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White Matter Injury and Recovery after Hypertensive Intracerebral Hemorrhage. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2017; 2017:6138424. [PMID: 28680884 PMCID: PMC5478825 DOI: 10.1155/2017/6138424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2017] [Accepted: 05/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Hypertensive intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) could very probably trigger white matter injury in patients. Through the continuous study of white matter injury after hypertensive ICH, we achieve a more profound understanding of the pathophysiological mechanism of its occurrence and development. At the same time, we found a series of drugs and treatment methods for the white matter repair. In the current reality, the research paradigm of white matter injury after hypertensive ICH is relatively obsolete or incomplete, and there are still lots of deficiencies in the research. In the face of the profound changes of stroke research perspective, we believe that the combination of the lenticulostriate artery, nerve nuclei of the hypothalamus-thalamus-basal ganglia, and the white matter fibers located within the capsula interna will be beneficial to the research of white matter injury and repair. This paper has classified and analyzed the study of white matter injury and repair after hypertensive ICH and also rethought the shortcomings of the current research. We hope that it could help researchers further explore and study white matter injury and repair after hypertensive ICH.
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P2X7 Participates in Intracerebral Hemorrhage-Induced Secondary Brain Injury in Rats via MAPKs Signaling Pathways. Neurochem Res 2017; 42:2372-2383. [PMID: 28488233 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-017-2257-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2016] [Revised: 03/29/2017] [Accepted: 03/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
This study aimed to study the role of P2X7 in intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH)-induced secondary brain injury (SBI) and the underlying mechanisms. An autologous blood injection was used to induce ICH model in Sprague-Dawley rats, and cultured primary rat cortical neurons were exposed to oxyhemoglobin to mimic ICH in vitro. siRNA interference and over-expression of P2X7, agonists and antagonists of P2X7, p38 MAPK and ERK were exploited. The protein levels were assessed using Western blotting and immunofluorescence staining. Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling staining and Fluoro-Jade B were conducted to detect apoptotic and degenerating neurons. The protein levels of P2X7, phosphorylated p38, ERK, active caspase-3 and NF-κB were significantly increased by ICH, which could be further increased by BzATP (P2X7 agonist) and reduced by BBG (P2X7 antagonist). And BzATP demonstrated a significant increase in cell death ratio and brain water content, while BBG led to a reverse results. In addition, Over- P2X7 increased the levels of P2X7, phosphorylated p38, ERK, active caspase-3 and NF-κB, and aggravated cell apoptosis, while si P2X7 resulted in opposite effects. Finally, the protein levels of phosphorylated P38 and active caspase 3 were decreased by BzATP plus Hydrochloride (p38 MAPK antagonist) and increased vy BBG plus Asiatic acid (p38 MAPK agonist), while the protein levels of phosphorylated ERK and NF-κB were decreased with BzATP plus Nimbolide (ERK antagonist) and increased with BBG plus Saikosaponin C (ERK agonist). This study demonstrates that inhibition of P2X7 could prevent ICH-induced SBI via MAPKs signaling pathway.
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Shen H, Liu C, Zhang D, Yao X, Zhang K, Li H, Chen G. Role for RIP1 in mediating necroptosis in experimental intracerebral hemorrhage model both in vivo and in vitro. Cell Death Dis 2017; 8:e2641. [PMID: 28252651 PMCID: PMC5386555 DOI: 10.1038/cddis.2017.58] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2016] [Revised: 12/28/2016] [Accepted: 01/03/2017] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Cell death is a hallmark of second brain injury after intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH); however, the mechanism still has not been fully illustrated. In this study, we explored whether necroptosis, a type of regulated necrosis, has an essential role in brain injury after ICH. We found that inhibiting receptor-interacting protein 1 (RIP1) – a core element of the necroptotic pathway – by a specific chemical inhibitor or genetic knockdown attenuated brain injury in a rat model of ICH. Furthermore, necroptosis of cultured neurons could be induced by conditioned medium from microglia stimulated with oxygen hemoglobin, and this effect could be inhibited by TNF-α inhibitor, indicating that TNF-α secreted from activated microglia is an important factor in inducing necroptosis of neurons. Undoubtedly, overexpression of RIP1 increased conditioned medium-induced necroptosis in vitro, but this effect was partially diminished in mutation of serine kinase phosphorylation site of RIP1, showing that phosphorylation of RIP1 is the essential molecular mechanism of necroptosis, which was activated in the in vitro model of ICH. Collectively, our investigation identified that necroptosis is an important mechanism of cell death in brain injury after ICH, and inhibition of necroptosis may be a potential therapeutic intervention of ICH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haitao Shen
- Department of Neurosurgery and Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Chenglin Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery and Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Dongping Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery and Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Xiyang Yao
- Department of Neurosurgery and Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Kai Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery and Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Haiying Li
- Department of Neurosurgery and Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Gang Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery and Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
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Weinberg MS, Criswell HE, Powell SK, Bhatt AP, McCown TJ. Viral Vector Reprogramming of Adult Resident Striatal Oligodendrocytes into Functional Neurons. Mol Ther 2017; 25:928-934. [PMID: 28202388 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2017.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2016] [Revised: 01/06/2017] [Accepted: 01/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent advances suggest that in vivo reprogramming of endogenous cell populations provides a viable alternative for neuron replacement. Astrocytes and oligodendrocyte precursor cells can be induced to transdifferentiate into neurons in the CNS, but, in these instances, reprogramming requires either transgenic mice or retroviral-mediated gene expression. We developed a microRNA (miRNA)-GFP construct that in vitro significantly reduced the expression of polypyrimidine tract-binding protein, and, subsequently, we packaged this construct in a novel oligodendrocyte preferring adeno-associated virus vector. Ten days after rat striatal transduction, the vast majority of the GFP-positive cells were oligodendrocytes, but 6 weeks to 6 months later, the majority of GFP-positive cells exhibited neuronal morphology and co-localized with the neuronal marker NeuN. Patch-clamp studies on striatal slices established that the GFP-positive cells exhibited electrophysiological properties indicative of mature neurons, such as spontaneous action potentials and spontaneous inhibitory postsynaptic currents. Also, 3 months after striatal vector administration, GFP-positive terminals in the ipsilateral globus pallidus or substantia nigra retrogradely transported fluorescent beads back to GFP-positive striatal cell bodies, indicating the presence of functional presynaptic terminals. Thus, this viral vector approach provides a potential means to harness resident oligodendrocytes as an endogenous source for in vivo neuronal replacement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc S Weinberg
- UNC Gene Therapy Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Hugh E Criswell
- Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Sara K Powell
- UNC Gene Therapy Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Aadra P Bhatt
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Thomas J McCown
- UNC Gene Therapy Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA.
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Progress of Research on Diffuse Axonal Injury after Traumatic Brain Injury. Neural Plast 2016; 2016:9746313. [PMID: 28078144 PMCID: PMC5204088 DOI: 10.1155/2016/9746313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2016] [Revised: 10/25/2016] [Accepted: 11/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The current work reviews the concept, pathological mechanism, and process of diagnosing of DAI. The pathological mechanism underlying DAI is complicated, including axonal breakage caused by axonal retraction balls, discontinued protein transport along the axonal axis, calcium influx, and calpain-mediated hydrolysis of structural protein, degradation of axonal cytoskeleton network, the changes of transport proteins such as amyloid precursor protein, and changes of glia cells. Based on the above pathological mechanism, the diagnosis of DAI is usually made using methods such as CT, traditional and new MRI, biochemical markers, and neuropsychological assessment. This review provides a basis in literature for further investigation and discusses the pathological mechanism. It may also facilitate improvement of the accuracy of diagnosis for DAI, which may come to play a critical role in breaking through the bottleneck of the clinical treatment of DAI and improving the survival and quality of life of patients through clear understanding of pathological mechanisms and accurate diagnosis.
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Williamson MR, Dietrich K, Hackett MJ, Caine S, Nadeau CA, Aziz JR, Nichol H, Paterson PG, Colbourne F. Rehabilitation Augments Hematoma Clearance and Attenuates Oxidative Injury and Ion Dyshomeostasis After Brain Hemorrhage. Stroke 2016; 48:195-203. [PMID: 27899761 DOI: 10.1161/strokeaha.116.015404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2016] [Revised: 09/10/2016] [Accepted: 10/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE We assessed the elemental and biochemical effects of rehabilitation after intracerebral hemorrhage, with emphasis on iron-mediated oxidative stress, using a novel multimodal biospectroscopic imaging approach. METHODS Collagenase-induced striatal hemorrhage was produced in rats that were randomized to enriched rehabilitation or control intervention starting on day 7. Animals were euthanized on day 14 or 21, a period of ongoing cell death. We used biospectroscopic imaging techniques to precisely determine elemental and molecular changes on day 14. Hemoglobin content was assessed with resonance Raman spectroscopy. X-ray fluorescence imaging mapped iron, chlorine, potassium, calcium, and zinc. Protein aggregation, a marker of oxidative stress, and the distribution of other macromolecules were assessed with Fourier transform infrared imaging. A second study estimated hematoma volume with a spectrophotometric assay at 21 days. RESULTS In the first experiment, rehabilitation reduced hematoma hemoglobin content (P=0.004) and the amount of peri-hematoma iron (P<0.001). Oxidative damage was highly localized at the hematoma/peri-hematoma border and was decreased by rehabilitation (P=0.004). Lipid content in the peri-hematoma zone was increased by rehabilitation (P=0.016). Rehabilitation reduced the size of calcium deposits (P=0.040) and attenuated persistent dyshomeostasis of Cl- (P<0.001) but not K+ (P=0.060). The second study confirmed that rehabilitation decreased hematoma volume (P=0.024). CONCLUSIONS Rehabilitation accelerated clearance of toxic blood components and decreased chronic oxidative stress. As well, rehabilitation attenuated persistent ion dyshomeostasis. These novel effects may underlie rehabilitation-induced neuroprotection and improved recovery of function. Pharmacotherapies targeting these mechanisms may further improve outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael R Williamson
- From the Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute (M.R.W., K.D., F.C.) and Department of Psychology (C.A.N., J.R.A., F.C.), University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada; and Molecular and Environmental Sciences Group, Department of Geological Sciences (M.J.H.), Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology (S.C., H.N.), and College of Pharmacy and Nutrition (S.C., P.G.P.), University of Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Kristen Dietrich
- From the Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute (M.R.W., K.D., F.C.) and Department of Psychology (C.A.N., J.R.A., F.C.), University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada; and Molecular and Environmental Sciences Group, Department of Geological Sciences (M.J.H.), Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology (S.C., H.N.), and College of Pharmacy and Nutrition (S.C., P.G.P.), University of Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Mark J Hackett
- From the Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute (M.R.W., K.D., F.C.) and Department of Psychology (C.A.N., J.R.A., F.C.), University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada; and Molecular and Environmental Sciences Group, Department of Geological Sciences (M.J.H.), Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology (S.C., H.N.), and College of Pharmacy and Nutrition (S.C., P.G.P.), University of Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Sally Caine
- From the Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute (M.R.W., K.D., F.C.) and Department of Psychology (C.A.N., J.R.A., F.C.), University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada; and Molecular and Environmental Sciences Group, Department of Geological Sciences (M.J.H.), Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology (S.C., H.N.), and College of Pharmacy and Nutrition (S.C., P.G.P.), University of Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Colby A Nadeau
- From the Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute (M.R.W., K.D., F.C.) and Department of Psychology (C.A.N., J.R.A., F.C.), University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada; and Molecular and Environmental Sciences Group, Department of Geological Sciences (M.J.H.), Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology (S.C., H.N.), and College of Pharmacy and Nutrition (S.C., P.G.P.), University of Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Jasmine R Aziz
- From the Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute (M.R.W., K.D., F.C.) and Department of Psychology (C.A.N., J.R.A., F.C.), University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada; and Molecular and Environmental Sciences Group, Department of Geological Sciences (M.J.H.), Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology (S.C., H.N.), and College of Pharmacy and Nutrition (S.C., P.G.P.), University of Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Helen Nichol
- From the Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute (M.R.W., K.D., F.C.) and Department of Psychology (C.A.N., J.R.A., F.C.), University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada; and Molecular and Environmental Sciences Group, Department of Geological Sciences (M.J.H.), Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology (S.C., H.N.), and College of Pharmacy and Nutrition (S.C., P.G.P.), University of Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Phyllis G Paterson
- From the Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute (M.R.W., K.D., F.C.) and Department of Psychology (C.A.N., J.R.A., F.C.), University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada; and Molecular and Environmental Sciences Group, Department of Geological Sciences (M.J.H.), Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology (S.C., H.N.), and College of Pharmacy and Nutrition (S.C., P.G.P.), University of Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Frederick Colbourne
- From the Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute (M.R.W., K.D., F.C.) and Department of Psychology (C.A.N., J.R.A., F.C.), University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada; and Molecular and Environmental Sciences Group, Department of Geological Sciences (M.J.H.), Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology (S.C., H.N.), and College of Pharmacy and Nutrition (S.C., P.G.P.), University of Saskatchewan, Canada.
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Takase H, Washida K, Hayakawa K, Arai K, Wang X, Lo EH, Lok J. Oligodendrogenesis after traumatic brain injury. Behav Brain Res 2016; 340:205-211. [PMID: 27829126 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2016.10.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2016] [Revised: 10/20/2016] [Accepted: 10/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
White matter injury is an important contributor to long term motor and cognitive dysfunction after traumatic brain injury. During brain trauma, acceleration, deceleration, torsion, and compression forces often cause direct damage to the axon tracts, and pathways that are triggered by the initial injury can trigger molecular events that result in secondary axon degeneration. White matter injury is often associated with altered mental status, memory deficits, motor or autonomic dysfunction, and contribute to the development of chronic neurodegenerative diseases. The presence and proper functioning of oligodendrocyte precursor cells offer the potential for repair and recovery of injured white matter. The process of the proliferation, maturation of oligodendrocyte precursor cells and their migration to the site of injury to replace injured or lost oligodendrocytes is know as oligodendrogenesis. The process of oligodendrogenesis, as well as the interaction of oligodendrocyte precursor cells with other elements of the neurovascular unit, will be discussed in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hajime Takase
- Neuroprotection Research Laboratory, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, United States; Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States; Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States; Department of Neurosurgery, Yokohama City University Graduate School of Medicine, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Kazuo Washida
- Neuroprotection Research Laboratory, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, United States; Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States; Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States; Division of Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kobe University, Kobe, Japan
| | - Kazuhide Hayakawa
- Neuroprotection Research Laboratory, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, United States; Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States; Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Ken Arai
- Neuroprotection Research Laboratory, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, United States; Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States; Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Xiaoying Wang
- Neuroprotection Research Laboratory, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, United States; Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States; Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Eng H Lo
- Neuroprotection Research Laboratory, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, United States; Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States; Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Josephine Lok
- Neuroprotection Research Laboratory, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, United States; Department of Pediatrics, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States.
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58
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Li R, Ma K, Zhao H, Feng Z, Yang Y, Ge H, Zhang X, Tang J, Yin Y, Liu X, Tan L, Feng H. Cattle encephalon glycoside and ignotin reduced white matter injury and prevented post-hemorrhagic hydrocephalus in a rat model of intracerebral hemorrhage. Sci Rep 2016; 6:35923. [PMID: 27782218 PMCID: PMC5080569 DOI: 10.1038/srep35923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2016] [Accepted: 10/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The morbidity, mortality, and disability associated with intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) secondary to intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) represent a global burden. To date, there is no effective therapy for ICH other than supportive care. In this study, we assessed the neuroprotective effects of Cattle encephalon glycoside and ignotin (CEGI) injection in a rat model of ICH with ventricular extension (IVH/ICH). The IVH/ICH rat model was induced via injection of type IV collagenase in the caudate nucleus of Sprague-Dawley rats. The experimental animals were randomized to receive CEGI, monosialotetrahexosyl ganglioside (GM-1), or normal saline. The modified Garcia scale, corner turn test, immunofluorescence staining for myelin basic protein (MBP) and microtubule associated protein 2 (MAP-2), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and magnetic resonance imaging were employed to evaluate the neuroprotective effect of CEGI in the IVH/ICH rat model. CEGI treatment significantly alleviated the neurobehavioral dysfunction, reduced the lateral ventricular enlargement, promoted hematoma absorption, effectively up-regulated MBP/MAP-2 expression, and ameliorated white matter fiber damage post-ICH induction. Our results demonstrate that CEGI has significant neuroprotective effects in a rat model of IVH/ICH. Therefore, it can be used as a candidate drug for the clinical treatment of IVH/ICH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rongwei Li
- Department of Neurosurgery, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Kang Ma
- Department of Neurosurgery, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Hengli Zhao
- Department of Neurosurgery, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Zhou Feng
- Department of Neurosurgery, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Yang Yang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Hongfei Ge
- Department of Neurosurgery, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Xuan Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Jun Tang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Yi Yin
- Department of Neurosurgery, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Xin Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Liang Tan
- Department of Neurosurgery, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Hua Feng
- Department of Neurosurgery, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
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