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Rowe HC, Kliebenstein DJ. Elevated genetic variation within virulence-associated Botrytis cinerea polygalacturonase loci. MOLECULAR PLANT-MICROBE INTERACTIONS : MPMI 2007; 20:1126-37. [PMID: 17849715 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi-20-9-1126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Botrytis cinerea, or gray mold, is a necrotrophic fungal pathogen of hundreds of plant species. The genetic diversity of B. cinerea may contribute to its broad host range; however, the level and structure of genetic variation at pathogenesis-associated loci has not been described. B. cinerea possesses six distinct cell-wall-degrading polygalacturonases (PGs), enzymes of demonstrated importance to pathogenesis and interaction with host plant defenses. Sequencing a collection of 34 B. cinerea isolates at three PG-encoding loci, BcPG1, BcPG2, and BcPG3, revealed limited evidence of host-mediated genetic subdivision within loci, yet suggested differences in the action of evolutionary forces among loci. BcPG1 and BcPG2 are highly polymorphic, particularly when compared with previously published data from nonpathogenicity loci, whereas BcPG3 is relatively conserved. Sequence variation at BcPG1 and BcPG2 did not appear to be associated with virulence on Arabidopsis leaves; however, BcPG2 variation showed a statistically significant association with growth rate on pectin. Rather than providing evidence for host-mediated genetic subdivision at individual PG loci, our data support specialization among PGs and the potential diversification of PGs interacting directly with host defenses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather C Rowe
- Department of Plant Sciences, Mail Stop 3, University of California, One Shields Ave, Davis 95616, USA
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52
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Rui O, Hahn M. The Botrytis cinerea hexokinase, Hxk1, but not the glucokinase, Glk1, is required for normal growth and sugar metabolism, and for pathogenicity on fruits. Microbiology (Reading) 2007; 153:2791-2802. [PMID: 17660443 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.2007/006338-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Hexose kinases play a central role in the initiation of sugar metabolism of living organisms and have also been implicated in carbon catabolite repression in yeasts and plants. In this study, the genes encoding glucokinase (Glk1) and hexokinase (Hxk1) from the plant-pathogenic ascomycete Botrytis cinerea were isolated and functionally characterized. Glk1-deficient mutants were indistinguishable from the wild-type in all growth parameters tested. In contrast, Deltahxk1 mutants lacking Hxk1 showed a pleiotropic growth defect. On artificial media, vegetative growth was retarded, and conidia formation strongly reduced. No or only marginal growth of Deltahxk1 mutants was observed when fructose, galactose, sucrose or sorbitol were used as carbon sources, and fructose inhibited growth of the mutant in the presence of other carbon sources. B. cinerea mutants containing hxk1 alleles with point mutations leading to enzymically inactive enzymes showed phenotypes similar to the Deltahxk1 disruption mutant, indicating that loss of hexose phosphorylation activity of Hxk1 is solely responsible for the pleiotropic growth defect. Virulence of the Deltahxk1 mutants was dependent on the plant tissue: on leaves, lesion formation was only slightly retarded compared to the wild-type, whereas only small lesions were formed on apples, strawberries and tomatoes. The low virulence of Deltahxk1 mutants on fruits was correlated with their high contents of sugars, in particular fructose. Heterologous expression of Hxk1 and Glk1 in yeast allowed their enzymic characterization, revealing kinetic properties similar to other fungal hexokinases and glucokinases. Both Deltaglk1 and Deltahxk1 mutants showed normal glucose repression of secreted lipase 1 activity, indicating that, in contrast to yeast, B. cinerea hexose kinases are not involved in carbon catabolite repression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Rui
- Phytopathology, Department of Biology, University of Kaiserslautern, 67653 Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Matthias Hahn
- Phytopathology, Department of Biology, University of Kaiserslautern, 67653 Kaiserslautern, Germany
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53
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Bazzolli DS, Ribon AOB, de Queiroz MV, de Araújo EF. Molecular characterization and expression profile of pectin-lyase-encoding genes from Penicillium griseoroseum. Can J Microbiol 2007; 52:1070-7. [PMID: 17215898 DOI: 10.1139/w06-070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Penicillium griseoroseum has been studied by our group because of its good pectinase production. Attempts have been done to clone pectinolytic genes, aiming to obtain pectinase-overproducing strains for industrial purposes. Here, two genes coding for pectin lyase were isolated from the P. griseoroseum genome. The plg1 gene has an open reading frame of 1341 bp coding for a putative protein of 374 amino acids with a calculated molecular mass of 40.1 kDa. The plg2 gene is characterized by an open reading frame of 1400 nucleotides and codes for a polypeptide of 383 amino acids. The plg1 gene 5'-flanking region contains putative binding sites for the transcription factors involved in regulation by ambient pH and catabolite repression. The primary structure of Plg1 and Plg2 proteins showed a relatively high homology (varying between 32.4% and 74.8%) to fungal pectin lyases characterized to date. Southern blotting analysis revealed that both genes are present as single copies in the fungus genome. Expression studies revealed a differing pattern of gene expression of plg1 and plg2 when mycelium was cultivated on medium containing different pectic components. Citric pectin followed by apple pectin were the carbon sources that best induced plg1 expression, and transcripts were detected from 24 to 76 h. The expression of the plg2 gene was monitored by reverse transcriptase - polymerase chain reaction, since Northern analysis failed to detect hybridization signals. The differential expression of these genes may provide means for the fungus to adapt to various growth conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denise S Bazzolli
- Departamento de Microbiologia/BIOAGRO, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, Brazil
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54
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Prusky D, Lichter A. Activation of quiescent infections by postharvest pathogens during transition from the biotrophic to the necrotrophic stage. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2007; 268:1-8. [PMID: 17227463 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.2006.00603.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Insidious fungal infections of postharvest pathogens remain quiescent, as biotrophs, during fruit growth and harvest, but activate their development and transform to necrotrophs, which elicit decay symptoms, during ripening and senescence. Exposure of unripe hosts to pathogens quickly initiates defensive signal-transduction cascades that limit fungal growth and development, but exposure to the same pathogens during ripening and storage activates a substantially different signaling cascade that facilitates fungal colonization. The first step in the activation of quiescent infections may involve the fungal capability to cope with plant defense responses by detoxification and efflux transport of antifungals, or by overcoming the suppression of pathogenicity factors. The second step toward the activation of quiescent infections is actively modulated by the pathogen in response to a host signal(s), and includes alkalization or ammonification of the host tissue, which sensitizes the host and activates the transcription and secretion of fungal-degradative enzymes that promote maceration of the host tissue. Feedback signals involving, for example, nitrogen and sugar further enhance pH changes, synthesis of hydrolytic enzymes and saprophytic development in the macerated tissue. This review describes the coordinated series of mechanisms that regulate the activation of quiescent infections in various fruit/vegetable-pathogen interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dov Prusky
- Department of Postharvest Science of Fresh Produce, Agricultural Research Organization, Bet Dagan, Israel.
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55
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Fernández-Acero FJ, Jorge I, Calvo E, Vallejo I, Carbú M, Camafeita E, Garrido C, López JA, Jorrin J, Cantoral JM. Proteomic analysis of phytopathogenic fungus Botrytis cinerea as a potential tool for identifying pathogenicity factors, therapeutic targets and for basic research. Arch Microbiol 2006; 187:207-15. [PMID: 17124592 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-006-0188-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2006] [Revised: 08/15/2006] [Accepted: 10/25/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Botrytis cinerea is a phytopathogenic fungus causing disease in a substantial number of economically important crops. In an attempt to identify putative fungal virulence factors, the two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE) protein profile from two B. cinerea strains differing in virulence and toxin production were compared. Protein extracts from fungal mycelium obtained by tissue homogenization were analyzed. The mycelial 2-DE protein profile revealed the existence of qualitative and quantitative differences between the analyzed strains. The lack of genomic data from B. cinerea required the use of peptide fragmentation data from MALDI-TOF/TOF and ESI ion trap for protein identification, resulting in the identification of 27 protein spots. A significant number of spots were identified as malate dehydrogenase (MDH) and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH). The different expression patterns revealed by some of the identified proteins could be ascribed to differences in virulence between strains. Our results indicate that proteomic analysis are becoming an important tool to be used as a starting point for identifying new pathogenicity factors, therapeutic targets and for basic research on this plant pathogen in the postgenomic era.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Javier Fernández-Acero
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Marine and Environmental Sciences Faculty, University of Cádiz, Pol. Río San Pedro, 11510 Puerto Real, Cádiz, Spain
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56
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Juge N. Plant protein inhibitors of cell wall degrading enzymes. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2006; 11:359-67. [PMID: 16774842 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2006.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2006] [Revised: 05/04/2006] [Accepted: 05/25/2006] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Plant cell walls, which consist mainly of polysaccharides (i.e. cellulose, hemicelluloses and pectins), play an important role in defending plants against pathogens. Most phytopathogenic microorganisms secrete an array of cell wall degrading enzymes (CWDEs) capable of depolymerizing the polysaccharides in the plant host wall. In response, plants have evolved a diverse battery of defence responses including protein inhibitors of these enzymes. These include inhibitors of pectin degrading enzymes such as polygalacturonases, pectinmethyl esterases and pectin lyases, and hemicellulose degrading enzymes such as endoxylanases and xyloglucan endoglucanases. The discovery of these plant inhibitors and the recent resolution of their three-dimensional structures, free or in complex with their target enzymes, provide new lines of evidence regarding their function and evolution in plant-pathogen interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Juge
- Institut Méditerranéen de Recherche en Nutrition, Faculté des Sciences de St Jérôme, F-13397 Marseilles Cedex 20, France.
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57
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Niture SK, Kumar AR, Parab PB, Pant A. Inactivation of polygalacturonase and pectate lyase produced by pH tolerant fungus Fusarium moniliforme NCIM 1276 in a liquid medium and in the host tissue. Microbiol Res 2006; 163:51-62. [PMID: 16697174 DOI: 10.1016/j.micres.2006.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2006] [Revised: 02/28/2006] [Accepted: 03/21/2006] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Fusarium moniliforme NCIM 1276 produced pH dependent an extracellular polygalacturonase (PG) and pectate lyase (PL) at pH 5 and pH 8, respectively. In the extracellular medium about 20.3% PG and 54% of PL protein concentrations were present in the active state at pH 5 and pH 8, respectively, whereas in intracellularly, more than 86% of both protein contents remained in the active state at all pH tested. We found two possible reasons, end-product inhibition and effect of environmental pH on conformation of the proteins after their release into the medium. Additionally, in infected tomato and cauliflower plants, the fungus secreted similar proteins which were located near to the epidermal and vascular regions of the hypocotyls. In infected tissues, between 26.9% and to 41.5% of PG and only 0.84%-13.4% of PL protein concentrations were present in active state. Thus, the medium/cell sap pH and concentrations of substrate/end products seem to play an important role in fungal invasion during plant pathogenesis are discussed with current literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suryakant K Niture
- Division of Biochemical Sciences, National Chemical Laboratory, Pune, India.
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58
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van Kan JAL. Licensed to kill: the lifestyle of a necrotrophic plant pathogen. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2006; 11:247-53. [PMID: 16616579 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2006.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 417] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2005] [Revised: 02/10/2006] [Accepted: 03/24/2006] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Necrotrophic plant pathogens have received an increasing amount of attention over the past decade. Initially considered to invade their hosts in a rather unsophisticated manner, necrotrophs are now known to use subtle mechanisms to subdue host plants. The gray mould pathogen Botrytis cinerea is one of the most comprehensively studied necrotrophic fungal plant pathogens. The genome sequences of two strains have been determined. Targeted mutagenesis studies are unraveling the roles played in the infection process by a variety of B. cinerea genes that are required for penetration, host cell killing, plant tissue decomposition or signaling. Our increasing understanding of the tools used by a necrotrophic fungal pathogen to invade plants will be instrumental to designing rational strategies for disease control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan A L van Kan
- Wageningen University, Laboratory of Phytopathology, Binnenhaven 5, 6709 PD Wageningen, The Netherlands.
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59
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Role of glucose in production and repression of polygalacturonase and pectate lyase from phytopathogenic fungus Fusarium moniliforme NCIM 1276. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2006. [DOI: 10.1007/s11274-006-9119-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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60
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Sicilia F, Fernandez-Recio J, Caprari C, De Lorenzo G, Tsernoglou D, Cervone F, Federici L. The polygalacturonase-inhibiting protein PGIP2 of Phaseolus vulgaris has evolved a mixed mode of inhibition of endopolygalacturonase PG1 of Botrytis cinerea. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2005; 139:1380-8. [PMID: 16244152 PMCID: PMC1283773 DOI: 10.1104/pp.105.067546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Botrytis cinerea is a phytopathogenic fungus that causes gray mold in >1,000 plant species. During infection, it secretes several endopolygalacturonases (PGs) to degrade cell wall pectin, and among them, BcPG1 is constitutively expressed and is an important virulence factor. To counteract the action of PGs, plants express polygalacturonase-inhibiting proteins (PGIPs) that have been shown to inhibit a variety of PGs with different inhibition kinetics, both competitive and noncompetitive. The PG-PGIP interaction promotes the accumulation of oligogalacturonides, fragments of the plant cell wall that are general elicitors of plant defense responses. Here, we characterize the enzymatic activity of BcPG1 and investigate its interaction with PGIP isoform 2 from Phaseolus vulgaris (PvPGIP2) by means of inhibition assays, homology modeling, and molecular docking simulations. Our results indicate a mixed mode of inhibition. This is compatible with a model for the interaction where PvPGIP2 binds the N-terminal portion of BcPG1, partially covering its active site and decreasing the enzyme affinity for the substrate. The structural framework provided by the docking model is confirmed by site-directed mutagenesis of the residues that distinguish PvPGIP2 from the isoform PvPGIP1. The finding that PvPGIP2 inhibits BcPG1 with a mixed-type kinetics further indicates the versatility of PGIPs to evolve different recognition specificities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Sicilia
- Dipartimento di Biologia Vegetale, Università di Roma La Sapienza, 00185 Rome, Italy
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61
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Kars I, McCalman M, Wagemakers L, VAN Kan JAL. Functional analysis of Botrytis cinerea pectin methylesterase genes by PCR-based targeted mutagenesis: Bcpme1 and Bcpme2 are dispensable for virulence of strain B05.10. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2005; 6:641-52. [PMID: 20565686 DOI: 10.1111/j.1364-3703.2005.00312.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
SUMMARY Botrytis cinerea is a necrotrophic pathogen that produces an array of enzymes capable of attacking the plant cell wall components. We have previously shown that growth of the fungus in planta is accompanied by the degradation of pectin and that endopolygalacturonase (Bcpg) genes are expressed during infection of different plant tissues. It was assumed that pectin demethylation by pectin methylesterases (PME) was essential for the subsequent depolymerization by BcPGs to occur efficiently. We report here on the functional analysis of two Bcpme genes in strain B05.10, using a gene-replacement approach. The method used for the generation of constructs for gene replacement in B. cinerea circumvents the need for cloning and yielded a high proportion of homologous recombinants. Mutants lacking both Bcpme genes are not affected in their growth on highly methylated pectin, nor did they show any reduction in virulence. The results suggest that B. cinerea strain B05.10 can efficiently degrade pectin without prior demethylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilona Kars
- Wageningen University, Laboratory of Phytopathology, Binnenhaven 5, 6709 PD Wageningen, The Netherlands
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62
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Mehli L, Kjellsen TD, Dewey FM, Hietala AM. A case study from the interaction of strawberry and Botrytis cinerea highlights the benefits of comonitoring both partners at genomic and mRNA level. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2005; 168:465-74. [PMID: 16219085 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2005.01526.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Strawberry Fragaria x ananassa (cv. Korona) was inoculated with Botrytis cinerea by dipping berries in a conidial suspension. Colonization by the pathogen was monitored using real-time PCR, ELISA and ergosterol assays, the first showing the highest sensitivity. The expression of pathogen beta-tubulin and six polygalacturonases (Bcpg1-6) and three host defence genes (polygalacturonase-inhibiting protein (FaPGIP) and two class II chitinases) were monitored using real-time RT-PCR. The maximum transcript levels of the host defence genes occurred at 16 h postinoculation (hpi) at the presumed initial penetration stage. The unique transcript profile of Bcpg2 over the 96-h incubation time and its high transcript levels relative to those of the other Bcpgs at 8-24 hpi suggest that the gene has a specific role in the penetration stage. Bcpg1 was expressed constitutively at a relatively high level in actively growing mycelia throughout the experimental period. Comparison of the transcript profiles indicated that Bcpg1 and Bcpg3-6 were coordinately regulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisbeth Mehli
- Sør-Trøndelag University College, Faculty of Food Science and Medical Technology, Trondheim, Norway.
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63
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Kars I, Krooshof GH, Wagemakers L, Joosten R, Benen JAE, van Kan JAL. Necrotizing activity of five Botrytis cinerea endopolygalacturonases produced in Pichia pastoris. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2005; 43:213-25. [PMID: 15998308 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-313x.2005.02436.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Five Botrytis cinerea endopolygalacturonase enzymes (BcPGs) were individually expressed in Pichia pastoris, purified to homogeneity and biochemically characterized. While the pH optima of the five enzymes were similar (approximately pH 4.5) the maximum activity of individual enzymes differed significantly. For hydrolysis of polygalacturonic acid (PGA), the V(max,app) ranged from 10 to 900 U mg(-1), while the K(m,app) ranged from 0.16 to 0.6 mg ml(-1). Although all BcPGs are true endopolygalacturonases, they apparently have different modes of action. PGA hydrolysis by BcPG1, BcPG2 and BcPG4 leads to the transient accumulation of oligomers with DP < 7, whereas PGA hydrolysis by BcPG3 and BcPG6 leads to the immediate accumulation of monomers and dimers. The necrotizing activity (NA) of all BcPGs was tested separately in tomato, broad bean and Arabidopsis thaliana. They showed different NAs on these plants. BcPG1 and BcPG2 possessed the strongest NA as tissue collapse was observed within 10 min after infiltration of broad bean leaves. The amino acid (aa) D192A substitution in the active site of BcPG2 not only abolished enzyme activity but also the NA, indicating that the NA is dependent on enzyme activity. Furthermore, deletion of the Bcpg2 gene in B. cinerea resulted in a strong reduction in virulence on tomato and broad bean. Primary lesion formation was delayed by approximately 24 h and the lesion expansion rate was reduced by 50-85%. These data indicate that BcPG2 is an important virulence factor for B. cinerea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilona Kars
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University, Binnenhaven 5, 6709 PD Wageningen, The Netherlands
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64
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Radoi F, Kishida M, Kawasaki H. Endo-polygalacturonase in Saccharomyces wine yeasts: effect of carbon source on enzyme production. FEMS Yeast Res 2005; 5:663-8. [PMID: 15780666 DOI: 10.1016/j.femsyr.2004.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2004] [Revised: 09/04/2004] [Accepted: 09/07/2004] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Eight wine yeast strains of Saccharomyces sp. were tested for polygalacturonase (PGase) activity, after cultivation on various carbon sources. No strain showed any activity when grown on glucose, while five strains produced PGase in the presence of galactose and polygalacturonate. These data suggest that the PGase of wine strains is repressed by glucose and induced by galactose and polygalacturonate. The existence of the PGase gene in the wine strains and its similarity with that of the laboratory strains was proved by Southern hybridization and PCR amplification. The promoter region of the PGase gene in the wine strains was slightly different from that of the laboratory strains. This possibly explains the different pattern of gene expression in wine and laboratory strains. The PGase of wine strains produced di- or tri-galacturonic acid from polygalacturonic acid, different from the fungal PGase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florentina Radoi
- Department of Applied Biochemistry, Graduate School of Agriculture and Biological Sciences, Osaka Prefecture University, 1-1 Gakuen-cho, Sakai, Osaka 599-8531, Japan
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65
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Xie M, Krooshof GH, Benen JAE, Atwood JA, King D, Bergmann C, Orlando R. Post-translational modifications of recombinant B. cinerea EPG 6. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2005; 19:3389-97. [PMID: 16259040 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.2194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
The fungus Botrytis cinerea is a ubiquitous plant pathogen that infects more than 200 different plant species and causes substantial economic losses in a wide range of agricultural crops and harvested products. Endopolygalacturonases (EPGs) are among the first array of cell-wall-degrading enzymes secreted by fungi during infection. Up to 13 EPG glycoforms have been described for B. cinerea. The presence of multiple N-linked glycosylation modifications in BcPG1-6 is predicted by their deduced amino acid sequences. In this work, the glycosylation sites and the attached oligosaccharide structures on BcPG6 were analyzed. The molecular mass of the intact glycoprotein was determined by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometric (MALDI-TOFMS) analysis. BcPG6 contains seven potential N-linked glycosylation sites. Occupancy of these glycosylation sites and the attached carbohydrate structures were analyzed by tryptic digestion followed by liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS) using a stepped orifice voltage approach. Five out of seven potential N-linked sites present in BcPG6 were determined to be occupied by high-mannose-type oligosaccharides. Four of them were readily determined to be at Asn58 (T3 peptide), Asn198 (T7 peptide), Asn237 (T9 peptide) and Asn256 (T11 peptide), respectively. Another was located on the T8 peptide, which contained two potential N-linked sites, Asn224 and Asn227 (SNNN224VTN227ITFK). LC/MS/MS of a sample treated with N-glycanase placed the glycan in this peptide at Asn224 rather than at Asn227. The potential glycosylation site on Asn146 (T6 peptide) was not glycosylated. In addition, two disulfide bonds were observed, linking the Cys residues within the T13 and T16 peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Xie
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center and Department of Chemistry, University of Georgia, 315 Riverbend Road, Athens, GA 30602-4712, USA
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66
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Favaron F, Sella L, D'Ovidio R. Relationships among endo-polygalacturonase, oxalate, pH, and plant polygalacturonase-inhibiting protein (PGIP) in the interaction between Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and soybean. MOLECULAR PLANT-MICROBE INTERACTIONS : MPMI 2004; 17:1402-9. [PMID: 15597746 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi.2004.17.12.1402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The necrotrophic fungal pathogen Sclerotinia sclerotiorum secretes oxalic acid and endo-polygalacturonase (endo-PG) in host plants. Oxalic acid acidifies the plant tissue to values more suitable to endo-PG activity. However, we observed that the infected soybean seedlings possessed a pH of 3.8, which is below that optimal for endo-PG activity (4.5 to 5.0). We investigated, therefore, the effects of pH (from 5.0 to 3.6) and oxalate (5 to 20 mM) on the activity of the major basic endo-PG (PGb) and towards an acidic endo-PG (PGa) secreted by S. sclerotiorum during soybean infection. We verified that only PGb activity is stimulated by oxalate, while at the lowest pH levels, PGa escapes the inhibition of a soybean polygalacturonase-inhibiting protein (PGIP). These results, performed on polygalacturonic acid, were apparently consistent with data obtained from studies with soybean hypocotyl segments, in which PGb activity was increased by oxalate and PGa maintained its activity also at pH 3.6, possibly because at this pH the PGIP contained in the plant tissue is inactive. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis showed that, during soybean infection, the expression of the putative pga gene is delayed in comparison to the basic one. The different temporal expressions of the two endo-PGs and their differing responses to pH, oxalate, and PGIP seem to be consistent with a possible maximization of the fungal PG activity in the host tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Favaron
- Dip Territorio e Sistemi agro-forestali, sez Patologia Vegetale, Università degli Studi di Padova, Via dell'Università 16, 1-35020 Legnaro, Italy.
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67
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Ten Have A, Dekkers E, Kay J, Phylip LH, van Kan JAL. An aspartic proteinase gene family in the filamentous fungus Botrytis cinerea contains members with novel features. MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 2004; 150:2475-2489. [PMID: 15256589 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.27058-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Botrytis cinerea, an important fungal plant pathogen, secretes aspartic proteinase (AP) activity in axenic cultures. No cysteine, serine or metalloproteinase activity could be detected. Proteinase activity was higher in culture medium containing BSA or wheat germ extract, as compared to minimal medium. A proportion of the enzyme activity remained in the extracellular glucan sheath. AP was also the only type of proteinase activity in fluid obtained from B. cinerea-infected tissue of apple, pepper, tomato and zucchini. Five B. cinerea genes encoding an AP were cloned and denoted Bcap1-5. Features of the encoded proteins are discussed. BcAP1, especially, has novel characteristics. A phylogenetic analysis was performed comprising sequences originating from different kingdoms. BcAP1 and BcAP5 did not cluster in a bootstrap-supported clade. BcAP2 clusters with vacuolar APs. BcAP3 and BcAP4 cluster with secreted APs in a clade that also contains glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored proteinases from Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida albicans. All five Bcap genes are expressed in liquid cultures. Transcript levels of Bcap1, Bcap2, Bcap3 and Bcap4 are subject to glucose and peptone repression. Transcripts from all five Bcap genes were detected in infected plant tissue, indicating that at least part of the AP activity in planta originates from the pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arjen Ten Have
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University, Binnenhaven 5, PO Box 8025, 6700 EE Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Ester Dekkers
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University, Binnenhaven 5, PO Box 8025, 6700 EE Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - John Kay
- Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, PO Box 911, Cardiff CF10 3US, UK
| | - Lowri H Phylip
- Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, PO Box 911, Cardiff CF10 3US, UK
| | - Jan A L van Kan
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University, Binnenhaven 5, PO Box 8025, 6700 EE Wageningen, The Netherlands
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68
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Li R, Rimmer R, Buchwaldt L, Sharpe AG, Séguin-Swartz G, Hegedus DD. Interaction of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum with Brassica napus: cloning and characterization of endo- and exo-polygalacturonases expressed during saprophytic and parasitic modes. Fungal Genet Biol 2004; 41:754-65. [PMID: 15219560 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2004.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2003] [Accepted: 03/07/2004] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Five major and several minor PG isoenzymes were identified in a Sclerotinia sclerotiorum isolate from Brassica napus by isoelectric focusing and pectin gel overlays. Using a combination of degenerate PCR and expressed sequence tags (ESTs) four endo-polygalacturonase (PG) genes, designated as sspg1d, sspg3, sspg5, and sspg6, and two exo-PG genes, ssxpg1 and ssxpg2, were identified. SSPG1d is a member of the PG gene family previously described by Fraissinet-Tachet et al. [Curr. Genet. 29 (1995) 96]. The mature SSPG1d is a neutral PG, whereas fully processed SSPG3, SSPG5, and SSPG6 are acidic enzymes. Under saprophytic growth conditions, sspg1d, sspg3, sspg5, and ssxpg1 expression was induced by pectin and galacturonic acid and subject to catabolite repression by glucose. Conditions could not be identified under which sspg6 or ssxpg2 were expressed well. Transfer of mycelia from liquid media to solid substrates induced expression of sspg1d suggesting that it may also be regulated by thigmotrophic interactions. Under pathogenic conditions, sspg1d was highly expressed during infection. sspg3 was also expressed during infection, albeit at lower levels than sspg1d, whereas sspg5, sspg6, and ssxpg1 were expressed only weakly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rugang Li
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 107 Science Place, Saskatoon, Sask., Canada S7N OX2
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69
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D'Ovidio R, Mattei B, Roberti S, Bellincampi D. Polygalacturonases, polygalacturonase-inhibiting proteins and pectic oligomers in plant-pathogen interactions. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2004; 1696:237-44. [PMID: 14871664 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2003.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2003] [Accepted: 08/07/2003] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Polygalacturonases (PGs) are produced by fungal pathogens during early plant infection and are believed to be important pathogenicity factors. Polygalacturonase-inhibiting proteins (PGIPs) are plant defense proteins which reduce the hydrolytic activity of endoPGs and favor the accumulation of long-chain oligogalacturonides (OGs) which are elicitors of a variety of defense responses. PGIPs belong to the superfamily of leucine reach repeat (LRR) proteins which also include the products of several plant resistance genes. A number of evidence demonstrates that PGIPs efficiently inhibit fungal invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renato D'Ovidio
- Dipartimento di Agrobiologia e Agrochimica, Università della Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy
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70
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Prusky D, McEvoy JL, Saftner R, Conway WS, Jones R. Relationship Between Host Acidification and Virulence of Penicillium spp. on Apple and Citrus Fruit. PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2004; 94:44-51. [PMID: 18943818 DOI: 10.1094/phyto.2004.94.1.44] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Penicillium expansum, P. digitatum, and P. italicum acidify the ambient environments of apple and citrus fruit during decay development. They use two mechanisms for this: the production of organic acids, mainly citric and gluconic, and NH(4)(+) utilization associated with H(+) efflux. Exposure of P. expansum and P. digitatum hyphae to pH 5.0 increased their citric acid production, compared with the production of organic acids at acidic ambient pH. In decayed fruit, both pathogens produced significant amounts of citric and gluconic acids in the decayed tissue and reduced the host pH by 0.5 to 1.0 units. Ammonium depletion from the growth medium or from the fruit tissue was directly related to ambient pH reduction. Analysis of transcripts encoding the endopolygalacturonase gene, pepg1, from P. expansum accumulated under acidic culture conditions from pH 3.5 to 5.0, suggesting that the acidification process is a pathogenicity enhancing factor of Penicillium spp. This hypothesis was supported by the finding that cultivars with lower pH and citric acid treatments to reduce tissue pH increased P. expansum development, presumably by increasing local pH. However, organic acid treatment could not enhance decay development in naturally acidic apples. Conversely, local alkalinization with NaHCO(3) reduced decay development. The present results further suggest that ambient pH is a regulatory cue for processes linked to pathogenicity of postharvest pathogens, and that specific genes are expressed as a result of the modified host pH created by the pathogens.
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71
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72
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Prusky D, Yakoby N. Pathogenic fungi: leading or led by ambient pH? MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2003; 4:509-516. [PMID: 20569410 DOI: 10.1046/j.1364-3703.2003.00196.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
SUMMARY Pathogenic fungi have successfully attacked a wide range of hosts, which has forced them into ambient-adaptation. pH is one of the major ambient traits affecting the activity of pathogenicity factors secreted by the pathogen, hence, a pH sensing-response system was developed to enable the pathogen to tailor its arsenal to best fit its host. The pacC palA, B, C, F, H and I apparatus was first identified in Aspergillus nidulans and later found in other fungi. Secreted pathogenicity factors, such as cell wall degrading enzymes, were recognized to be controlled by environmental pH and later shown to be regulated by the pH regulatory system, either directly or by harbouring the pacC consensus sequence. The ability of the pathogen to actively increase or decrease its surrounding pH allows it to select the specific virulence factor, out of its vast arsenal, to best fit a particular host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dov Prusky
- Department of Postharvest Science of Fresh Produce, A.R.O., Bet Dagan, 50250 Israel
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73
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Sánchez-Torres P, González-Candelas L. Isolation and characterization of genes differentially expressed during the interaction between apple fruit and Penicillium expansum. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2003; 4:447-457. [PMID: 20569404 DOI: 10.1046/j.1364-3703.2003.00190.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
SUMMARY Differences in gene expression during the susceptible interaction between 'Golden Delicious' apple fruits and the fungus Penicillium expansum were investigated by differential display (DD) RT-PCR. Partial cDNAs from 26 clones from both the fungus and the fruit were selected for nucleotide sequence determination and homology searches, and 20 were subsequently selected for further analyses. In a preliminary series of Northern blot analyses, 18 genes were confirmed as showing a higher expression level during the apple-fungus interaction than in control tissues. Southern analyses permitted an assignation of the fruit or fungal origin of each cDNA. Thirteen clones were derived from P. expansum and five from apple. A more detailed analysis of their expression patterns was conducted in an independent infection experiment confirming the differential expression for 12 of them. Among the differentially expressed genes were one fungal gene encoding an unknown protein and two apple genes, homologous to a beta-glucosidase and a phosphatase 2C, respectively, that were exclusively expressed during the infection process. Several up-regulated P. expansum genes seem to mediate adaptive responses to the host environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paloma Sánchez-Torres
- Departamento de Ciencia de los Alimentos, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (C.S.I.C.), Apdo. de Correos 73, Burjassot. 46100-Valencia, Spain
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74
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Stöckmann C, Maier U, Anderlei T, Knocke C, Gellissen G, Büchs J. The oxygen transfer rate as key parameter for the characterization of Hansenula polymorpha screening cultures. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 2003; 30:613-22. [PMID: 14586804 DOI: 10.1007/s10295-003-0090-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2003] [Accepted: 08/23/2003] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Screening cultures are usually non-monitored and non-controlled due to a lack of appropriate measuring techniques. A new device for online measurement of oxygen transfer rate (OTR) in shaking-flask cultures was used for monitoring the screening of Hansenula polymorpha. A shaking frequency of 300 rpm and a filling volume of 20 ml in 250-ml flasks ensured a sufficient oxygen transfer capacity of 0.032 mol (l h)(-1) and thus a respiration not limited by oxygen. Medium buffered with 0.01 mol phosphate l(-1) (pH 6.0) resulted in pH-inhibited respiration, whereas buffering with 0.12 mol phosphate l(-1) (pH 4.1) resulted in respiration that was not inhibited by pH. The ammonium demand was balanced by establishing fixed relations between oxygen, ammonium, and glycerol consumption with 0.245+/-0.015 mol ammonium per mol glycerol. Plate precultures with complex glucose medium reduced the specific growth rate coefficient to 0.18 h(-1) in subsequent cultures with minimal glycerol medium. The specific growth rate coefficient increased to 0.26 h(-1) when exponentially growing precultures with minimal glycerol medium were used for inoculation. Changes in biomass, glycerol, ammonium, and pH over time were simulated on the basis of oxygen consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Stöckmann
- Biochemical Engineering, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, Sammelbau Biologie, 52056, Aachen, Germany
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75
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Olsson L, Christensen TM, Hansen KP, Palmqvist EA. Influence of the carbon source on production of cellulases, hemicellulases and pectinases by Trichoderma reesei Rut C-30. Enzyme Microb Technol 2003. [DOI: 10.1016/s0141-0229(03)00181-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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76
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Rollins JA. The Sclerotinia sclerotiorum pac1 gene is required for sclerotial development and virulence. MOLECULAR PLANT-MICROBE INTERACTIONS : MPMI 2003; 16:785-95. [PMID: 12971602 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi.2003.16.9.785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 198] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
The synergistic activities of oxalic acid and endopolygalacturonases are thought to be essential for full virulence of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and other oxalate-producing plant pathogens. Both oxalic acid production and endopolygalacturonase activity are regulated by ambient pH. Since many gene products with pH-sensitive activities are regulated by the PacC transcription factor in Aspergillus nidulans, we functionally characterized a pacC gene homolog, pac1, from S. sclerotiorum. Mutants with loss-of-function alleles of the pac1 locus were created by targeted gene replacement. In vitro mycelial growth of these pac1 mutants was normal at acidic pH, but growth was inhibited as culture medium pH was increased. Development and maturation of sclerotia in culture was also aberrant in these pac1 replacement mutants. Although oxalic acid production remained alkaline pH-responsive, the kinetics and magnitude of oxalate accumulation were dramatically altered. Additionally, maximal accumulation of endopolygalacturonase gene transcripts (pg1) was shifted to higher ambient pH. Virulence in loss-of-function pac1 mutants was dramatically reduced in infection assays with tomato and Arabidopsis. Based on these results, pac1 appears to be necessary for the appropriate regulation of physiological processes important for pathogenesis and development of S. sclerotiorum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey A Rollins
- Department of Plant Pathology, 1453 Fifield Hall, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611-0680, USA.
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77
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Caracuel Z, Roncero MIG, Espeso EA, González-Verdejo CI, García-Maceira FI, Di Pietro A. The pH signalling transcription factor PacC controls virulence in the plant pathogen Fusarium oxysporum. Mol Microbiol 2003; 48:765-79. [PMID: 12694620 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2958.2003.03465.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Gene expression in fungi by ambient pH is regulated via a conserved signalling cascade whose terminal component is the zinc finger transcription factor PacC/Rim1p. We have identified a pacC orthologue in the vascular wilt pathogen Fusarium oxysporum that binds the consensus 5'-GCCAAG-3' sequence and is proteolytically processed in a similar way to PacC from Aspergillus nidulans. pacC transcript levels were elevated in F. oxysporum grown in alkaline conditions and almost undetectable at extreme acidic growth conditions. PacC+/- loss-of-function mutants displayed an acidity-mimicking phenotype resulting in poor growth at alkaline pH, increased acid protease activity and higher transcript levels of acid-expressed polygalacturonase genes. Reintroduction of a functional pacC copy into a pacC+/- mutant restored the wild-type phenotype. Conversely, F. oxysporum merodiploids carrying a dominant activating pacCc allele had increased pacC transcript and protein levels and displayed an alkalinity-mimicking phenotype with reduced acid phosphatase and increased alkaline protease activities. PacC+/- mutants were more virulent than the wild-type strain in root infection assays with tomato plants, whereas pacCc strains were significantly reduced in virulence. We propose that F. oxysporum PacC acts as a negative regulator of virulence to plants, possibly by preventing transcription of acid-expressed genes important for infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zaira Caracuel
- Departamento de Genética, Universidad de Córdoba, Campus Universitario de Rabanales Edif. C5, 14071 Córdoba, Spain
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78
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Cabanne C, Donèche B. Purification and characterization of two isozymes of polygalacturonase from Botrytis cinerea. Effect of calcium ions on polygalacturonase activity. Microbiol Res 2003; 157:183-9. [PMID: 12398287 DOI: 10.1078/0944-5013-00147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The phytopathogenic fungus Botrytis cinerea produces a set of polygalacturonases (PGs) which are involved in the enzymatic degradation of pectin during plant tissue infection. Two polygalacturonases secreted by B. cinerea in seven-day-old liquid culture were purified to apparent homogeneity by chromatography. PG I was an exopolygalacturonase of molecular weight 65 kDa and pI 8.0 and PG II was an endopolygalacturonase of 52 kDa and pI 7.8. Enzymatic activity of PG I and PG II was partially inhibited by 1 mM CaCl2, probably by calcium chelation of polygalacturonic acid, the substrate of the enzyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Cabanne
- Laboratoire de Biochimie Végétale Appliquée, Universite V. Segalen Bordeaux 2/INRA, Faculté d'oenologie, Talence, France
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79
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Montero C, Cristescu SM, Jiménez JB, Orea JM, te Lintel Hekkert S, Harren FJM, González Ureña A. trans-Resveratrol and grape disease resistance. A dynamical study by high-resolution laser-based techniques. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2003; 131:129-38. [PMID: 12529521 PMCID: PMC166793 DOI: 10.1104/pp.010074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Two modern laser-based techniques were synchronously applied to study the dynamics of the trans-resveratrol activity in Botrytis cinerea-infected grapes. Direct analysis of trans-resveratrol in both infected and noninfected grapes (Vitis vinifera, Aledo variety) was performed by using an analytical technique incorporating laser desorption coupled with laser resonant ionization and time-of-flight mass spectrometry. On the other hand, one of the most sensitive on-line methods for trace gas detection, laser photoacoustic spectroscopy, was used to investigate the involvement of the plant hormone ethylene (C(2)H(4)) in the B. cinerea grapes interaction and its temporal relationship with the trans-resveratrol content upon infection. The trans-resveratrol content and the ethylene released by noninfected grapes showed an opposite behavior. In this case, a high trans-resveratrol content corresponds to a low ethylene emission. For the B. cinerea-infected grapes, ethylene emission rises up after 48 h when the analogous content of trans-resveratrol started to decrease irreversibly. Moreover, the activity of trans-resveratrol as natural pesticide has been investigated by exogenous application on grapes. A short submerge (5 s) of the grapes in 1.6 x 10(-4) M solution of trans-resveratrol delays the increase of C(2)H(4) emission with about 48 h and produces a decrease of the C(2)H(4) concentration and its emission rate. The treatment has positive effects on fruit conservation during storage; it doubled the normal shelf-life of grapes at room temperature, maintaining their post-harvest quality within 10 d.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Montero
- Unidad de Láseres y Haces Moleculares Instituto Pluridisciplinar, Universidad Complutense de Madrid Po Juan XXIII, 1. 28040 Madrid, Spain
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80
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Cristescu SM, De Martinis D, Te Lintel Hekkert S, Parker DH, Harren FJM. Ethylene production by Botrytis cinerea in vitro and in tomatoes. Appl Environ Microbiol 2002; 68:5342-50. [PMID: 12406723 PMCID: PMC129912 DOI: 10.1128/aem.68.11.5342-5350.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A laser-based ethylene detector was used for on-line monitoring of ethylene released by the phytopathogenic fungus Botrytis cinerea in vitro and in tomato fruit. Ethylene data were combined with the results of a cytological analysis of germination of B. cinerea conidia and hyphal growth. We found that aminoethoxyvinylglycine and aminooxyacetic acid, which are competitive inhibitors of the 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid pathway, did not inhibit the ethylene emission by B. cinerea and that the fungus most likely produces ethylene via the 2-keto-4-methylthiobutyric acid pathway. B. cinerea is able to produce ethylene in vitro, and the emission of ethylene follows the pattern that is associated with hyphal growth rather than the germination of conidia. Ethylene production in vitro depended on the L-methionine concentration added to the plating medium. Higher values and higher emission rates were observed when the concentration of conidia was increased. Compared with the ethylene released by the fungus, the infection-related ethylene produced by two tomato cultivars (cultivars Money Maker and Daniela) followed a similar pattern, but the levels of emission were 100-fold higher. The time evolution of enhanced ethylene production by the infected tomatoes and the cytological observations indicate that ethylene emission by the tomato-fungus system is not triggered by the ethylene produced by B. cinerea, although it is strongly synchronized with the growth rate of the fungus inside the tomato.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simona M Cristescu
- Department of Molecular and Laser Physics, University of Nijmegen, 6525 ED Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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81
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Götesson A, Marshall JS, Jones DA, Hardham AR. Characterization and evolutionary analysis of a large polygalacturonase gene family in the oomycete plant pathogen Phytophthora cinnamomi. MOLECULAR PLANT-MICROBE INTERACTIONS : MPMI 2002; 15:907-921. [PMID: 12236597 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi.2002.15.9.907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Polygalacturonases (PGs) are secreted by fungal pathogens during saprophytic and parasitic growth, and their degradation of pectin in the plant cell wall is believed to play a major role in tissue invasion and maceration. In this study, PG activity was demonstrated in culture filtrates of the oomycete plant pathogen, Phytophthora cinnamomi. A P. cinnamomi pg gene fragment amplified using degenerate primers based on conserved regions in fungal and plant PGs was used to isolate 17 complete P. cinnamomi pg genes and pseudogenes from a genomic library and partial sequence for another two genes. Gel blotting of genomic DNA indicated that there may be even more pg genes in the P. cinnamomi genome. P. cinnamomi pg gene sequences were expressed in PG-deficient yeast and found to confer PG activity, thereby confirming their functional identity. The predicted mature P. cinnamomi PGs fall into subgroups that exhibit large differences in the extent of N-glycosylation, isoelectric points, and N- and C-terminal structure. Evidence for birth-and-death and reticulate evolution in the P. cinnamomi pg gene family was obtained, and some codons for surface exposed residues in the P. cinnamomi PGs were shown to have been subject to diversifying selection. Contrary to accepted phylogenies for other proteins, phylogenetic analysis of the P. cinnamomi PGs revealed a closer relationship with PGs from true fungi than with those from plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arvid Götesson
- Plant Cell Biology Group, Research School of Biological Sciences, Australian National University, Canberra ACT
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82
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Herbert C, Jacquet C, Borel C, Esquerre-Tugaye MT, Dumas B. A cis-acting sequence homologous to the yeast filamentation and invasion response element regulates expression of a pectinase gene from the bean pathogen Colletotrichum lindemuthianum. J Biol Chem 2002; 277:29125-31. [PMID: 12042302 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m201489200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Phytopathogenic fungi secrete hydrolytic enzymes that degrade plant cell walls, notably pectinases. The signaling pathway(s) that control pectinase gene expression are currently unknown in filamentous fungi. Recently, the green fluorescent protein coding sequence was used as a reporter gene to study the expression of CLPG2, a gene encoding an endopolygalacturonase of the bean pathogen Colletotrichum lindemuthianum. CLPG2 is transcriptionally induced by pectin in the axenic culture of the fungus and during formation of the appressorium, an infection structure specialized in plant tissue penetration. In the present study, promoter deletion and mutagenesis, as well as gel shift mobility assays, allowed for the first time identification of cis-acting elements that bind protein factors and are essential for the regulation of a pectinase gene. We found that two different adjacent DNA motifs are combined to form an active element that shows a strong sequence homology with the yeast filamentation and invasion response element. The same element is required for the transcriptional activation of CLPG2 by pectin and during appressorium development. This study strongly suggests that the control of virulence genes of fungal plant pathogens, such as pectinases, involves the formation of a complex of transcriptional activators similar to those regulating the invasive growth in yeast.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corentin Herbert
- UMR 5546 CNRS-Université Paul Sabatier, Pôle de Biotechnologie Végétale, 24 Chemin de Borde Rouge, BP17 Auzeville, 31326 Castanet-Tolosan, France
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83
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Eshel D, Miyara I, Ailing T, Dinoor A, Prusky D. pH regulates endoglucanase expression and virulence of Alternaria alternata in persimmon fruit. MOLECULAR PLANT-MICROBE INTERACTIONS : MPMI 2002; 15:774-779. [PMID: 12182334 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi.2002.15.8.774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The phytopathogenic fungus Alternaria alternata produces one endo-1,4-beta-glucanase, AaK1, which is an important factor in disease development in persimmon fruit. During growth of A. alternata in media containing acidified yeast extract or cell walls from persimmon fruit, the fungus secreted ammonia and raised the medium pH. A rise in media pH from 3.8 to 6.0 in the presence of cell walls induced the expression of AaK1, whereas a glucose-induced decline in pH to 2.5 repressed transcription and enzymatic production. Treatments with buffered solutions at pH 6.0 during growth of A. alternata in the presence of glucose derepressed AaK1 expression and endo-1,4-beta-glucanase production and enhanced decay development on the fruit. The results suggest that conditions affecting environmental pH modulate gene expression of AaK1 and virulence of A. alternata in persimmon fruit
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Affiliation(s)
- Dani Eshel
- Department of Postharvest Science of Fresh Produce, Institute for Technology and Storage of Agricultural Products, The Volcani Center, Agricultural Research Organization, Bet Dagan, Israel
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84
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Wei Y, Shih J, Li J, Goodwin PH. Two pectin lyase genes, pnl-1 and pnl-2, from Colletotrichum gloeosporioides f. sp. malvae differ in a cellulose-binding domain and in their expression during infection of Malva pusilla. MICROBIOLOGY (READING, ENGLAND) 2002; 148:2149-2157. [PMID: 12101302 DOI: 10.1099/00221287-148-7-2149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Two pectin lyase genes, designated pnl-1 and pnl-2, were cloned from Colletotrichum gloeosporioides f. sp. malvae, a pathogen of round-leaved mallow (Malva pusilla). pnl-1 was isolated using cDNA from infected plant material; pnl-2 was isolated using cDNA from 3-day-old mycelia grown in mallow-cell-wall extract (MCWE) broth. pnl-1 is the first pectinase gene described thus far to encode a cellulose-binding domain (CBD), which is common in cellulases and xylanases, whereas pnl-2 encodes a pectin lyase that lacks a CBD. In pure culture, pnl-1 expression could be detected when purified pectin or glucose was the sole carbon source, but not when MCWE was the sole carbon source. The lack of pnl-1 expression appeared to be due to gene repression by some unknown factor(s) in the cell-wall extract. In contrast, expression of pnl-2 was detected in cultures when MCWE, but not when purified pectin or glucose, was the sole carbon source. In infected tissue, detection of pnl-1 expression by Northern-blot hybridization and by RT-PCR began with the onset of the necrotrophic phase of infection. Expression ofpnl-2 was not detectable by Northern-blot hybridization, but was observed byRT-PCR in both the biotrophic and necrotrophic phases of infection. The differences between pnl-1 and pnl-2 (i.e. pnl-1 encoding a CBD and differences in the expression patterns of both genes) may be related to the requirements of C. gloeosporioides f. sp. malvae to be able to grow in host tissue under the different conditions present during the biotrophic and necrotrophic phases of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yangdou Wei
- Department of Environmental Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, , Canada N1G 2W11
| | - Jenny Shih
- Department of Environmental Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, , Canada N1G 2W11
| | - Jieran Li
- Department of Environmental Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, , Canada N1G 2W11
| | - Paul H Goodwin
- Department of Environmental Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, , Canada N1G 2W11
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85
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Biochemical characterization of polygalacturonases from five different isolates of Botrytis cinerea. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2002. [DOI: 10.1017/s0953756202006111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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86
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Rha E, Park HJ, Kim MO, Chung YR, Lee CW, Kim JW. Expression of exo-polygalacturonases in Botrytis cinerea. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2001; 201:105-9. [PMID: 11445175 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.2001.tb10740.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The pathogenic fungus, Botrytis cinerea, causing gray mold disease in a variety of plant species, secretes at least four polygalacturonases (PGs), cell wall degrading enzymes. Among them, we prepared polyclonal antibody against purified 66-kDa exo-PG in rabbit. Immunoblot analysis revealed that the antibody recognized two exo-PGs, 66 kDa and 70 kDa in molecular mass, secreted from B. cinerea cultured in the medium containing citrus pectin as a carbon source. By immunohistochemical analysis, the expression of exo-PGs was identified in cucumber leaves inoculated with spores of B. cinerea. The exo-PGs were observed 9 h after inoculation, and the amount of exo-PGs increased with time in the leaves. The exo-PGs were induced by polygalacturonic acid as well as its monomer, galacturonic acid, in vitro. The expression of 66-kDa exo-PG (exo-PG I) increased with time of culture, while 70-kDa exo-PG (exo-PG II) was transiently expressed soon after the start of culture. Therefore, exo-PGs might play an important role in pathogenesis at an early stage of infection as well as in tissue maceration of host plant.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Rha
- Division of Life Science and Research Institute of Natural Science, College of Natural Science, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 660-701, South Korea
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87
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ten Have A, Breuil WO, Wubben JP, Visser J, van Kan JA. Botrytis cinerea endopolygalacturonase genes are differentially expressed in various plant tissues. Fungal Genet Biol 2001; 33:97-105. [PMID: 11456462 DOI: 10.1006/fgbi.2001.1269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Botrytis cinerea, the causal agent of blight, rot, and gray mold on many plant species, secretes various endopolygalacturonases during all stages of infection. The expression pattern of the encoding genes (Bcpg 1-6) was studied on four hosts: tomato, broad bean, apple, and courgette (also known as zucchini). All gene family members are differentially expressed, depending on the stage of infection and the host. Bcpg1 is expressed in all tissues tested although differences in transcript levels occur. Bcpg2 expression is detected early in the infection of three of four plant tissues tested. Bcpg3 and Bcpg5 are expressed in apple fruit tissue, although probably as a result of different regulatory mechanisms. The expression patterns of Bcpg4 and 6 are in agreement with their inducibility by monogalacturonic acid. The pattern of Bcpg gene expression indicates that B. cinerea is equipped with a flexible enzymatic pectate degradation machinery. The studies pinpoint new targets for gene disruption studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- A ten Have
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University, Binnenhaven 9, 6700 EE Wageningen, The Netherlands
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88
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García-Maceira FI, Di Pietro A, Huertas-González MD, Ruiz-Roldán MC, Roncero MI. Molecular characterization of an endopolygalacturonase from Fusarium oxysporum expressed during early stages of infection. Appl Environ Microbiol 2001; 67:2191-6. [PMID: 11319099 PMCID: PMC92854 DOI: 10.1128/aem.67.5.2191-2196.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2000] [Accepted: 02/28/2001] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The tomato vascular wilt pathogen Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici produces an array of pectinolytic enzymes that may contribute to penetration and colonization of the host plant. Here we report the isolation of pg5, encoding a novel extracellular endopolygalacturonase (endoPG) that is highly conserved among different formae speciales of F. oxysporum. The putative mature pg5 product has a calculated molecular mass of 35 kDa and a pI of 8.3 and is more closely related to endoPGs from other fungal plant pathogens than to PG1, the major endoPG of F. oxysporum. Overexpression of pg5 in a bacterial heterologous system produced a 35-kDa protein with endoPG activity. Accumulation of pg5 transcript is induced by citrus pectin and D-galacturonic acid and repressed by glucose. As shown by reverse transcription-PCR, pg5 is expressed by F. oxysporum in tomato roots during the initial stages of infection. Targeted inactivation of pg5 has no detectable effect on virulence toward tomato plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- F I García-Maceira
- Departamento de Genética, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Córdoba, Avda. San Alberto Magno s/n, 14071 Córdoba, Spain
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89
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Powell AL, van Kan J, ten Have A, Visser J, Greve LC, Bennett AB, Labavitch JM. Transgenic expression of pear PGIP in tomato limits fungal colonization. MOLECULAR PLANT-MICROBE INTERACTIONS : MPMI 2000; 13:942-50. [PMID: 10975651 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi.2000.13.9.942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Transgenic tomato plants expressing the pear fruit polygalacturonase inhibitor protein (pPGIP) were used to demonstrate that this inhibitor of fungal pathogen endopolygalacturonases (endo-PGs) influences disease development. Transgenic expression of pPGIP resulted in abundant accumulation of the heterologous protein in all tissues and did not alter the expression of an endogenous tomato fruit PGIP (tPGIP). The pPGIP protein was detected, as expected, in the cell wall protein fraction in all transgenic tissues. Despite differential glycosylation in vegetative and fruit tissues, the expressed pPGIP was active in both tissues as an inhibitor of endo-PGs from Botrytis cinerea. The growth of B. cinerea on ripe tomato fruit expressing pPGIP was reduced, and tissue breakdown was diminished by as much as 15%, compared with nontransgenic fruit In transgenic leaves, the expression of pPGIP reduced lesions of macerated tissue approximately 25%, a reduction of symptoms of fungal growth similar to that observed with a B. cinerea strain in which a single endo-PG gene, Bcpg1, had been deleted (A. ten Have, W. Mulder, J. Visser, and J. A. L. van Kan, Mol. Plant-Microbe Interact. 11:1009-1016, 1998). Heterologous expression of pPGIP has demonstrated that PGIP inhibition of fungal PGs slows the expansion of disease lesions and the associated tissue maceration.
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Affiliation(s)
- A L Powell
- Department of Vegetable Crops University of California, Davis 95616-8631, USA.
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90
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Prins TW, Wagemakers L, Schouten A, van Kan JA. Cloning and characterization of a glutathione S-transferase homologue from the plant pathogenic fungus Botrytis cinereadouble dagger. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2000; 1:169-178. [PMID: 20572963 DOI: 10.1046/j.1364-3703.2000.00021.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Abstract A gene was cloned from Botrytis cinerea that encodes a protein homologous to glutathione S-transferase (GST). The gene, denominated Bcgst1, is present in a single copy and represents the first example of such a gene from a filamentous fungus. The biochemical function of GSTs is to conjugate toxic compounds to glutathione, thereby detoxifying the compound. In many other organisms, GST plays a role in chemical stress tolerance. We anticipated that GST functions for B. cinerea as a potential virulence factor, enabling the fungus to tolerate fungitoxic plant defence compounds. The expression of Bcgst1 mRNA under various presumably stressful conditions was investigated. Bcgst1 mRNA is expressed at a basal level in liquid cultures and is induced upon addition of hydrogen peroxide to the medium. The level of Bcgst1 mRNA expression during infection of tomato leaves parallels the level of actin mRNA. The role of the Bcgst1 gene in the virulence of Botrytis cinerea was evaluated by constructing gene disruption mutants. Three independent disruption mutants were obtained. The virulence of two mutants on tomato leaves was evaluated. Neither of the mutants showed a decrease in virulence, indicating that the Bcgst1 gene is not essential for virulence on tomato leaves under the conditions tested.
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Affiliation(s)
- T W Prins
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University, Binnenhaven 9, 6709 PD Wageningen, The Netherlands
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