Improved Photocatalytic Activity of Copper Heterostructure Composites (Cu–Cu2O–CuO/AC) Prepared by Simple Carbothermal Reduction

Cu–Cu2O–CuO/activated carbon heterostructure composites with visible-light activity have been successfully synthesized by a simple carbothermal reduction procedure using CuSO4 as a single precursor. The resultant samples were characterized by X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy measurements. The results showed that the Cu–Cu2O–CuO composites with size less than 10 nm dispersed well on the surface of activated carbon. Activated carbon played both a reducing agent and support role in the formation of Cu–Cu2O–CuO/activated carbon heterostructure composites. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analysis suggests that the outside of the nanoparticles is CuO and the inside of the nanoparticles is Cu metal and Cu2O. Moreover, the composition of Cu–Cu2O–CuO/activated carbon composites can be tailored by varying the Cu loading, heat-treatment temperature, and heat-treatment time. The photocatalytic activities of the catalysts were investigated by degrading reactive brilliant blue KN-R under visible-light irradiation. The Cu–Cu2O–CuO/activated carbon heterostructure composites showed excellent photocatalytic activity compared with other catalysts (pure CuO, Cu2O, Cu2O/activated carbon, CuO/activated carbon, and Cu2O–CuO/activated carbon), which is ascribed to synergistic action between the activated carbon support and photoactive copper species, and the presence of interfacial structures such as a Cu2O/CuO heterostructure, Cu/Cu2O (or CuO) Schottky barrier, and Cu2O/Cu/CuO ohmic heterojunction.

Enhanced water splitting by Fe2O3-TiO2-FTO photoanode with modified energy band structure

The effect of TiO₂ layer applied to the conventional Fe₂O₃/FTO photoanode to improve the photoelectrochemical performance was assessed from the viewpoint of the microstructure and energy band structure. Regardless of the location of the TiO₂ layer in the photoanodes, that is, Fe₂O₃/TiO₂/FTO or TiO₂/Fe₂O₃/FTO, high performance was obtained when α-Fe₂O₃ and H-TiNT/anatase-TiO₂ phases existed in the constituent Fe₂O₃ and TiO₂ layers after optimized heat treatments. The presence of the Fe₂O₃ nanoparticles with high uniformity in the each layer of the Fe₂O₃/TiO₂/FTO photoanode achieved by a simple dipping process seemed to positively affect the performance improvement by modifying the energy band structure to a more favorable one for efficient electrons transfer. Our current study suggests that the application of the TiO₂ interlayer, together with α-Fe₂O₃ nanoparticles present in the each constituent layers, could significantly contribute to the performance improvement of the conventional Fe₂O₃ photoanode.

Combining activated carbon adsorption with heterogeneous photocatalytic oxidation: lack of synergy for biologically treated greywater and tetraethylene glycol dimethyl ether

The aim of the study was to evaluate whether the addition of activated carbon in the photocatalytic oxidation of biologically pretreated greywater and of a polar aliphatic compound gives synergy, as previously demonstrated with phenol. Photocatalytic oxidation kinetics were recorded with fivefold concentrated biologically pretreated greywater and with aqueous tetraethylene glycol dimethyl ether solutions using a UV lamp and the photocatalyst TiO2 P25 in the presence and the absence of powdered activated carbon. The synergy factor, SF, was quantified as the ratio of photocatalytic oxidation rate constant in the presence of powdered activated carbon to the rate constant without activated carbon. No synergy was observed for the greywater concentrate (SF approximately 1). For the aliphatic compound, tetraethylene glycol dimethyl ether, addition of activated carbon actually had an inhibiting effect on photocatalysis (SF < 1), while synergy was confirmed in reference experiments using aqueous phenol solutions. The absence of synergy for the greywater concentrate can be explained by low adsorbability of its organic constituents by activated carbon. Inhibition of the photocatalytic oxidation of tetraethylene glycol dimethyl ether by addition of powdered activated carbon was attributed to shading of the photocatalyst by the activated carbon particles. It was assumed that synergy in the hybrid process was limited to aromatic organics. Regardless of the lack of synergy in the case of biologically pretreated greywater, the addition of powdered activated carbon is advantageous since, due to additional adsorptive removal of organics, photocatalytic oxidation resulted in a 60% lower organic concentration when activated carbon was present after the same UV irradiation time.

A survey of photocatalytic materials for environmental remediation

Heterogeneous photocatalysis is an advanced oxidation process which has been the subject of a huge amount of studies related to air cleaning and water purification. All these processes have been carried out mainly by using TiO(2)-based materials as the photocatalysts and ca. 75% of the articles published in the last 3 years is related to them. This review illustrates the efforts in the search of alternative photocatalysts that are not based on TiO(2), with some exceptions concerning particularly innovative modifications as nanoassembled TiO(2) or TiO(2) composites with active carbon, graphite and fullerene. Papers reporting preparation, characterization and testing of binary, ternary and quaternary compounds, have been reviewed. Despite many of these photocatalysts being effective for the photodecomposition of many pollutants, most of them do not allow a complete mineralization of the starting compounds, differently from TiO(2).

Photo-catalyzed degradation of hazardous dye methyl orange by use of a composite catalyst consisting of multi-walled carbon nanotubes and titanium dioxide

The high rate of electron/hole pair recombination reduces the quantum yield of the processes with TiO(2) and represents its major drawback. Adding a co-adsorbent increases the photocatalytic efficiency of TiO(2). In order to hybridize the photocatalytic activity of TiO(2) with the adsorptivity of carbon nanotube, a composite of multi-walled carbon nanotubes and titanium dioxide (MWCNT/TiO(2)) has been synthesized. The composite was characterized by means of X-ray diffraction (XRD), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), Fourier transform infrared absorption spectroscopy (FTIR), and diffuse reflectance UV-vis spectroscopy. The catalytic activity of this composite material was investigated by application of the composite for the degradation of methyl orange. It was observed that the composite exhibits enhanced photocatalytic activity compared with TiO(2). The enhancement in photocatalytic performance of the MWCNT/TiO(2) composite is explained in terms of recombination of photogenerated electron-hole pairs. In addition, MWCNT acts as a dispersing agent preventing TiO(2) from agglomerating activity during the catalytic process, providing a high catalytically active surface area. This work adds to the global discussion of how CNTs can enhance the efficiency of catalysts.

Synthesis and characterization of activated carbon from sawdust of Algarroba wood. 1. Physical activation and pyrolysis

Synthesis of activated carbon (AC) from sawdust of Algarroba wood was performed as a function of the temperature under CO(2) and N(2) flow. Characterization was performed by adsorption-desorption N(2) isotherms, FTIR, XPS and SEM. Functional acid or basic groups were detected on the surface of AC. For both studied atmospheres, the maximum value of surface area was obtained at 800°C. A monotonic correlation between temperature and mean pore diameter was detected being the higher the activation temperature the lower the mean pore width of AC. Ultramicroporous AC with pore diameters of 6.7 Å and 5.3 Å were obtained at 900°C under CO(2) and N(2) flow, respectively. It can be concluded that pore diameter and the functionalization of the AC surface can be controlled easily controlling the temperature of activation, independently of the gas atmosphere. The present results suggest that waste biomass is a potential source for the synthesis of carbon materials with potential novel applications.

THE CHANGES IN SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS AND PHOTOCATALYTIC ACTIVITY OF TiO2 LOADED ON ACTIVATED CARBON FIBERS AFTER UV IRRADIATION

TiO 2 loaded on activated carbon fibers (ACF) was performed by using epoxy resin as the precursor of the link between them, followed by calcination at 460°C in N 2 atmosphere, and the changes in surface characteristics and photocatalytic activity after UV irradiation were investigated in detail. After UV irradiation, the pore structure and surface morphology of TiO 2-loaded ACF ( TiO 2/ ACF ) kept unchanged. The UV-Vis spectrum shifted toward shorter wavelengths than that before UV irradiation. XPS results showed that the hydroxyl and C – O groups increased, resulting in an increase in hydrophilicity of TiO 2/ ACF . All these changes caused the increased photocatalytic activity for methylene blue, and the activity was maintained without any decrease when it was used repeatedly. Even at the sixth cycle, its amount of MB removal was still slightly higher than suspended P25.

Improved photocatalytic degradation rates of phenol achieved using novel porous ZrO2-doped TiO2 nanoparticulate powders

This paper studies the photocatalytic degradation of phenol using zirconia-doped TiO(2) nanoparticles. ZrO(2) was chosen due to its promising results during preliminary studies. Particles smaller than 10nm were synthesised and doped with quantities of ZrO(2) ranging from 0.5 to 4% (molar metal content). Particles were calcined at different temperatures to alter the TiO(2) structure, from anatase to rutile, in order to provide an ideal ratio of the two phases. Powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) analysis was used to examine the transformation between anatase and rutile. Degradation of phenol was carried out using a 40 W UV bulb at 365 nm and results were measured by UV-vis spectrometry. TEM images were obtained and show the particles exhibit a highly ordered structure. TiO(2) doped with 1% ZrO(2) (molar metal content) calcined at 700 °C proved to be the most efficient catalyst. This is due to an ideal anatase:rutlie ratio of 80:20, a large surface area and the existence of stable electron-hole pairs. ZrO(2) doping above the optimum loading acted as an electron-hole recombination centre for electron-hole pairs and reduced photocatalytic degradation. Synthesised photocatalysts compared favourably to the commercially available photocatalyst P25. The materials also demonstrated the ability to be recycled with similar results to those achieved on fresh material after 5 uses.

Carbon foams as catalyst supports for phenol photodegradation

A carbon foam using coal tar pitch as precursor was prepared and investigated as support for titanium oxide for the photocatalytic degradation of phenol. The performance of the carbon foam/titania composite was compared to those of unsupported titania and other activated carbon composites from the literature. The photodegradation rate of phenol over the catalysts under UV illumination was fitted to the Langmuir-Hinshelwood model; data showed that the apparent rate constant of the carbon foam supported titania was almost three times larger than that of bare titania, and comparable to that of other carbon supported composites. Considering the low porous features of the carbon foam, this suggests that large surface area supports are not essential to achieve high degradation rates and efficiencies. Moreover, when titania is supported on the carbon foam large amounts of catechol are detected in solution after UV irradiation, indicating a better degradation efficiency.

Preparation, characterization, photocatalytic properties of titania hollow sphere doped with cerium

Ce-doped titania hollow spheres were prepared using carbon spheres as template and Ce-doped titania nanoparticles as building blocks. The Ce-doped titania nanoparticles were synthesized at low temperature. The prepared hollow spheres were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscope (TEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and UV-vis diffuse reflectance spectrum (DRS). The effect of Ce content on the physical structure and photocatalytic properties of doped titania hollow sphere samples was investigated. Results showed that there was an optimal Ce-doped content (4%) for the photocatalytic activity of X-3B degradation. The apparent rate constant of the best one was almost 31 times as that of P25 titania. The mechanism of photocatalytic degradation of dyes under visible light irradiation was also discussed.

Composite Titanium Dioxide Photocatalysts and the "Adsorb & Shuttle" Approach: A Review

Composite photocatalysts, made of titanium dioxide and high surface area adsorbents become more and more common. To large extent, this is due to the phenomenon of "Adsorb & Shuttle", i.e. the adsorption of molecules on the inert, adsorptive, domains, followed by diffusion to the photocatalytic domains. This manuscript reviews the published literature on composite photocatalysts, and analyzes the various aspects affecting their performance. One of these aspects is the enhancement of the degradation rate of pollutants, which is governed by a variety of factors including surface area, adsorpticity, strength of interaction, the loading of photocatalyst in the composite, and operation parameters (such as temperature, humidity and pH). Other aspects include a reduction in the emission of intermediate products and a different distribution of end-products. Care was taken to describe the possibility of using the inert adsorptive domains to enhance the degradation of specific species, as well as to discuss the effect of composite photocatalysts on deactivation phenomena, and the interrelation between "Adsorb & Shuttle" phenomena and out- diffusion of oxidizing species from the TiO2 domains, known as the "remote degradation" phenomenon.

Oxidative degradation of chlorophenol derivatives promoted by microwaves or power ultrasound: a mechanism investigation

BACKGROUND, AIM, AND SCOPE

Phenols are the most common pollutants in industrial wastewaters (particularly from oil refineries, resin manufacture, and coal processing). In the last two decades, it has become common knowledge that they can be effectively destroyed by nonconventional techniques such as power ultrasound (US) and/or microwave (MW) irradiation. Both techniques may strongly promote advanced oxidation processes (AOPs). The present study aimed to shed light on the effect and mechanism of US- and MW-promoted oxidative degradation of chlorophenols; 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), a pesticide widespread in the environment, was chosen as the model compound.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

2,4-D degradation by AOPs was carried out either under US (20 and 300 kHz) in aqueous solutions (with and without the addition of Fenton reagent) or solvent-free under MW with sodium percarbonate (SPC). All these reactions were monitored by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis and compared with the classical Fenton reaction in water under magnetic stirring. The same set of treatments was also applied to 2,4-dichlorophenol (2,4-DCP) and phenol, the first two products that occur a step down in the degradation sequence. Fenton and Fenton-like reagents were employed at the lowest active concentration.

RESULTS

The effects of US and MW irradiation were investigated and compared with those of conventional treatments. Detailed mechanisms of Fenton-type reactions were suggested for 2,4-D, 2,4-DCP, and phenol, underlining the principal degradation products identified. MW-promoted degradation under solvent-free conditions with solid Fenton-like reagents (viz. SPC) is extremely efficient and mainly follows pyrolytic pathways. Power US strongly accelerates the degradation of 2,4-D in water through a rapid generation of highly reactive radicals; it does not lead to the formation of more toxic dimers.

DISCUSSION

We show that US and MW enhance the oxidative degradation of 2,4-D and that a considerable saving of oxidants and cutting down of reaction times is thereby achieved. The results support the interpretation of previously published data and improve the understanding of the factors of direct degradation along different pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

Oxidative pathways for 2,4-D, 2,4-DCP, and phenol were proposed by a careful monitoring of the reactions and detection of intermediates by GC-MS.

RECOMMENDATIONS AND PERSPECTIVES

The understanding of the factors that affect chlorophenols degradation along different pathways may facilitate the optimization of the treatment. Type of energy source (US or MW), power, and frequency to be applied could be designed in function of the operative scenario (amount of pollutant in soil, water, or oils).

Photo degradation of methyl orange by attapulgite-SnO2-TiO2 nanocomposites

Photocatalytic removal of methyl orange under ultraviolet radiation has been studied using attapulgite (ATT) composites, which were synthesized by depositing SnO(2)-TiO(2) hybrid oxides on the surface of ATT to form a composite photocatalyst (denoted ATT-SnO(2)-TiO(2)) using an in situ sol-gel technique. Results showed that SnO(2)-TiO(2) nanocomposite particles with average size of about 10nm were loaded successfully on to the surface of ATT fibers and were widely dispersed. Correspondingly, the photocatalytic activity of ATT was improved significantly by loading SnO(2)-TiO(2). The photoactivity of the composite photocatalyst decreased in the sequence ATT-SnO(2)-TiO(2)>ATT-SnO(2)>ATT-TiO(2)>ATT. In order to achieve the best photocatalyst, the molar ratio of SnO(2) and TiO(2) in the ATT-SnO(2)-TiO(2) composites was adjusted to give a series with proportions r=n(Ti)/(n(Ti)+n(Sn))=0.0, 0.25, 0.33, 0.50, 0.67, 0.75, 0.80, 0.82, 0.86, 1.0. Results indicated that the proportion of SnO(2) and TiO(2) had a critical effect on the photocatalytic activity, which increased as the content of TiO(2) increased to r<or=0.82 and decreased when r>0.82. The highest degradation rate of methyl orange was 99% within 30 min obtained by using ATT-SnO(2)-TiO(2) with r=0.82. The repeated use of the composite photocatalyst was also confirmed.

Degradation of methyl orange by composite photocatalysts nano-TiO2 immobilized on activated carbons of different porosities

Composite photocatalysts TiO(2) immobilized on granular activated carbons with different porosities (TiO(2)/AC) were prepared by a novel approach, dip-hydrothermal method using peroxotitanate as precursor. The TiO(2)/AC composites were characterized by X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and the nitrogen absorption. Their photocatalytic activity was evaluated by degradation of methyl orange (MO). The results showed that nano-TiO(2) particles of anatase type were well deposited on the activated carbon surface. The porosity of activated carbon had significant influence on the adsorption, the amount of TiO(2) deposited on the external surface of AC and the activity of composite photocatalysts. The composite TiO(2)/AC made from proper mesoporosity AC exhibited higher catalytic activity than the mixture of powdered TiO(2) with AC. Furthermore, the mechanism of synergistic effect of AC adsorption and TiO(2) photocatalysis was discussed.

Inactivated properties of activated carbon-supported TiO2 nanoparticles for bacteria and kinetic study

The activated carbon-supported TiO2 nanoparticles (TiO2/AC) were prepared by a properly controlled sol-gel method. The effects of activated carbons (AC) support on inactivated properties of TiO2 nanoparticles were evaluated by photocatalytic inactivation experiments of Escherichia coli. The key factors affecting the inactivation efficiency were investigated, including electric power of lamp, temperature, and pH values. The results show that the TiO2/AC composites have high inactivation properties of E. coli in comparison with pure TiO2 powder. The kinetics of photocatalytic inactivation of E. coli was found to follow a pseudo-first order rate law for TiO2/AC composites, and kinetic behavior could be described in terms of a modified Langmuir-Hinshelwood model. The values of the adsorption equilibrium constants for the bacteria, K(c), and for the rate constants, k(r), were certainly depended on TiO2 content. At 47 wt.% TiO2 coatings with the highest rate constant, the K(c) and k(r) were 1.17 x 10(-8) L/cfu and 1.43 x 10(6) cfu/(L x min), respectively. The variety of parameters shows significant effects on inactivation rate. The outer layer of bacteria decomposed first resulting in inactivation of cell, and with further illumination, the cells nearly decomposed.