Mechanisms of drug release from advanced drug formulations such as polymeric-based drug-delivery systems and lipid nanoparticles

Recent development in nanoencapsulation and delivery of natural bioactives through chitosan scaffolds for various biological applications

Nowadays, nano/micro-encapsulation as a pioneering technique may significantly improve the bioavailability and durability of Natural bioactives. For this purpose, chitosan as a bioactive cationic natural polysaccharide has been frequently used as a carrier because of its distinct chemical and biological properties, including polycationic nature, biocompatibility, and biodegradability. Moreover, polysaccharide-based nano/micro-formulations are a new and extensive trend in scientific research and development in the disciplines of biomedicine, bioorganic/ medicinal chemistry, pharmaceutics, agrochemistry, and the food industry. It promises a new paradigm in drug delivery systems and nanocarrier formulations. This review aims to summarize current developments in approaches for designing innovative chitosan micro/nano-matrix, with an emphasis on the encapsulation of natural bioactives. The special emphasis led to a detailed integrative scientific achievement of the functionalities and abilities for encapsulating natural bioactives and mechanisms regulated in vitro/in vivo release in various biological/physiological environments.

Synergistic co-administration of docetaxel and curcumin to chemoresistant cancer cells using PEGylated and RIPL peptide-conjugated nanostructured lipid carriers

Background

A targeted co-administration system of docetaxel (DTX) and curcumin (CUR) using a PEG-modified RIPL peptide (IPLVVPLRRRRRRRRC)-conjugated nanostructured lipid carrier (P/R-NLC) was constructed to exert synergistic anticancer effects against chemoresistant breast cancer.

Results

DTX- or CUR-loaded NLCs and P/R-NLCs were prepared using the solvent emulsification–evaporation method. NLCs showed homogeneous spherical morphology with nano-sized dispersion (< 210 nm) with zeta potential varying from − 16.4 to − 19.9 mV. DTX or CUR was successfully encapsulated in the NLCs: encapsulation efficiency (> 95%); drug loading (8 − 18%). All NLC formulations were stable for 4 weeks under the storage conditions at 4 °C. Drug release was diffusion-controlled, revealing the best fit to the Higuchi equation. DTX- or CUR-loaded formulations showed dose-dependent cytotoxicity. The DTX/CUR combination (1:3 w/w) in P/R-NLC formulations exhibited the strongest synergism in both MCF7 and MCF7/ADR cells with combination index values of 0.286 and 0.130, respectively. Co-treatment with DTX- or CUR-P/R-NLCs increased apoptosis in both cell lines exhibited the superior synergistic inhibitory effect on MCF7/ADR three-dimensional spheroids. Finally, in OVCAR3-xenografted mouse models, co-treatment with DTX- or CUR-loaded P/R-NLCs significantly suppressed tumor growth compared to the other treatment groups.

Conclusions

Co-administration of DTX/CUR (1:3 w/w) using P/R-NLCs induced a synergistic effect against chemoresistant cancer cells.

Graphical Abstract

Fabrication of Chitosan Nanofibers Containing Some Steroidal Compounds as a Drug Delivery System

A novel drug delivery system based on chitosan nanofibers containing some steroidal derivatives was developed using an electrospinning process. Oxazolines and aziridines from the cholestane series of steroidal epoxides were successfully synthesized and characterized by elemental analysis, Fourier transforms infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1HNMR), and mass spectroscopy (MS). Steroidal-compound-loaded chitosan (ST-CH) nanofibers were fabricated using the electrospinning technique in the presence of polyvinylpyrrolidone (CH/PVP). The electrospun nanofibers were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The swelling degree of the electrospun nanofibers and their steroidal compound release performance were studied as well. Furthermore, their antibacterial activity against gram-positive (Staphylococcus aurous) and gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli) was evaluated. The experimental data revealed that identical and bead-free nanofiber mats loaded with 10 Wt. % of synthesized steroidal derivatives had been obtained. The FTIR spectrum proved that no change occurred in the chitosan structure during the electrospinning process. The synthesized nanofiber mats showed a high swelling degree and a burst release of steroidal compounds after 2 h doping in phosphate buffer saline. In addition, the electrospun nanofibers containing 3β-chloro-N-amido-5α-cholestano-aziridine and those containing 3β-acetoxy-N-amido-5α-cholestano-aziridine were the most active, with activity indices of 91 and 104% in the case of S. aureus and 52% and 61% in the case of E. coli, respectively. The release mechanism by CH/PVP of the drug samples was studied based on the charge density and diffusion controlled factors. The oxazoline derivatives release mechanism from CH/PVP was evaluated by applying the suppositions of the Ritger-Peppas kinetic model and by estimating the transport exponent; the latter revealed the involvement of the solvent diffusion and chain relaxation processes. Tailored steroidal loaded-chitosan (ST-CH) nanofibers are expected to be feasible and efficient drug delivery systems.

pH-Responsive PVA/BC-f-GO Dressing Materials for Burn and Chronic Wound Healing with Curcumin Release Kinetics

Polymeric materials have been essential biomaterials to develop hydrogels as wound dressings for sustained drug delivery and chronic wound healing. The microenvironment for wound healing is created by biocompatibility, bioactivity, and physicochemical behavior. Moreover, a bacterial infection often causes the healing process. The bacterial cellulose (BC) was functionalized using graphene oxide (GO) by hydrothermal method to have bacterial cellulose-functionalized-Graphene oxide (BC-f-GO). A simple blending method was used to crosslink BC-f-GO with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) by tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) as a crosslinker. The structural, morphological, wetting, and mechanical tests were conducted using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Scanning electron microscope (SEM), water contact angle, and a Universal testing machine (UTM). The release of Silver-sulphadiazine and drug release kinetics were studied at various pH levels and using different mathematical models (zero-order, first-order, Higuchi, Hixson, Korsmeyer–Peppas, and Baker–Lonsdale). The antibacterial properties were conducted against Gram-positive and Gram-negative severe infection-causing pathogens. These composite hydrogels presented potential anticancer activities against the U87 cell line by an increased GO amount. The result findings show that these composite hydrogels have physical-mechanical and inherent antimicrobial properties and controlled drug release, making them an ideal approach for skin wound healing. As a result, these hydrogels were discovered to be an ideal biomaterial for skin wound healing.

Development of Carboxymethyl Chitosan Nanoparticles Prepared by Ultrasound-Assisted Technique for a Clindamycin HCl Carrier

Polymeric nanoparticles are one method to modify the drug release of small hydrophilic molecules. In this study, clindamycin HCl was used as a model drug loaded in carboxymethyl chitosan nanoparticles cross-linked with Ca2+ ions (CMCS-Ca2+). The ultrasonication with experimental design was used to produce CMCS-Ca2+ nanoparticles loading clindamycin HCl. The model showed that the size of nanoparticles decreased when amplitude and time increased. The nanoparticle size of 318.40 ± 7.56 nm, decreased significantly from 543.63 ± 55.07 nm (p < 0.05), was obtained from 75% of amplitude and 180 s of time, which was one of the optimal conditions. The clindamycin loading content in this condition was 34.68 ± 2.54%. The drug content in nanoparticles showed an inverse relationship with the size of the nanoparticles. The sodium carboxymethylcellulose film loading clindamycin HCl nanoparticles exhibited extended release with 69.88 ± 2.03% drug release at 60 min and a gradual increase to 94.99 ± 4.70% at 24 h, and demonstrated good antibacterial activity against S. aureus and C. acne with 40.72 ± 1.23 and 48.70 ± 1.99 mm of the zone of inhibition at 24 h, respectively. Thus, CMCS-Ca2+ nanoparticles produced by the ultrasound-assisted technique could be a potential delivery system to modify the drug release of small hydrophilic antibiotics.

Nanomaterials: The New Antimicrobial Magic Bullet

Bacterial infections are a significant cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide, despite decades of use of numerous existing antibiotics and constant efforts by researchers to discover new antibiotics. The emergence of infections associated with antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains, has amplified the pressure to develop additional bactericidal therapies or new unorthodox approaches that can deal with antimicrobial resistance. Nanomaterial-based strategies, particularly those that do not rely on conventional small-molecule antibiotics, offer promise in part due to their ability to dodge existing mechanisms used by drug-resistant bacteria. Therefore, the use of nanomaterial-based formulations has attracted attention in the field of antibiotic therapy. In this Review, we highlight novel and emerging nanomaterial-based formulations along with details about the mechanisms by which nanoparticles can target bacterial infections and antimicrobial resistance. A detailed discussion about types and the activities of nanoparticles is presented, along with how they can be used as either delivery systems or as inherent antimicrobials, or a combination of both. Lastly, we highlight some toxicological concerns for the use of nanoparticles in antibiotic therapies.

MOF-801 as a Nanoporous Water-Based Carrier System for In Situ Encapsulation and Sustained Release of 5-FU for Effective Cancer Therapy

Nanoporous metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have been gaining a reputation for their drug delivery applications. In the current work, MOF-801 was successfully prepared by a facile, cost-efficient, and environmentally friendly approach through the reaction of ZrCl₄ and fumaric acid as organic linkers to deliver 5-fluorouracil (5-FU). The prepared nanostructure was fully characterized by a series of analytical techniques including Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, powder X-ray diffraction, field-emission scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, UV-vis spectroscopy, ¹H NMR spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, high-performance liquid chromatography, and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller analysis. MOF-801 could be used for the delivery of the anticancer drug 5-FU due to its high surface area, suitable pore size, and biocompatible ingredients. Based on in vitro loading and release studies, a high 5-FU loading capacity and pH-dependent drug release behavior were observed. Moreover, the interactions between the structure of MOFs and 5-FU were investigated through Monte Carlo simulation calculations. An in vitro cytotoxicity test was done, and the results indicated that 5-FU@MOF-801 was more potent than 5-FU on SW480 cancerous cells, indicating the highlighted role of this drug delivery system. Finally, the kinetics of drug release was investigated.

Nanostructures for drug delivery in respiratory diseases therapeutics: Revision of current trends and its comparative analysis

Respiratory diseases are leading causes of death and disability in developing and developed countries. The burden of acute and chronic respiratory diseases has been rising throughout the world and represents a major problem in the public health system. Acute respiratory diseases include pneumonia, influenza, SARS-CoV-2 and MERS viral infections; while chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma and, occupational lung diseases (asbestosis, pneumoconiosis) and other parenchymal lung diseases namely lung cancer and tuberculosis are examples of chronic respiratory diseases. Importantly, chronic respiratory diseases are not curable and treatments for acute pathologies are particularly challenging. For that reason, the integration of nanotechnology to existing drugs or for the development of new treatments potentially benefits the therapeutic goals by making drugs more effective and exhibit fewer undesirable side effects to treat these conditions. Moreover, the integration of different nanostructures enables improvement of drug bioavailability, transport and delivery compared to stand-alone drugs in traditional respiratory therapy. Notably, there has been great progress in translating nanotechnology-based cancer therapies and diagnostics into the clinic; however, researchers in recent years have focused on the application of nanostructures in other relevant pulmonary diseases as revealed in our database search. Furthermore, polymeric nanoparticles and micelles are the most studied nanostructures in a wide range of diseases; however, liposomal nanostructures are recognized to be some of the most successful commercial drug delivery systems. In conclusion, this review presents an overview of the recent and relevant research in drug delivery systems for the treatment of different pulmonary diseases and outlines the trends, limitations, importance and application of nanomedicine technology in treatment and diagnosis and future work in this field.

In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluations of Berberine-Loaded Microparticles Filled In-House 3D Printed Hollow Capsular Device for Improved Oral Bioavailability

The low oral bioavailability, short biological half-life, high dose, and frequent dosing of berberine (BBR) contribute to its restricted clinical use despite its extensive pharmacological activity. Thus, the objective of this study was to formulate sustained-release microparticles (MPs) using a pH-independent release polymer and to evaluate their potential to improve the oral bioavailability of BBR. BBR loaded MPs were prepared using the emulsion crosslinking method and evaluated for particle size, circularity, morphology, entrapment efficiency, solid-state analysis, swelling index, and in vitro BBR release study fitted with different models of release kinetics. The MPs exhibited desired particle sizes ranges between 11.09-11.62 μm and were almost spherical in shape, as confirmed by the circularity value and micrographic images. A loss of BBR crystallinity was observed after encapsulation in MPs, as evident from various solid-state analyses. The final optimized batch (F3) showed highest % BBR entrapment efficiency value of 81.63% ± 4.9. The in vitro BBR release performance in both acidic and alkaline media showed the desired sustained release behavior from the crosslinked MPs, where the maximum BBR release was observed at alkaline pH, which is in accordance with the swelling study data. In the in vivo study, the oral absorption profiles of BBR from both pristine and MPs formats were investigated using in-house prototyped 3D printed hollow capsules as a unit dose carrier. In vivo data showed sustained and prolonged absorption behavior of BBR from MPs compared to their pristine counterparts, which resulted in a cumulative increment of relative oral bioavailability to mitigate the aforementioned issues related to BBR. Graphical Abstract.

Hyaluronan self-agglomerating nanoparticles for non-small cell lung cancer targeting

Background

Owing to the limited amount of research, there are no nanoparticle-based anticancer agents that use hydrophilic drugs. Therefore, we developed irinotecan-loaded self-agglomerating hyaluronan nanoparticles (ISHNs). While irinotecan has high hydrophilicity, the resulting nanoparticle should possess high anticancer drug-loading capacity and allow selective targeting of the cluster of differentiation 44 (CD44) protein, which is overexpressed on the surface of tumor cells.

Results

The ISHNs were successfully made with hyaluronan (HA) as a targeting moiety, FeCl3 as a binder, and D-glutamic acid (GA) as a stabilizer. The ISHNs self-agglomerated via chelating bonding and were lyophilized using a freeze dryer. The particle diameter and zeta potential of the ISHNs were 93.8 ± 4.48 nm and − 36.3 ± 0.28 mV, respectively; a relatively narrow size distribution was observed. The drug fixation yield and drug-loading concentration were 58.3% and 1.75 mg/mL, respectively. Affinity studies revealed a tenfold stronger targeting to H23 (CD44+) non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells, than of A549 (CD44−) cells.

Conclusion

We developed irinotecan-loaded ISHNs, which comprised irinotecan hydrochloride as a water-soluble anticancer agent, HA as a targeting moiety, FeCl3 as a binder for self-agglomeration, and GA as a stabilizer; HA is a binding material for CD44 in NSCLC cells. Owing to their ease of manufacture, excellent stability, non-cell toxicity and CD44-targeting ability, ISHNs are potential nanocarriers for passive and active tumor targeting.

Recent updates on applications of Lipid-based nanoparticles for site-specific drug delivery

BACKGROUND

Site-specific drug delivery is a widespread and demanding area nowadays. Lipid-based nanoparticulate drug delivery systems have shown promising effects for targeting drugs among lymphatic systems, brain tissues, lungs, and skin. Recently, lipid nanoparticles are used for targeting the brain via the mucosal route for local therapeutic effects. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) can help in enhancing the efficacy and lowering the toxicities of anticancer drugs to treat the tumors, particularly in lymph after metastases of tumors. LNPs contain a non-polar core that can improve the absorption of lipophilic drugs into the lymph node and treat tumors. Cellular uptake of drugs can also be enhanced using LNPs and therefore, LNPs are the ideal carrier for treating intracellular infections such as leishmaniasis, tuberculosis and parasitic infection in the brain, etc. Furthermore, specific surface modifications with molecules like mannose, or PEG could improve the macrophage uptake and hence effectively eradicate parasites hiding in macrophages.

METHOD

An electronic literature search was conducted to update the advancements in the field of site-specific drug delivery utilizing lipid-based nanoparticles. A search of the Scopus database (https://www.scopus.com/home.uri) was conducted using the following keywords: lipid-based nanoparticles; site specific delivery.

CONCLUSION

Solid lipid nanoparticles have shown site-specific targeted delivery to various organs including the liver, oral mucosa, brain, epidermis, pulmonary and lymphatic systems. These lipid-based systems showed improved bioavailability as well as reduced side effects. Therefore, the focus of this article is to review the recent research studies on LNPs for site-specific or targeting drug delivery.

Cytocompatible drug delivery hydrogels based on carboxymethylagarose/chitosan pH-responsive polyelectrolyte complexes

Several drugs are chemically unstable in the gastric environment and have low bioavailability restricted by intestinal absorption, which motivates the development of alternative routes for drug release, such as transdermal drug carriers for drug delivery to specific areas of the skin. Herein, novel polyelectrolyte complexes (PEC) consisting of carboxymethylagarose (CMA) and chitosan (CS) were prepared. pH-responsive CMA/CS hydrogels were obtained by mixing CMA and CS at various weight ratios. Swelling ratio was modulated by varying the CMA and CS weight ratio, and the highest swelling values were achieved for 2:1 wt% hydrogels at 25 °C and pH 6.0. PEC films were characterized by ATR-FTIR spectroscopy, TGA, DSC, and SEM. Results indicated that CMA and CS were successfully crosslinked by ionic complexation. As a model drug, diclofenac sodium (DS) was loaded in CMA/CS PECs. Association efficiency and loading capacity were ca. 69% and 79%, respectively, exhibiting 67% cumulative release after 72 h at 37 °C and pH 6.0 through Fickian diffusion mechanism. Viability assay of immortalized human keratinocyte (HaCat) cells showed ca. 100% survival in the presence of hydrogels and DS. Therefore, this work suggests that CMA/CS PECs can be applied as pH-responsive carriers for dermal drug delivery.

pH-Responsive, Adorned Nanoniosomes for Codelivery of Cisplatin and Epirubicin: Synergistic Treatment of Breast Cancer

Combination chemotherapy has become a treatment modality for breast cancer. However, serious side effects and high cytotoxicity associated with this combination therapy make it a high-risk method for breast cancer treatment. This study evaluated the anticancer effect of decorated niosomal nanocarriers loaded with cisplatin (CIS) and epirubicin (EPI) in vitro (on SKBR3 and 4T1 breast cancer cells) and in vivo on BALB/c mice. For this purpose, polyethylene glycol (PEG) and folic acid (FA) were employed to prepare a functionalized niosomal system to improve endocytosis. FA-PEGylated niosomes exhibited desired encapsulation efficiencies of ∼91.2 and 71.9% for CIS and EPI, respectively. Moreover, cellular assays disclosed that a CIS and EPI-loaded niosome (NCE) and FA-PEGylated niosomal CIS and EPI (FPNCE) enhanced the apoptosis rate and cell migration in SKBR3 and 4T1 cells compared to CIS, EPI, and their combination (CIS+EPI). For FPNCE and NCE groups, the expression levels of Bax, Caspase3, Caspase9, and Mfn1 genes increased, whereas the expression of Bcl2, Drp1, MMP-2, and MMP-9 genes was downregulated. Histopathology results showed a reduction in the mitosis index, invasion, and pleomorphism in BALB/c inbred mice with NCE and FPNCE treatment. In this paper, for the first time, we report a niosomal nanocarrier functionalized with PEG and FA for codelivery of CIS and EPI to treat breast cancer. The results demonstrated that the codelivery of CIS and EPI through FA-PEGylated niosomes holds great potential for breast cancer treatment.

A drift on liposomes to proliposomes: recent advances and promising approaches

Liposomes are nano-structured vesicles, made up of phospholipids that provide active ingredients at the site of action at a predetermined rate and add the advantage of the sustained-release formulation. Liposomes have stability issues that tend to agglomerate and fuse upon storage, which reflects their drawback. Hence to overcome the aggregation, fusion, hydrolysis, and/or oxidation problems associated with liposomes a new technology named Proliposomes has been introduced. Proliposomes are defined as carbohydrate carriers coated with phospholipids, which upon addition of water generate liposomes. The objective of the review is to cover the concept of proliposomes for pulmonary or alveolar delivery of drugs and compare it with that of liposomes; highlight the methods used for preparations along with the characterization parameters. This is the first systematic review that covers the categorization of liposomes, characteristic methods, and recent examples of drugs from 2015 to 2021, supplied in form of proliposomes to the macrophages as well as others and offers an advantage over the free drug by offering a prolonged drug release and sufficient bioavailability in addition to overcome the stability issues related to liposomes. Since this is a very new technology and many scientists are continuously working in this field to make the drug available for clinical trials and ultimately in the market for the targeted delivery of drugs with better storage life.HIGHLIGHTSProliposomes as an alternative to overwhelm the stability and storage-related issues of liposomes.Anhydrous carbohydrate carriers are utilized for proliposomal preparation.Inhaled delivery of drugs as solid lipid nanoparticles offers a significant impact on pulmonary tract infections, particularly in cystic fibrosis.Size of liposomes attained after proliposome hydrolysis is critical for drug delivery via respiration.

Poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid nanoparticles as a delivery system for fish oil in wound healing

The objective of the study was to design, synthetize and characterize poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs) with entrapped fish oil (FO) for possible application in a cutaneous wound healing. Morphology of NPs was evaluated by transmission electron microscopy. Antimicrobial characteristics were tested using the disk diffusion method and plate count method, and cytotoxicity was evaluated by the MTT assay. Fish oil (y) was released from PLGA NPs within the time interval (x) of 96 h according to equation y = 6.2 + 0.914x. PLGA-FO NPs did not affect growth of Staphylococcus aureus or methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) strains. No cytotoxic effect of the tested NPs on the keratinocyte cell line was observed for concentration of 1 µg/ml. PLGA-FO NPs represent an interesting alternative for wound healing due to an excellent biocompatibility and unique release profile of FO, despite their lack of antimicrobial efficiency.

In Vitro Comparative Study of Solid Lipid and PLGA Nanoparticles Designed to Facilitate Nose-to-Brain Delivery of Insulin

The brain insulin metabolism alteration has been addressed as a pathophysiological factor underlying Alzheimer's disease (AD). Insulin can be beneficial in AD, but its macro-polypeptide nature negatively influences the chances of reaching the brain. The intranasal (IN) administration of therapeutics in AD suggests improved brain-targeting. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) and poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles (PLGA NPs) are promising carriers to deliver the IN-administered insulin to the brain due to the enhancement of the drug permeability, which can even be improved by chitosan-coating. In the present study, uncoated and chitosan-coated insulin-loaded SLNs and PLGA NPs were formulated and characterized. The obtained NPs showed desirable physicochemical properties supporting IN applicability. The in vitro investigations revealed increased mucoadhesion, nasal diffusion, and drug release rate of both insulin-loaded nanocarriers over native insulin with the superiority of chitosan-coated SLNs. Cell-line studies on human nasal epithelial and brain endothelial cells proved the safety IN applicability of nanoparticles. Insulin-loaded nanoparticles showed improved insulin permeability through the nasal mucosa, which was promoted by chitosan-coating. However, native insulin exceeded the blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeation compared with nanoparticulate formulations. Encapsulating insulin into chitosan-coated NPs can be beneficial for ensuring structural stability, enhancing nasal absorption, followed by sustained drug release.

Novel strategies to oral delivery of insulin: Current progress of nanocarriers for diabetes management

Diabetes mellitus is one of the most serious public health problems in the world. Repeated daily injections of subcutaneous insulin is the standard treatment for patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus; however, subcutaneous insulin injections can potentially cause local discomfort, patient noncompliance, hypoglycemia, failure to regulate glucose homeostasis, infections, and fat deposits at the injection sites. In recent years, numerous attempts have been made to produce safe and efficient nanoparticles for oral insulin delivery. Oral administration is considered the most effective alternative route to insulin injection, but it is accompanied by several challenges related to enzymatic proteolysis, digestive breakdown, and absorption barriers. A number of natural and synthetic polymeric, lipid-based, and inorganic nanoparticles have been investigated for use. Although improvements have recently been made in potential oral insulin delivery systems, these require further investigation before clinical trials are conducted. In this review, new approaches to oral insulin delivery for diabetes treatment are discussed, including polymeric, lipid-based, and inorganic nanoparticles, as well as the clinical trials performed for this purpose.

Polymeric Micro/Nanocarriers and Motors for Cargo Transport and Phototriggered Delivery

Smart polymer-based micro/nanoassemblies have emerged as a promising alternative for transporting and delivering a myriad of cargo. Cargo encapsulation into (or linked to) polymeric micro/nanocarrier (PC) strategies may help to conserve cargo activity and functionality when interacting with its surroundings in its journey to the target. PCs for cargo phototriggering allow for excellent spatiotemporal control via irradiation as an external stimulus, thus regulating the delivery kinetics of cargo and potentially increasing its therapeutic effect. Micromotors based on PCs offer an accelerated cargo-medium interaction for biomedical, environmental, and many other applications. This review collects the recent achievements in PC development based on nanomicelles, nanospheres, and nanopolymersomes, among others, with enhanced properties to increase cargo protection and cargo release efficiency triggered by ultraviolet (UV) and near-infrared (NIR) irradiation, including light-stimulated polymeric micromotors for propulsion, cargo transport, biosensing, and photo-thermal therapy. We emphasize the challenges of positioning PCs as drug delivery systems, as well as the outstanding opportunities of light-stimulated polymeric micromotors for practical applications.

Potential of Nanoparticles Integrated with Antibacterial Properties in Preventing Biofilm and Antibiotic Resistance

Nanotechnology has become an emerging technology in the medical field and is widely applicable for various clinical applications. The potential use of nanoparticles as antimicrobial agents is greatly explored and taken into consideration as alternative methods to overcome the challenges faced by healthcare workers and patients in preventing infections caused by pathogenic microorganisms. Among microorganisms, bacterial infections remain a major hurdle and are responsible for high morbidity and mortality globally, especially involving those with medical conditions and elderly populations. Over time, these groups are more vulnerable to developing resistance to antibiotics, as bacterial biofilms are difficult to destroy or eliminate via antibiotics; thus, treatment becomes unsuccessful or ineffective. Mostly, bacterial biofilms and other microbes can be found on medical devices and wounds where they disperse their contents which cause infections. To inhibit biofilm formations and overcome antibiotic resistance, antimicrobial-loaded nanoparticles alone or combined with other substances could enhance the bactericidal activity of nanomaterials. This includes killing the pathogens effectively without harming other cells or causing any adverse effects to living cells. This review summarises the mechanisms of actions employed by the different types of nanoparticles which counteract infectious agents in reducing biofilm formation and improve antibiotic therapy for clinical usage.

A review on the bioavailability, bio-efficacies and novel delivery systems for piperine

As the major naturally occurring alkaloid in pepper with a pungent taste, piperine is known for its beneficial biological functions and therapeutic effects. In this work, the bioavailability and biological activities of piperine were presented and discussed. Novel delivery systems for enhancing the bioavailability of piperine were also reviewed. This study could provide a better understanding of the physiological and biochemical aspects of piperine to be further developed in the food and nutraceutical industries.

Data-Driven Modeling of the Cellular Pharmacokinetics of Degradable Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles

Nanoparticle drug delivery vehicles introduce multiple pharmacokinetic processes, with the delivery, accumulation, and stability of the therapeutic molecule influenced by nanoscale processes. Therefore, considering the complexity of the multiple interactions, the use of data-driven models has critical importance in understanding the interplay between controlling processes. We demonstrate data simulation techniques to reproduce the time-dependent dose of trimethyl chitosan nanoparticles in an ND7/23 neuronal cell line, used as an in vitro model of native peripheral sensory neurons. Derived analytical expressions of the mean dose per cell accurately capture the pharmacokinetics by including a declining delivery rate and an intracellular particle degradation process. Comparison with experiment indicates a supply time constant, τ = 2 h. and a degradation rate constant, b = 0.71 h⁻¹. Modeling the dose heterogeneity uses simulated data distributions, with time dependence incorporated by transforming data-bin values. The simulations mimic the dynamic nature of cell-to-cell dose variation and explain the observed trend of increasing numbers of high-dose cells at early time points, followed by a shift in distribution peak to lower dose between 4 to 8 h and a static dose profile beyond 8 h.

Nanoparticles and Its Implications in HIV/AIDS Therapy

The use of Antiretroviral drugs in treating HIV/ AIDS patients has enormously increased their life spans with serious disadvantages. The virus infection still remains a public health problem worldwide with no cure and vaccine for the viral agent until now. The use of nanoparticles (NPs) for the treatment and prevention of HIV/AIDS is an emerging technology of the 21st century. NPs are solid and colloid particles with 10 nm to <1000 nm size range; although, less than 200 nm is the recommended size for nanomedical usage. There are NPs with therapeutic capabilities such as liposomes, micelles, dendrimers and nanocapsules. The particle enters the body mainly via oral intake, direct injection and inhalation. It has been proven to have potentials of advancing the prevention and treatment of the viral agent. Certain NPs have been shown to have selftherapeutic activity for the virus in vitro. Strategies that are novel are emerging which can be used to improve nanotechnology, such as genetic treatment and immunotherapy. In this review, nanoparticles, the types and its characteristics in drug delivery were discussed. The light was furthermore shed on its implications in the prevention and treatment of HIV/AIDS.

Hydrophobically Grafted Pullulan Nanocarriers for Percutaneous Delivery: Preparation and Preliminary In Vitro Characterisation

Polymeric colloidal nanocarriers formulated from hydrophobically grafted carbohydrates have been the subject of intensive research due to their potential to increase the percutaneous penetration of hydrophilic actives. To this goal, a series of hydrophobically grafted pullulan (BMO-PUL) derivatives with varying degree of grafting (5–64%) was prepared through functionalisation with 2-(butoxymethyl)oxirane. The results demonstrated that monodispersed BMO-PUL nanocarriers (size range 125–185 nm) could be easily prepared via nanoprecipitation; they exhibit close-to-spherical morphology and adequate stability at physiologically relevant pH. The critical micellar concentration of BMO-PUL was found to be inversely proportional to their molecular weight (Mw) and degree of grafting (DG), with values of 60 mg/L and 40 mg/L for DG of 12.6% and 33.8%, respectively. The polymeric nanocarriers were loaded with the low Mw hydrophilic active α-arbutin (16% loading), and the release of this active was studied at varying pH values (5 and 7), with a slightly faster release observed in acidic conditions; the release profiles can be best described by a first-order kinetic model. In vitro investigations of BMO-PUL nanocarriers (concentration range 0.1–4 mg/mL) using immortalised skin human keratinocytes cells (HaCaT) evidenced their lack of toxicity, with more than 85% cell viability after 24 h. A four-fold enhance in arbutin permeation through HaCaT monolayers was recorded when the active was encapsulated within the BMO-PUL nanocarriers. Altogether, the results obtained from the in vitro studies highlighted the potential of BMO-PUL nanocarriers for percutaneous delivery applications, which would warrant further investigation in vivo.

Formulation and In-Vitro Characterisation of Cross-Linked Amphiphilic Guar Gum Nanocarriers for Percutaneous Delivery of Arbutin

Nano-colloidal systems formulated from amphiphilically-modified polysaccharides (degree of modification 16.6%) are focus of prominent study due to their potential to augment active penetration across the skin. Here we report the synthesis of amphiphilically-modified guar gum (GBE-GG) prepared by grafting with glycidol butyl ether (GBE), which were subsequently formed into nanocarriers and loaded with α-arbutin (22.3% loading). The monodispersed and close-to-spherical nanocarriers (size range 239-297 nm) formed via cross-linking were adequately stable mainly at low temperature (4 °C) under physiological pH condition. α-arbutin was released from GBE-GG NPs in a more sustained manner and the release profiles can be accurately represented by the 1^st order kinetic model. In-vitro interactions on immortalised human keratinocytes (HaCaT) cells revealed an increase in biological membrane permeability as well as the absence of cellular toxicity at application pertinent concentrations. No substantial haemolytic activity appeared and flow cytometry analysis revealed effective cellular uptake, suggesting their potential as promising nanocarriers for percutaneous delivery that warrants further comprehensive research.

Boron phenyl alanine targeted ionic liquid decorated chitosan nanoparticles for mitoxantrone delivery to glioma cell line

Nanotechnology has revolutionized drug delivery in cancer treatment. In this study, novel efficient pH-responsive boron phenylalanine (BPA) targeted nanoparticles (NPs) based on ionic liquid modified chitosan have been introduced for selective mitoxantrone (MTO) delivery to the U87MG glioma cells. Urocanic acid (UA) and imidazolium (Im) based ionic liquids were used for structural modification simultaneously. The NPs were prepared by ionic gelation and fully characterized; the pH-responding and swelling index of NPs were studied carefully. The drug release was studied at a pH of 5.5 in comparison to the neutral state. Also, the cytotoxicity of loaded NPs was evaluated on U87MG glial cells, and cellular uptake was studied. The NPs were smaller than 250 nm, with a spherical pattern and acceptable uniformity with a zeta potential around +20 mV. The loading efficacy was about 85%, and most of the loaded MTO released at a pH of 5.5 after 48 h with a swelling-controlled mechanism. The NPs showed a relatively lower IC₅₀ than the free MTO, and the BPA-targeted NPs have lower IC₅₀ and better cellular uptake than non-targeted NPs in U87MG cells. More studies on this promising formula are on the way, and the results will be published soon.

5-Aminosalicylic Acid Loaded Chitosan-Carrageenan Hydrogel Beads with Potential Application for the Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease

The aim of our work is to prepare mucoadhesive particles with biopolymers and 5-Aminosalicylic acid (5ASA) using the ionotropic gelation technique to ensure a controlled drug release at the colon level with potential applications in the treatment of intestinal bowel disease (IBD). The preparation of particles through the crosslinking of Chitosan (CS) with sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP) using different mass ratios and the influence of the k-Carrageenan (kCG) layer were studied. UV–VIS spectrometry was employed to assess encapsulation efficiency and drug release profile of 5ASA. The particles were investigated using FT-IR spectrometry for chemical characterization and the DLS results highlighted a monodisperse particle size distribution. The morphology of the polymeric beads was investigated using micro-computer tomography (µCT) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). Particles based on Chitosan and k-Carrageenan were able to incorporate and preserve 5ASA in an acidic and alkaline medium. The 5ASA loaded polymeric particles obtained after immersion for 1 h in kCG solution exhibited the lowest release rate in pH = 1.2. Biocompatibility studies performed on all of the particles displayed a good viability for the CCD 841 CoN cells and low cytotoxicity. All of the results have shown that these new biomaterials could be a versatile platform of targeted carriers with potential applications in inflammatory bowel disease treatment.

Modeling of Anti-cancer Drug Release Kinetics from Liposomes and Micelles: A review

Nanocarriers, such as liposomes and micelles, were developed to enhance the delivery of therapeutic drugs to malignant tissues. Internal or external stimuli can be applied to achieve spatiotemporal controlled release from these carriers. This will result in enhancing their therapeutic efficacy while reducing toxicity. Mathematical modeling is used to simulate drug release from nanocarriers; this will facilitate and optimize the development and design of desirable nanocarriers in a systematic manner, rather than a trial-and-error approach. This review summarizes nine mathematical models often used to simulate drug release from nanocarriers and reviews studies which employed these models to simulate drug release from conventional as well as temperature-, pH-, and ultrasound-triggered micelles and liposomes.

Polymeric-based drug delivery systems for veterinary use: State of the art

One of the challenges to the success of veterinary pharmacotherapy is the limited number of drugs and dosage forms available exclusively to this market, due to the interspecies variability of animals, such as anatomy, physiology, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics. For this reason, studies in this area have become a highlight, since they are still scarce in comparison with those on human drug use. To overcome many limitations related to the bioavailability, efficacy, and safety of pharmacotherapy in animals, especially livestock and domestic animals, polymers-based drug delivery systems are promising tools if they guarantee greater selectivity and less toxicity in dosage forms. In addition, these tools may be developed according to the great interspecies variability. To contribute to these discussions, this paper provides an updated review of the major polymer-based drug delivery systems projected for veterinary use. Traditional and innovative drug delivery systems based on polymers are presented, with an emphasis on films, microparticles, micelles, nanogels, nanoparticles, tablets, implants and hydrogel-based drug delivery systems. We discuss important concepts for the veterinarian about the mechanisms of drug release and, for the pharmacist, the advantages in the development of pharmaceutical forms for the animal population. Finally, challenges and opportunities are presented in the field of pharmaceutical dosage forms for veterinary use in response to the interests of the pharmaceutical industry.

Phospholipid-Conjugated PEG-b-PCL Copolymers as Precursors of Micellar Vehicles for Amphotericin B

Amphotericin B (AmB) is a widely used antifungal that presents a broad action spectrum and few reports on the development of resistance. However, AmB is highly toxic, causing renal failure in a considerable number of treated patients. Although when AmB is transported via polymer micelles (PMs) as delivery vehicles its nephrotoxicity has been successfully attenuated, this type of nanoparticle has limitations, such as low encapsulation capacity and poor stability in aqueous media. In this research, the effect of modifying polyethyleglicol-block-poly(ε-caprolactone) (PEG-b-PCL) with 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphorylethanolamine (DSPE) on the performance of PMs as vehicles for AmB was studied. PEG-b-PCL with two different lengths of a PCL segment was prepared via ring opening polymerisation and modified with DSPE at a post-synthesis stage through amidation. Upon modification with DSPE, a copolymer was self-assembled, thereby producing particles with hydrodynamic diameters below 100 nm and a lower critical micelle concentration than that of the raw copolymers. Likewise, in the presence of DSPE, the loading capacity of AmB increased because of the formed intermolecular interactions, such as hydrogen bonds, which also caused a lower aggregation of this drug. The assessment of in vitro toxicity against red blood cells indicated that the toxicity of AmB decreased upon encapsulation; however, its antifungal action against clinical yeasts was maintained and enhanced, as indicated by a decrease in its minimum inhibitory concentration.

Evaluation of the bioaccessibility of tetrahydrocurcumin-hyaluronic acid conjugate using in vitro and ex vivo models

Tetrahydrocurcumin-hyaluronic acid (THC-HA) conjugate was synthesized in order to improve the bioaccessibility of tetrahydrocurcumin (THC). The successful conjugation was confirmed by the results from ¹H-nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H NMR), Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). Bioaccessibility enhancement from the THC-HA conjugate compared to the free crystalline THC suspension was demonstrated by the results from ex vivo Franz diffusion cell using small intestine from porcine and in vitro TNO dynamic gastrointestinal model-1 (TIM-1). Additionally, in vitro release was studied, and the integrity of the conjugate in both simulated gastric and intestinal conditions was found to maintain for up to 4 h. Mucoadhesive assay and rheological results indicated that the mucoadhesive property of THC-HA, in combination with the aqueous solubility enhancement, might contribute to the increased bioaccessibility. This study provides a promising approach to enhance the bioaccessibility of tetrahydrocurcumin through the innovative conjugation with hyaluronic acid.

Dual-Functional Iron Oxide Nanoparticles Coated with Polyvinyl Alcohol/5-Fluorouracil/Zinc-Aluminium-Layered Double Hydroxide for a Simultaneous Drug and Target Delivery System

Iron oxide nanoparticles are suitable for biomedical applications owing to their ability to anchor to various active agents and drugs, unique magnetic properties, nontoxicity, and biocompatibility. In this work, the physico-chemical and magnetic properties, as well as the cytotoxicity, of Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles coated with a polymeric carrier and loaded with a 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) anti-cancer drug are discussed. The synthesized Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles were coated with polyvinyl alcohol and Zn/Al-layered double hydroxide as the drug host. The XRD, DTA/TG, and FTIR analyzes confirmed the presence of the coating layer on the surface of nanoparticles. The results showed a decrease in saturation magnetization of bare Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles after coating with the PVA/5FU/Zn/Al-LDH layer. In addition, the presence of the coating prevented the agglomeration of nanoparticles. Furthermore, the pseudo-second-order equation governed the kinetics of drug release. Finally, the coated nanoparticles showed stronger activity against liver cancer cells (HepG2) compared to that of the naked 5-FU drug, and displayed no cytotoxicity towards 3T3 fibroblast cell lines. The results of the present study demonstrate the potential of a nano delivery system for cancer treatment.

Antibacterial, thermal decomposition and in vitro time release studies of chloramphenicol from novel PLA and PVA nanofiber mats

The present investigation is the first report containing design and synthesis of novel calixarene derivatives (6-8) and their inclusion complexes (IC6-IC8) with Chloramphenicol (CAM). After synthesis, the antibiotic CAM, calixarene derivatives (6-8) and their inclusion complexes (IC6-IC8) were successfully incorporated into biodegradable PVA and/or PLA nanofiber skeleton by electrospinning. The obtained electrospun nanofibers were tested and compared for inhibition of bacterial growth towards multiple bacterial species (Escherichia coli, and Bacillus subtilis). Moreover, we evaluated thermal decomposition and release profile of CAM by spectrophotometric methods. The results suggested that CAM can be successfully encapsulated in nanofiber webs by inclusion complexation, and these fibers could be used as a part of new controlled release packaging system for food preservation.

Chitosan Coated Luteolin Nanostructured Lipid Carriers: Optimization, In Vitro-Ex Vivo Assessments and Cytotoxicity Study in Breast Cancer Cells

In the present study, luteolin (LTN)-encapsulated chitosan (CS) coated nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) were formulated using the melt emulsification ultrasonication technique. NLCs were optimized by using the 33-QbD approach for improved in vitro efficacy against breast cancer cell lines. The optimized LTN-CS-NLCs were successfully characterized by different in vitro and ex vivo experiments as well as evaluated for cytotoxicity in MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 cell lines. The prepared LTN-CS-NLCs showed particle size (PS), polydispersity index (PDI), and entrapment efficiency (%EE) in the range between 101.25 nm and 158.04 nm, 0.11 and 0.20, and 65.55% and 95.37%, respectively. Coating of NLCs with CS significantly increased the particle size, encapsulation efficiency, and zeta potential changes positively. Moreover, slow-release rate of LTN was achieved during 24 h of study for LTN-CS-NLCs. In addition, optimized LTN-CS-NLCs showed significantly higher mucoadhesion, gastrointestinal stability, and intestinal permeation compared to non-coated LTN-NLCs and LTN suspension. Furthermore, LTN-CS-NLCs showed statistically enhanced antioxidant potential as well as dose and time-dependent cytotoxicity against MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 cells compared to uncoated LTN-NLCs and pure LTN. On the basis of the above findings, it may be stated that chitosan-coated LTN-NLCs represents a great potential for breast cancer management.

A bird's eye view of the advanced approaches and strategies for overshadowing triple negative breast cancer

Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) is one of the most aggressive form of breast cancer. It is characterized by the absence of estrogen, progesterone and human epidermal growth factor receptors. The main issue with TNBC is that it exhibits poor prognosis, high risk of relapse, short progression-free survival and low overall survival in patients. This is because the conventional therapy used for managing TNBC has issues pertaining to poor bioavailability, lower cellular uptake, increased off-target effects and development of resistance. To overcome such pitfalls, several other approaches are explored. In this context, the present manuscript showcases three of the most widely used approaches which are (i) nanotechnology-based approach; (ii) gene therapy approach and (iii) Phytochemical-based approach. The ultimate focus is to present and explain the insightful reports based on these approaches. Further, the review also expounds on the identified molecular targets and novel targeting ligands which are explored for managing TNBC effectively. Thus, in a nutshell, the review tries to highlight these existing treatment approaches which might inspire for future development of novel therapies with a potential of overshadowing TNBC.

Self-Assembled chitosan/phospholipid nanoparticles: from fundamentals to preparation for advanced drug delivery

With the development of nanotechnology, self-assembled chitosan/phospholipid nanoparticles (SACPNs) show great promise in a broad range of applications, including therapy, diagnosis, in suit imaging and on-demand drug delivery. Here, a brief review of the SACPNs is presented, and its critical underlying formation mechanisms are interpreted with an emphasis on the intrinsic physicochemical properties. The state-of-art preparation methods of SACPNs are summarized, with particular descriptions about the classic solvent injection method. Then SACPNs microstructures are characterized, revealing the unique spherical core-shell structure and the drug release mechanisms. Afterwards, a comprehensive and in-depth depiction of their emerging applications, with special attention to drug delivery areas, are categorized and reviewed. Finally, conclusions and outlooks on further advancing the SACPNs toward a more powerful and versatile platform for investigations covering from fundamental understanding to developing multi-functional drug delivery systems are discussed.

Drug-Loaded Lipid-Core Micelles in Mucoadhesive Films as a Novel Dosage Form for Buccal Administration of Poorly Water-Soluble and Biological Drugs

The aim of the study was to develop a novel buccal dosage form to transport rhodamine 123 and human insulin as models for poorly water-soluble and biological drugs, using lipid-core micelles (LCMs)-loaded mucoadhesive films. LCMs were synthesized by a low-energy hot emulsification process, yielding spherically shaped, small-sized, monodispersed and negatively charged carriers with high entrapment efficiency. In vitro release studies demonstrated a higher release of insulin rather than rhodamine from LCMs in simulated physiological conditions, due to an initial burst release effect; however, both release profiles are mainly explained by a diffusion mechanism. Furthermore, LCMs-loaded mucoadhesive films were manufactured and preserved with similar mechanical properties and optimal mucoadhesive behavior compared to nonloaded films. Ex vivo permeation experiments using excised porcine buccal epithelium reveal that both rhodamine and insulin-loaded LCM films elicited a significantly enhanced permeation effect compared to LCMs in suspension and free drugs in solution as controls. Hence, LCMs-loaded mucoadhesive films are suitable as buccal dosage form for the transport and delivery of rhodamine 123 and insulin, as models for poorly water-soluble and biological drugs, respectively.

A Critical Review on Emerging Trends in Dry Powder Inhaler Formulation for the Treatment of Pulmonary Aspergillosis

Pulmonary aspergillosis (PA), a pulmonary fungal infection caused by Aspergillus spp., is a concern for immunocompromised populations. Despite substantial research efforts, conventional treatments of PA using antifungal agents are associated with limitations such as excessive systemic exposure, serious side effects and limited availability of the therapeutics in the lungs for an adequate duration. To overcome the limitations associated with the conventional regimens, pulmonary delivery of antifungal agents has become a focal point of research because of the superiority of local and targeted drug delivery. Dry powder inhalers and nebulized formulations of antifungal agents have been developed and evaluated for their capability to effectively deliver antifungal agents to the lungs. Moreover, progress in nanotechnology and the utilization of nanocarriers in the development of pulmonary delivery formulations has allowed further augmentation of treatment capability and efficiency. Thus, the following review provides an insight into the advantages and therapeutic potential of the utilization of nanocarriers in pulmonary delivery of antifungal agents for the treatment of PA. In addition, discussions on formulation aspects and safety concerns together with the clinical and regulatory aspects of the formulations are presented, which suggest the possibility and desirability of utilization of nanocarriers in the treatment of PA.

Photodynamic therapy with nanoparticles to combat microbial infection and resistance

Infections caused by drug-resistant pathogens are rapidly increasing in incidence and pose an urgent global health concern. New treatments are needed to address this critical situation while preventing further resistance acquired by the pathogens. One promising approach is antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (PDT), a technique that selectively damages pathogenic cells through reactive oxygen species (ROS) that have been deliberately produced by light-activated chemical reactions via a photosensitiser. There are currently some limitations to its wider deployment, including aggregation, hydrophobicity, and sub-optimal penetration capabilities of the photosensitiser, all of which decrease the production of ROS and lead to reduced therapeutic performance. In combination with nanoparticles, however, these challenges may be overcome. Their small size, functionalisable structure, and large contact surface allow a high degree of internalization by cellular membranes and tissue barriers. In this review, we first summarise the mechanism of PDT action and the interaction between nanoparticles and the cell membrane. We then introduce the categorisation of nanoparticles in PDT, acting as nanocarriers, photosensitising molecules, and transducers, in which we highlight their use against a range of bacterial and fungal pathogens. We also compare the antimicrobial efficiency of nanoparticles to unbound photosensitisers and examine the relevant safety considerations. Finally, we discuss the use of nanoparticulate drug delivery systems in clinical applications of antimicrobial PDT.

Cooperative Effects of an Antifungal Moiety and DMSO on Pore Formation over Lipid Membranes Revealed by Free Energy Calculations

Itraconazole is a triazole drug widely used in the treatment of fungal infections, and it is in clinical trials for treatment of several cancers. However, the drug suffers from poor solubility, while experiments have shown that itraconazole delivery in liposome nanocarriers improves both circulation half-life and tissue distribution. The drug release mechanism from the nanocarrier is still unknown, and it depends on several factors including membrane stability against defect formation. In this work, we used molecular dynamics simulations and potential of mean force (PMF) calculations to quantify the influence of itraconazole on pore formation over lipid membranes, and we compared the effect by itraconazole with a pore-stabilizing effect by the organic solvent dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO). According to the PMFs, both itraconazole and DMSO greatly reduce the free energy of pore formation, by up to ∼20 kJ mol^-1. However, whereas large concentrations of itraconazole of 8 mol % (relative to lipid) were required, only small concentrations of a few mole % DMSO (relative to water) were sufficient to stabilize pores. In addition, itraconazole and DMSO facilitate pore formation by different mechanisms. Whereas itraconazole predominantly aids the formation of a partial defect with a locally thinned membrane, DMSO mainly stabilizes a transmembrane water needle by shielding it from the hydrophobic core. Notably, the two distinct mechanisms act cooperatively upon adding both itraconazole and DMSO to the membrane, as revealed by an additional reduction of the pore free energy. Overall, our simulations reveal molecular mechanisms and free energies of membrane pore formation by small molecules. We suggest that the stabilization of a locally thinned membrane as well as the shielding of a transmembrane water needle from the hydrophobic membrane core may be a general mechanism by which amphiphilic molecules facilitate pore formation over lipid membranes at sufficient concentrations.