedical applications are nanoparticles, which serve as carriers for various therapeutic and contrast reagents. Since nanomaterials are in direct contact with biological samples, biocompatibility is one of the most important issues for the fabrication and synthesis of nanomaterials for biomedical applications. To achieve specific recognition of biomolecules for targeted delivery and biomolecular sensing, it is common practice to engineer the surfaces of nanomaterials with recognition moieties. This mini-review summarizes different approaches for engineering the interfaces of nanomaterials to improve their biocompatibility and specific recognition properties. We also focus on design strategies that mimic biological systems such as cell membranes of red blood cells, leukocytes, platelets, cancer cells, and bacteria.

Stem cell membrane-coated abiotic nanomaterials for biomedical applications

Nanoscale materials have been extensively employed for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. However, the developed nanosystems still suffer from some limitations, namely the rapid elimination by the immune system, lack of targeting to specific cells, and insufficient biocompatibility. Therefore, novel strategies based upon a biomimetic approach have received attention to improving the pharmacokinetics and safety profile of nanosystems. One promising strategy is the application of a biomimetic coating consisting of cell membranes derived from different cell types onto nanoparticle cores. Stem cells have been investigated to develop targeted nanodevices owing to their excellent intrinsic tissue-specific homing features, protecting them from the immune system to reach the sites of inflammation. This targeting ability is conferred by a surface repertoire of stem cell-associated biomolecules. Such nanoscopical materials offer sustained circulation and boosted drug accumulation at target sites, augmenting therapeutic efficacy and safety. Additionally, the coating of nanoparticles with cell membranes acts as a camouflage mechanism to increase their circulation time. The current review explores the particular features of stem cell membrane coating as multifunctional biomimetic surface functionalization agents to camouflage nanoparticle cores. Biomedical applications of engineered stem cell membrane-coated nanoparticles, challenges in clinical translation, and their future prospects are addressed.

Nanogels as target drug delivery systems in cancer therapy: A review of the last decade

Cancer is an important cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, irrespective of the level of human development. Globally, it was estimated that there were 19.3 million new cases of cancer and almost 10 million deaths from cancer in 2020. The importance of prevention, early detection as well as effective cancer therapies cannot be over-emphasized. One of the important strategies in cancer therapy is targeted drug delivery to the specific tumor sites. Nanogels are among the several drug delivery systems (DDS) being explored as potential candidates for targeted drug delivery in cancer therapy. Nanogels, which are new generation, versatile DDS with the possession of dual characteristics of hydrogels and nanoparticles have shown great potential as targeted DDS in cancer therapy. Nanogels are hydrogels with a three-dimensional (3D) tunable porous structure and a particle size in the nanometre range, from 20 to 200 nm. They have been visualized as ideal DDS with enormous drug loading capacity, and high stability. Nanogels can be modified to achieve active targeting and enhance drug accumulation in disease sites. They can be designed to be stimulus-responsive, and react to internal or external stimuli such as pH, temperature, light, redox, thus resulting in the controlled release of loaded drug. This prevents drug accumulation in non-target tissues and minimizes the side effects of the drug. Drugs with severe adverse effects, short circulation half-life, and easy degradability by enzymes, such as anti-cancer drugs, and proteins, are suitable for delivery by chemically cross-linked or physically assembled nanogel systems. This systematic review summarizes the evolution of nanogels for targeted drug delivery for cancer therapy over the last decade. On-going clinical trials and recent applications of nanogels as targeted DDS for cancer therapy will be discussed in detail. The review will be concluded with discussions on safety and regulatory considerations as well as future research prospects of nanogel-targeted drug delivery for cancer therapy.

Recent advances in biological membrane-based nanomaterials for cancer therapy

Nanomaterials have shown significant advantages in cancer theranostics, owing to their enhanced permeability and retention effect in tumors and multi-function integration capability. Biological membranes, which are collected from various cells and their secreted membrane structures, can further be applied to establish membrane-based nanomaterials with perfect biocompatibility, tumor-targeting capacity, immune-stimulatory activity and adjustable versatility for cancer therapy. In this review, according to their source, membranes are divided into four groups: (1) cell membranes; (2) secretory membranes; (3) engineered membranes; and (4) hybrid membranes. First, cell membranes can be extracted from natural cells of the body, tumor tissue cells, and bacteria. Furthermore, secretory membranes mainly refer to exosome, apoptotic body and bacterial outer membrane vesicle, and membranes with specific protein/peptide expression or therapeutic inclusions are obtained from engineered cells. Finally, a hybrid membrane will be constituted by two or more of the abovementioned membranes. These membranes can form drug-carrying nanoparticles themselves or coat multi-functional nanoparticles, further realizing efficient cancer therapy. We summarize the application of various biological membrane-based nanomaterials in cancer therapy and point out their advantages as well as the places that need to be further improved, providing systematic knowledge of this field and a strategy for further optimization.

Coating a Self-Assembly Nanoconstruct with a Neutrophil Cell Membrane Enables High Specificity for Triple Negative Breast Cancer Treatment

Breast cancer is one of the most commonly diagnosed cancers in American women. Triple negative breast cancer is among the most advanced and aggressive forms of breast cancer. Treatment options are limited for such cancers, making chemotherapy a convenient and effective treatment. Although these therapies can reduce morbidity and mortality, it is often followed by systemic side effects or relapse. Nanoparticles (NPs) have been considered for drug delivery approaches due to their ability to target various disease sites. Herein, we aim to develop a biomimetic NP construct (cell membrane-cloaked NPs) that exhibits specific affinity with triple negative breast cancer cells. In this regard, we designed biomimetic supramolecular nanoconstructs composed of a poly(vinyl pyrrolidone)-tannic acid (PVP-TA NPs/ PVT NPs) core and biofunctionalized with neutrophil cell membranes (PVT-NEU NPs). In this study, we have synthesized a PVT-NEU NP construct, characterized it, and evaluated it for improved targeting and therapeutic benefits in in vitro and in vivo models. Analysis of PVT-NEU NPs confirms the presence of the core of PVP-TA NPs coated with activated human neutrophil membranes. The study results confirmed that PVT-NEU NPs demonstrated an enhanced interaction and targeting with the tumor cells, thus improving the therapeutic activity of a model therapeutic agent (paclitaxel). Altogether, this study suggests the potential of biomimetic NPs as a promising therapeutic option for targeted drug delivery for advanced-stage breast cancer and other similar diseased conditions.

Research update on cell membrane camouflaged nanoparticles for cancer therapy

Cell membrane-camouflaged biomimetic functionalization of nanoparticles has emerged as a promising strategy for cancer theranostics. These cell membranes used for camouflaging are generally isolated from natural or engineered erythrocytes, neutrophils, macrophages, T lymphatic cells, stem cells, and cancer cells. The camouflaging strategy of coating nanoparticles with cell membranes allows for tumor homotypic targeting through self-recognition as source cells, immune evasion, and a prolonged blood circulation time, thereby improving the effective payload delivery and tumor therapy. More so, some engineered cell membranes with functionalized peptides, proteins and moieties on membrane surface can be transferred for therapy in the same time. In this review, we summarize the latest research on various types of cell membrane-camouflaged nanoparticles aimed at anti-cancer therapy, focusing on the biological advantages of different cell membranes, constitutions of nanoparticles, fabrication processes, key findings, potential therapies, and discuss the major challenges and future opportunities.

DNA Base Pairing-Inspired Supramolecular Nanodrug Camouflaged by Cancer-Cell Membrane for Osteosarcoma Treatment

Osteosarcoma (OS) is one of the most common bone malignant tumors which mainly develops in adolescents. Although neoadjuvant chemotherapy has improved the prognosis of patients, numerous chemotherapeutic challenges still limit their use. Here, inspired by the Watson-Crick base pairing in nucleic acids, hydrophobic (methotrexate) and hydrophilic (floxuridine) chemo-drugs are mixed and self-assembled into M:F nanoparticles (M:F NPs) through molecular recognition. Then, the obtained NPs are co-extruded with membranes derived from OS cells to form cancer-cell membrane-coated NPs (CCNPs). With protected membranes at the outer layer, CCNPs are highly stable in both physiological and weak acid tumor conditions and possess homologous tumor targeted capability. Furthermore, the proteomic analysis first identifies over 400 proteins reserved in CCNPs, most of them participating in tumor cell targeting and adhesion processes. In vitro studies reveal that CCNPs significantly inhibit the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway, which promotes cell apoptosis and cell cycle arrest. More importantly, cell membrane camouflage significantly prolongs the circulation half-life of CCNPs, elevates the drug accumulation at tumor sites, and promotes anti-tumor efficacy in vivo. As a convenient and effective strategy to construct a biomimetic NP with high drug loading ratio, the CCNPs provide new potentials for precise and synergistic antitumor treatment.

Stem Cell Membrane-Encapsulated Zeolitic Imidazolate Framework-8: A Targeted Nano-Platform for Osteogenic Differentiation

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been recognized as one of the most promising pharmaceutical multipotent cells, and a key step for their wide application is to safely and efficiently regulate their activities. Various methods have been proposed to regulate the directional differentiation of MSCs during tissue regeneration, such as nanoparticles and metal ions. Herein, nanoscale zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (ZIF-8), a Zn-based metal-organic framework, is modified to direct MSCs toward an osteoblast lineage. Specifically, ZIF-8 nanoparticles are encapsulated using stem cell membranes (SCMs) to mimic natural molecules and improve the biocompatibility and targeted ability toward MSCs. SCM/ZIF-8 nanoparticles adjust the sustained release of Zn²⁺ , and promote their specific internalization toward MSCs. The internalized SCM/ZIF-8 nanoparticles show excellent biocompatibility, and increase MSCs' osteogenic potentials. Moreover, RNA-sequencing results elucidate that the activated cyclic adenosine 3,5-monophosphate (cAMP)-PKA-CREB signaling pathway can be dominant in accelerating osteogenic differentiation. In vivo, SCM/ZIF-8 nanoparticles greatly promote the formation of new bone tissue in the femoral bone defect detected by 3D micro-CT, hematoxylin and eosin staining, and Masson staining after 4 weeks. Overall, the SCM-derived ZIF-8 nanostructures achieve the superior targeting ability, biocompatibility, and enhanced osteogenesis, providing a constructive design for tissue repair.

Cell membrane-based biomimetic nanosystems for advanced drug delivery in cancer therapy: A comprehensive review

Natural types of cells display distinct characteristics with homotypic targeting and extended circulation in the blood, which are worthy of being explored as promising drug delivery systems (DDSs) for cancer therapy. To enhance their delivery efficiency, these cells can be combined with therapeutic agents and artificial nanocarriers to construct the next generation of DDSs in the form of biomimetic nanomedicines. In this review, we present the recent advances in cell membrane-based DDSs (CDDSs) and their applications for efficient cancer therapy. Different sources of cell membranes are discussed, mainly including red blood cells (RBC), leukocytes, cancer cells, stem cells and hybrid cells. Moreover, the extraction methods used for obtaining such cells and the mechanism contributing to the functional action of these biomimetic CDDSs are explained. Finally, a future perspective is proposed to highlight the limitations of CDDSs and the possible resolutions toward clinical transformation of currently developed biomimetic chemotherapies.

EGF Receptor-Targeting Cancer Therapy Using CD47-Engineered Cell-Derived Nanoplatforms

Introduction

Avoiding phagocytic cells and reducing off-target toxicity are the primary hurdles in the clinical application of nanoparticles containing therapeutics. For overcoming these errors, in this study, nanoparticles expressing CD47 proteins inhibiting the phagocytic attack of immune cells were prepared and then evaluated as an anti-cancer drug delivery vehicle.

Methods

The CD47+ cell-derived nanoparticles (CDNs) were prepared from the plasma membranes of human embryonic kidney cells transfected with a plasmid encoding CD47. And the doxorubicin (DOX) was loaded into the CDNs, and anti-EGF receptor (EGFR) antibodies were conjugated to the surface of the CDNs to target tumors overexpressing EGFR.

Results

The CD47+iCDNs-DOX was successfully synthesized having a stable structure. The CD47+CDNs were taken up less by RAW264.7 macrophages compared to control CDNs. Anti-EGFR CD47+CDNs (iCDNs) selectively recognized EGFR-positive MDA-MB-231 cells in vitro and accumulated more effectively in the target tumor xenografts in mice. Moreover, iCDNs encapsulating doxorubicin (iCDNs-DOX) exhibited the highest suppression of tumor growth in mice, presumably due to the enhanced DOX delivery to tumor tissues, compared to non-targeting CDNs or CD47- iCDNs.

Discussion

These results suggest that the clinical application of biocompatible cell membrane-derived nanocarriers could be facilitated by functionalization with macrophage-avoiding CD47 and tumor-targeting antibodies.

Stem cell membrane, stem cell-derived exosomes and hybrid stem cell camouflaged nanoparticles: A promising biomimetic nanoplatforms for cancer theranostics

Nanomedicine research has advanced dramatically in recent decades. Nonetheless, traditional nanomedicine faces significant obstacles such as the low concentration of the drug at target sites and accelerated removal of the drug from blood circulation. Various techniques of nanotechnology, including cell membrane coating, have been developed to address these challenges and to improve targeted distribution and redcue cell membrane-mediated immunogenicity. Recently, stem cell (SC) membranes, owing to their immunosuppressive and regenerative properties, have grabbed attention as attractive therapeutic carriers for targeting specific tissues or organs. Bioengineering strategies that combine synthetic nanoparticles (NPs) with SC membranes, because of their homing potential and tumor tropism, have recently received a lot of publicity. Several laboratory experiments and clinical trials have indicated that the benefits of SC-based technologies are mostly related to the effects of SC-derived exosomes (SC-Exos). Exosomes are known as nano-sized extracellular vehicles (EVs) that deliver particular bioactive molecules for cell-to-cell communication. In this regard, SC-derived exosome membranes have recently been employed to improve the therapeutic capability of engineered drug delivery vehicles. Most recently, for further enhancing NPs' functionality, a new coating approach has been offered that combines membranes from two separate cells. These hybrid membrane delivery vehicles have paved the way for the development of biocompatible, high-efficiency, biomimetic NPs with varying hybrid capabilities that can overcome the drawbacks of present NP-based treatment techniques. This review explores stem cell membranes, SC-Exos, and hybrid SC-camouflaged NPs preparation methods and their importance in cancer therapy.

Biomimetic metal-organic frameworks navigated biological bombs for efficient lung cancer therapy

The rising risk of lung cancer has become a primary global concern with high mortality and mobility. Presently, clinically used anticancer drugs show limited efficacy and significant side effects. A new generation of anticancer weapons is in great demand for lung cancer therapy. Herein, we have developed a novel style of biomimetic zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (ZIF-8) based on the merits of cell membranes derived from human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (hBMSCs), which can navigate biological bombs herpes simplex virus type I thymidine kinase-encoded plasmids (pHSVtk) and ganciclovir (GCV) to treat lung cancer. The biological bomb-loaded structure can kill transfected lung cancer cells and neighboring lung cancer cells through the "bystander effect," which induces efficient suppression of lung cancer both in vitro and in vivo. The biomimetic nanoparticles show an enhanced circulation lifetime and drug accumulation in the tumor tissues and significantly inhibit the tumors. We have developed a straightforward approach to deliver biological bombs with biomimetic metal-organic frameworks for efficient lung cancer therapy. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of such a strategy for lung cancer therapy.

Cell Membrane Camouflaged Metal Oxide-Black Phosphorus Biomimetic Nanocomplex Enhances Photo-chemo-dynamic Ferroptosis

Despite the availability of various treatment options, the inherent complexity of tumors significantly impairs therapeutic efficacy. Recently, combination treatments exhibited great anticancer potential due to low cross-resistance and good therapeutic additivity. Herein, a photoactive metal oxide-black phosphorus biomimetic nanocomplex (photophage) is developed for improving the antitumor combination of ferroptosis and photodynamic therapy (PDT). The photophage is composed of M1 macrophage membrane camouflaged MnO2 and Fe3O4 nanoparticles anchored black phosphorus nanosheets (BPNs), which together trigger a synergistic antitumor action. Fe3O4 acts as an iron source to activate Fenton-reaction-dependent ferroptosis, which can be further strengthened by BPN-mediated PDT. Besides the original antitumor effects, PDT also generates reactive oxygen species to enhance lipid peroxidation and glutathione depletion, which in turn reinforce ferroptosis and PDT efficacy. Importantly, MnO2 can in situ generate oxygen to relieve tumor hypoxia and consequently leverage cell behaviors to improve therapeutic responses. Particularly, M1 macrophage membrane modification endows the photophage with good tumor targeting capability and tumor penetration, which promote synergistic ferroptosis and PDT to destroy tumors while reducing systemic side effects, resulting in the prolonged survival of tumor-bearing mice. Therefore, we present a biomimetic nanoplatform for overcoming tumor barriers and advancing tumor-targeted treatment.

Bacterial membrane vesicles for vaccine applications

Vaccines have been highly successful in the management of many diseases. However, there are still numerous illnesses, both infectious and noncommunicable, for which there are no clinically approved vaccine formulations. While there are unique difficulties that must be overcome in the case of each specific disease, there are also a number of common challenges that have to be addressed for effective vaccine development. In recent years, bacterial membrane vesicles (BMVs) have received increased attention as a potent and versatile vaccine platform. BMVs are inherently immunostimulatory and are able to activate both innate and adaptive immune responses. Additionally, BMVs can be readily taken up and processed by immune cells due to their nanoscale size. Finally, BMVs can be modified in a variety of ways, including by genetic engineering, cargo loading, and nanoparticle coating, in order to create multifunctional platforms that can be leveraged against different diseases. Here, an overview of the interactions between BMVs and immune cells is provided, followed by discussion on the applications of BMV vaccine nanotechnology against bacterial infections, viral infections, and cancers.

Nanoparticle functionalization with genetically-engineered mesenchymal stem cell membrane for targeted drug delivery and enhanced cartilage protection

Articular cartilage encounters structural damage and tissue degeneration during osteoarthritis. It is of great significance to effectively deliver the therapeutic drug to the location of the cartilage lesion. Nanoparticle-based biomimetic systems provide an important solution for drug delivery, but they still lack the active targeting capability. Although some physical and chemical modifications could decrease non-specific interactions to some extent, a specific bio-interaction for active targeting is still required for many biomedical purposes. In this study, we proposed genetically-engineered mesenchymal stem cell membrane-derived nanoparticles with the active targeting capability. BMSCs were engineered for the high expression of CXCR4 to actively migrate to the injured locations, and cell membrane of the engineered BMSCs was isolated and camouflaged to fluorescent nanoparticles. The modified nanoparticles that loaded with the therapeutic drug were incubated with IL-1β-induced injured articular chondrocytes and cartilage. The results invisibly demonstrated that these engineered nanoparticles could increase both cellular uptake and penetration depth in the target cells and tissues under inflammatory microenvironments to protect the injured cartilage. Therefore, this genetically-modified nanoparticle functionalization strategy is expected to provide evidence for active targeting in the tissue injury treatment.

Numerical Optimization and Map-Based Manipulation With a Quadrupole Electromagnetic Actuated System

Electromagnetic actuation is a new technique for non-invasive manipulation, which provides wireless and controllable power source for magnetic micro-/nano-particles. This technique shows great potential in the field of precise mechanics, environment protection, and biomedical engineering. In this paper, a new quadrupole electromagnetic actuated system was constructed, which was composed of four electromagnetic coils, each coil being actuated by an independent DC power supplier. The magnetic field distribution in the workspace was obtained through finite element modeling and numerical simulation via COMSOL software, as well as the effect of the current flow through the coil in the field distribution. Moreover, parameters of the electromagnetic system were optimized through parametric modeling analysis. A magnetic field map was constructed for rapidly solving the desired driving current from the required magnetic flux density. Experiments were conducted to manipulate a micro-particle along the desired circular path. The proposed work provides theoretical references and numerical fundamentals for the control of magnetic particle in future.

Biomimetic Metal-Organic Frameworks as Targeted Vehicles to Enhance Osteogenesis

Although engineered nanoparticles loaded with specific growth factors are used to regulate differentiation of stem cells, the low loading efficiency and biocompatibility are still great challenges in tissue repair. A nature-inspired biomimetic delivery system with targeted functions is attractive for enhancing cell activity and controlling cell fate. Herein, a stem cell membrane (SCM)-wrapped dexamethasone (DEX)-loaded zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (ZIF-8) is constructed, which integrates the synthetic nanomaterials with native plasma membrane, to achieve efficient DEX delivery and DEX-mediated bone repair. The DEX@ZIF-8-SCM enables high DEX loading capacity, modulates the sustained release, and facilitates the specific uptake of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), owing to the porous property of ZIF-8 and the innate targeting capability of SCM. The endocytosed DEX@ZIF-8-SCM shows high cytocompatibility and greatly enhances the osteogenic differentiation of MSCs. Furthermore, RNA-sequencing data reveal that the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)-Akt signaling pathways are activated and dominantly involved in the accelerated osteogenesis. In the bone defect model, the administrated DEX@ZIF-8-SCM exerts excellent biocompatibility and effectively promotes bone regeneration. Overall, the SCM-derived biomimetic nanoplatform achieves targeted delivery, excellent biosafety, and enhanced osteogenic differentiation and bone repair, which provides a new and valid strategy for treating various tissue injuries.

Multifaceted Engineered Biomimetic Nanorobots Toward Cancer Management

The noteworthy beneficiary to date in nanotechnology is cancer management. Nanorobots are developed as the result of advancements in the nanostructure, robotics, healthcare, and computer systems. These devices at the nanoscale level are beneficial in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of various health conditions notably cancer. Though these structures have distinct potentialities, the usage of inorganic substances in their construction can affect their performance and can cause health issues in the body. To overcome this, naturally inspired substances are incorporated in the fabrication process of nanorobots termed biomimetic nanorobots that can overcome the immunological responses and reduce the side effects with effective functionalization. These biomimetic nanorobots can widen the opportunities in cancer imaging and therapy. Herein, an up-to-date review of biomimetic nanorobots along with their applications in cancer management is provided. Furthermore, the safety issues and future directions of biomimetic nanorobots to achieve clinical translation are also stated.

Nanodelivery of STING agonists against cancer and infectious diseases

Vaccination is a modality that has been widely explored for the treatment of various diseases. To increase the potency of vaccine formulations, immunostimulatory adjuvants have been regularly exploited, and the stimulator of interferon genes (STING) signaling pathway has recently emerged as a remarkable therapeutic target. STING is an endogenous protein on the endoplasmic reticulum that is a downstream sensor to cytosolic DNA. Upon activation, STING initiates a series of intracellular signaling cascades that ultimately generate potent type I interferon-mediated immune responses. Both natural and synthetic agonists have been used to stimulate the STING pathway, but they are usually administered locally due to low bioavailability, instability, and difficulty in bypassing the plasma membrane. With excellent pharmacokinetic profiles and versatility, nanocarriers can address many of these challenges and broaden the application of STING vaccines. Along these lines, STING-inducing nanovaccines are being developed to address a wide range of diseases. In this review, we discuss the recent advances in STING nanovaccines for anticancer, antiviral, and antibacterial applications.

Cell membrane coated-nanoparticles for cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy can effectively inhibit cancer progression by activating the autoimmune system, with low toxicity and high effectiveness. Some of cancer immunotherapy had positive effects on clinical cancer treatment. However, cancer immunotherapy is still restricted by cancer heterogeneity, immune cell disability, tumor immunosuppressive microenvironment and systemic immune toxicity. Cell membrane-coated nanoparticles (CMCNs) inherit abundant source cell-relevant functions, including “self” markers, cross-talking with the immune system, biological targeting, and homing to specific regions. These enable them to possess preferred characteristics, including better biological compatibility, weak immunogenicity, immune escaping, a prolonged circulation, and tumor targeting. Therefore, they are applied to precisely deliver drugs and promote the effect of cancer immunotherapy. In the review, we summarize the latest researches of biomimetic CMCNs for cancer immunotherapy, outline the existing specific cancer immune therapies, explore the unique functions and molecular mechanisms of various cell membrane-coated nanoparticles, and analyze the challenges which CMCNs face in clinical translation.

B16 Membrane-Coated Vesicles for Combined Photodynamic Therapy and Immunotherapy Shift Immune Microenvironment of Melanoma

Introduction

Coating of nanomedicine with cell membranes has attracted increasing attention as it can boost biocompatibility and improve the efficiency of treatment. Herein, we prepared innovative tumor cell-membrane-coated vesicles based on photodynamic therapy (PDT) drug indocyanine green (ICG) and explore the effect on melanoma in vitro and in vivo.

Methods

ICG was coated with B16 cell membranes (I@BM NVs) by sonication and extrusion, and the morphological characteristics of I@BM NVs were evaluated by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and NP-tracking analysis. Homologous cellular uptake was evaluated by flow cytometry (FCM) after staining by DiD dye. Cellular cytotoxicity was evaluated by cell counting kit-8 assay and the anti-tumor effect in vitro was assessed by FCM and western blotting. The anti-tumor effect in vivo was evaluated in a B16 xenograft model in mice. The tumor micro-environment was investigated by FCM and real-time PCR.

Results

The vesicles are stable and uniform in nature, and show strong homologous targeting in vivo and in vitro. The vesicles can generate reactive oxygen species to induce apoptosis of B16 cells under near-infrared irradiation. Furthermore, the I@BM NVs induce a significant anti-tumor response in vivo, and perform better with respect to both tumor growth inhibition and lifespan extension. Analysis of immunocytes in the tumor microenvironment showed significant reductions in numbers of myeloid-derived suppressor cells and tumor-associated M2 macrophages in mice in the I@BM NVs group. This was accompanied by significant increases in numbers of M1 macrophages and proliferative CD4⁺/CD8⁺ T cells. Expression levels of IFN-γ and IL-2 increased in the I@BM NVs group, while expression of TGF-β and IL-10 decreased.

Conclusion

The results show that the I@BM NVs are feasible drugs for the treatment of melanoma by inducing cell apoptosis under NIR and shifting the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment in vivo.

Homotypic Cancer Cell Membranes Camouflaged Nanoparticles for Targeting Drug Delivery and Enhanced Chemo-Photothermal Therapy of Glioma

Glioma is among the deadliest types of brain cancer, for which there currently is no effective treatment. Chemotherapy is mainstay in the treatment of glioma. However, drug tolerance, non-targeting, and poor blood–brain barrier penetrance severely inhibits the efficacy of chemotherapeutics. An improved treatment method is thus urgently needed. Herein, a multifunctional biomimetic nanoplatform was developed by encapsulating graphene quantum dots (GQDs) and doxorubicin (DOX) inside a homotypic cancer cell membrane (CCM) for targeted chemo-photothermal therapy of glioma. The GQDs with stable fluorescence and a superior light-to-heat conversion property were synthesized as photothermal therapeutic agents and co-encapsulated with DOX in CCM. The as-prepared nanoplatform exhibited a high DOX loading efficiency. The cell membrane coating protected drugs from leakage. Upon an external laser stimuli, the membrane could be destroyed, resulting in rapid DOX release. By taking advantage of the homologous targeting of the cancer cell membrane, the GQDs/DOX@CCM were found to actively target tumor cells, resulting in significantly enhanced cellular uptake. Moreover, a superior suppression efficiency of GQDs/DOX@CCM to cancer cells through chemo-photothermal treatment was also observed. The results suggest that this biomimetic nanoplatform holds potential for efficient targeting of drug delivery and synergistic chemo-photothermal therapy of glioma.

A Multifunctional Magnetic Red Blood Cell-Mimetic Micromotor for Drug Delivery and Image-Guided Therapy

Inspired by nature, innovative devices have been made to imitate the morphology and functions of natural red blood cells (RBCs). Here, we report a red blood cell-mimetic micromotor (RBCM), which was fabricated based on a layer-by-layer assembly method and precisely controlled by an external rotating uniform magnetic field. The main framework of the RBCM was constructed by the natural protein zein and finally camouflaged with the RBC membrane. Functional cargos such as Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles and the chemotherapeutic agent doxorubicin were loaded within the wall part of the RBCM for tumor therapy. Due to the massive loading of Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles, the RBCM can be precisely navigated by an external rotating uniform magnetic field and be used as a magnetic resonance imaging contrast agent for tumor imaging. The RBCM has been proven to be biocompatible, biodegradable, magnetically manipulated, and imageable, which are key requisites to take micromotors from the chalkboard to clinics. We expect the RBC-inspired biohybrid device to achieve wide potential applications.

Nanocarriers surface engineered with cell membranes for cancer targeted chemotherapy

Background

Inspired by nature, the biomimetic approach has been incorporated into drug nanocarriers for cancer targeted chemotherapy. The nanocarriers are cloaked in cell membranes, which enables them to incorporate the functions of natural cells.

Key scientific concepts of review

Nanocarriers surface engineered with cell membranes have emerged as a fascinating source of materials for cancer targeted chemotherapy. A distinctive characteristic of cell membrane-coated nanocarriers (CMCNs) is that they include carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids, in addition to being biocompatible. CMCNs are capable of interacting with the complicated biological milieu of the tumor because they contain the signaling networks and intrinsic functions of their parent cells. Numerous cell membranes have been investigated for the purpose of masking nanocarriers with membranes, and various tumor-targeting methods have been devised to improve cancer targeted chemotherapy. Moreover, the diverse structure of the membrane from different cell sources broadens the spectrum of CMCNs and offers an entirely new class of drug-delivery systems.

Aim of review

This review will describe the manufacturing processes for CMCNs and the therapeutic uses for different kinds of cell membrane-coated nanocarrier-based drug delivery systems, as well as addressing obstacles and future prospects.

Graphical Abstract

Stem Cell Mimicking Nanoencapsulation for Targeting Arthritis

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are considered a promising regenerative therapy due to their ability to migrate toward damaged tissues. The homing ability of MSCs is unique compared with that of non-migrating cells and MSCs are considered promising therapeutic vectors for targeting major cells in many pathophysiological sites. MSCs have many advantages in the treatment of malignant diseases, particularly rheumatoid arthritis (RA). RA is a representative autoimmune disease that primarily affects joints, and secreted chemokines in the joints are well recognized by MSCs following their migration to the joints. Furthermore, MSCs can regulate the inflammatory process and repair damaged cells in the joints. However, the functionality and migration ability of MSCs injected in vivo still show insufficient. The targeting ability and migration efficiency of MSCs can be enhanced by genetic engineering or modification, eg, overexpressing chemokine receptors or migration-related genes, thus maximizing their therapeutic effect. However, there are concerns about genetic changes due to the increased probability of oncogenesis resulting from genome integration of the viral vector, and thus, clinical application is limited. Furthermore, it is suspected that administering MSCs can promote tumor growth and metastasis in xenograft and orthotopic models. For this reason, MSC mimicking nanoencapsulations are an alternative strategy that does not involve using MSCs or bioengineered MSCs. MSC mimicking nanoencapsulations consist of MSC membrane-coated nanoparticles, MSC-derived exosomes and artificial ectosomes, and MSC membrane-fused liposomes with natural or genetically engineered MSC membranes. MSC mimicking nanoencapsulations not only retain the targeting ability of MSCs but also have many advantages in terms of targeted drug delivery. Specifically, MSC mimicking nanoencapsulations are capable of encapsulating drugs with various components, including chemotherapeutic agents, nucleic acids, and proteins. Furthermore, there are fewer concerns over safety issues on MSC mimicking nanoencapsulations associated with mutagenesis even when using genetically engineered MSCs, because MSC mimicking nanoencapsulations use only the membrane fraction of MSCs. Genetic engineering is a promising route in clinical settings, where nano-encapsulated technology strategies are combined. In this review, the mechanism underlying MSC homing and the advantages of MSC mimicking nanoencapsulations are discussed. In addition, genetic engineering of MSCs and MSC mimicking nanoencapsulation is described as a promising strategy for the treatment of immune-related diseases.

Cell membrane-engineered nanoparticles for cancer therapy

Cell-membrane-coated nanotechnology involves dressing the synthetic nanoparticles (NPs) with membrane derived from different types of cells to endow the NPs with the properties of a specific cell type and to further...

An Up-to-Date Review of Natural Nanoparticles for Cancer Management

Cancer represents one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide, imposing an urgent need to develop more efficient treatment alternatives. In this respect, much attention has been drawn from conventional cancer treatments to more modern approaches, such as the use of nanotechnology. Extensive research has been done for designing innovative nanoparticles able to specifically target tumor cells and ensure the controlled release of anticancer agents. To avoid the potential toxicity of synthetic materials, natural nanoparticles started to attract increasing scientific interest. In this context, this paper aims to review the most important natural nanoparticles used as active ingredients (e.g., polyphenols, polysaccharides, proteins, and sterol-like compounds) or as carriers (e.g., proteins, polysaccharides, viral nanoparticles, and exosomes) of various anticancer moieties, focusing on their recent applications in treating diverse malignancies.