Cloning of a putative gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptor subunit rho 3 cDNA

An update on GABAA receptors

Recent advances in molecular biology and complementary information derived from neuropharmacology, biochemistry and behavior have dramatically increased our understanding of various aspects of GABAA receptors. These studies have revealed that the GABAA receptor is derived from various subunits such as alpha1-alpha6, beta1-beta3, gamma1-gamma3, delta, epsilon, pi, and rho1-3. Furthermore, two additional subunits (beta4, gamma4) of GABAA receptors in chick brain, and five isoforms of the rho-subunit in the retina of white perch (Roccus americana) have been identified. Various techniques such as mutation, gene knockout and inhibition of GABAA receptor subunits by antisense oligodeoxynucleotides have been used to establish the physiological/pharmacological significance of the GABAA receptor subunits and their native receptor assemblies in vivo. Radioligand binding to the immunoprecipitated receptors, co-localization studies using immunoaffinity chromatography and immunocytochemistry techniques have been utilized to establish the composition and pharmacology of native GABAA receptor assemblies. Partial agonists of GABAA receptors are being developed as anxiolytics which have fewer and less severe side effects as compared to conventional benzodiazepines because of their lower efficacy and better selectivity for the GABAA receptor subtypes. The subunit requirement of various drugs such as anxiolytics, anticonvulsants, general anesthetics, barbiturates, ethanol and neurosteroids, which are known to elicit at least some of their pharmacological effects via the GABAA receptors, have been investigated during the last few years so as to understand their exact mechanism of action. Furthermore, the molecular determinants of clinically important drug-targets have been investigated. These aspects of GABAA receptors have been discussed in detail in this review article.

Bicuculline-resistant, Cl- dependent GABA response in the rat spinal dorsal horn

Receptors for gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the mammalian central nervous system (CNS), have been divided into three subtypes. GABA(A) receptor is a ligand-gated chloride channel that is competitively antagonized by bicuculline, whereas GABA(B) receptor regulate Ca2+ or K+ channels through G proteins. Recently, GABA(C) receptor has been identified in mammalian and fish retina. Unlike GABA(A) receptors, the GABA(C) receptor is a bicuculline-resistant chloride channel that is selectively activated by cis-4-aminocrotonic acid (CACA), and antagonized by imidazole-4-acetic acid (I4AA) and to some extent by picrotoxin. We report here that bicuculline-resistant GABA responses mediated by chloride channels are also expressed in substantia gelatinosa (SG) neurons in the dorsal horn, which receive predominantly nociceptive inputs from periphery. The GABA responses are, however, not mimicked by CACA nor affected by I4AA, but abolished by picrotoxin. Moreover, these responses are modulated by benzodiazepines (flunitrazepam) and barbiturates (thiopental), although GABA(C) responses are not affected. Thus, the pharmacological characteristics of the GABA responses observed in SG neurons are distinct from those responses mediated by the known GABA receptors. These differences may reflect the presence of receptor subunits unique to SG neurons.

GABAC receptor rho subunits are heterogeneously expressed in the human CNS and form homo- and heterooligomers with distinct physical properties

In the central nervous system, receptors for gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are responsible for inhibitory neurotransmission. Anatomical and electrophysiological studies indicate that GABAC receptors are composed of rho subunits. While the rho 1 subunit of various species forms homooligomeric receptors with GABAC-like properties, molecular cloning has identified additional rho subunits whose functional role is unclear. By RT-PCR, we demonstrated that rho 1 expression is primarily restricted to the retina, whereas the rho 2 subunit was present in all brain regions tested. Transfection of HEK-293 cells with rho 2 cDNA resulted in GABA-gated whole-cell currents that differed from those mediated by the rho 1 subunit in two respects: maximal amplitude (rho 1:rho 2 approximately 4:1) and inactivation time course (rho 1:rho 2 approximately 2:1). Cotransfection of rho 1 and rho 2 cDNA in a 1:1 ratio generated whole-cell currents with large amplitudes characteristic of rho 1 but more rapid inactivation typical for rho 2. This observation suggested formation of heterooligomeric GABAC receptors with distinct features. Therefore, we tested the assembly of rho 1 and rho 2 subunits by cotransfecting rho 2 cDNA together with a chimeric rho 1 beta 1 subunit, known to interfere with rho 1 assembly in a dominant-negative fashion. Reduction of rho 2 generated currents correlated with the ratio of chimeric to rho 2 cDNA. Secondly, we determined that the picrotoxinin sensitivity of cells transfected with various ratios of rho 1 and rho 2 cDNA differed from that expected of a pure mixture of homooligomeric receptors. The latter two observations support the idea that rho 1 and rho 2 subunits form heterooligomeric GABAC receptors in mammalian cells. Together, our results indicate that the presence of both rho subunits enables the formation of heterooligomeric receptors with physical properties distinct from homooligomers, thus increasing the diversity of GABAC receptors in the CNS.

GABA(C) receptor antagonists differentiate between human rho1 and rho2 receptors expressed in Xenopus oocytes

The selective GABA(C) receptor antagonist, (1,2,5,6-tetrahydropyridin-4-yl)methylphosphinic acid (TPMPA), is eight times more potent against human recombinant p receptors than p2 receptors expressed in Xenopus oocytes. (3-Aminopropyl)methylphosphinic acid (CGP35024), the methylphosphinic acid analogue of GABA, and [(E)-3-aminopropen-1-yl]methylphosphinic acid (CGP44530), an open chain analogue of TPMPA, were five and four times, respectively, more potent as antagonists of p1 receptors than as antagonists of p2 receptors. Isoguvacine was a weak partial agonist at both p1 and p2 receptors with intrinsic activities (calculated as a percentage of the maximum whole cell current produced by a maximum dose of GABA) of 45 and 68%, respectively, of the maximum response produced by GABA. In agreement with other workers, it was found that imidazole-4-acetic acid was a partial agonist at both p1 and p2 receptors, showing higher intrinsic activity at p2 than at p1 receptors. The p1 receptor antagonist, trans-4-amino-2-methylbut-2-enoic acid (2-MeTACA), was a partial agonist at p2 receptors with an intrinsic activity of 34%. 2-MeTACA may be useful in differentiating between homo-oligomeric p1 and p2 receptors in native systems. These studies reveal significant differences in the antagonist profile of human recombinant p1 and p2 GABA(C) receptors.

The diversity of GABAA receptors. Pharmacological and electrophysiological properties of GABAA channel subtypes

The amino acid gamma-aminobutyric-acid (GABA) prevails in the CNS as an inhibitory neurotransmitter that mediates most of its effects through fast GABA-gated Cl(-)-channels (GABAAR). Molecular biology uncovered the complex subunit architecture of this receptor channel, in which a pentameric assembly derived from five of at least 17 mammalian subunits, grouped in the six classes alpha, beta, gamma, delta, sigma and epsilon, permits a vast number of putative receptor isoforms. The subunit composition of a particular receptor determines the specific effects of allosterical modulators of the GABAARs like benzodiazepines (BZs), barbiturates, steroids, some convulsants, polyvalent cations, and ethanol. To understand the physiology and diversity of GABAARs, the native isoforms have to be identified by their localization in the brain and by their pharmacology. In heterologous expression systems, channels require the presence of alpha, beta, and gamma subunits in order to mimic the full repertoire of native receptor responses to drugs, with the BZ pharmacology being determined by the particular alpha and gamma subunit variants. Little is known about the functional properties of the beta, delta, and epsilon subunit classes and only a few receptor subtype-specific substances like loreclezole and furosemide are known that enable the identification of defined receptor subtypes. We will summarize the pharmacology of putative receptor isoforms and emphasize the characteristics of functional channels. Knowledge of the complex pharmacology of GABAARs might eventually enable site-directed drug design to further our understanding of GABA-related disorders and of the complex interaction of excitatory and inhibitory mechanisms in neuronal processing.

GABAA and GABAC receptors on mammalian rod bipolar cells

Rod bipolar (RB) cells of mammalian retinae receive synapses from different gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABAergic) amacrine cells in the inner plexiform layer (IPL). We addressed the question whether RB cells of the rabbit and of the rat retina express different types of GABA receptors at these synapses. RB cells were immunolabeled in vertical sections of rat retinae with an antibody against protein kinase C (PKC). The sections were double-labeled for the alpha 1, alpha 2, alpha 3, or gamma 2 subunits of the GABAA receptor. Punctate immunofluorescence, which represents synaptic localization, was found for all four subunits. Many of the alpha 1-, alpha 3-, or gamma 2-immunoreactive puncta coincided with the axon terminals of the PKC-immunolabeled RB cells. Sections and wholemounts of rabbit retinae were also double labeled for PKC and the rho subunits of the GABAC receptor. Rabbit RB cells were decorated by many rho-immunoreactive puncta, which were shown by electron microscopy to represent synaptic localization. Previous work from our laboratory has shown that the alpha 1, alpha 2, alpha 3, and rho subunits are not found within the same synapse but are expressed at different synaptic sites. Taken together, these results suggest that RB cells of mammalian retinae express at least three different types of GABA receptors at synaptic sites in the IPL: GABAC receptors, GABAA receptors containing the alpha 1 subunit, and GABAA receptors containing the alpha 3 subunit.

Pharmacological and functional implications of developmentally-regulated changes in GABA(A) receptor subunit expression in the cerebellum

The cerebellum undergoes many morphological, pharmacological, and electrophysiological changes during the first 3 weeks of postnatal development. The purpose of this review is to present the most up to date synopsis of the pharmacological and functional changes in, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) type A receptors during this time of cerebellar maturation. Since most of the diversity in cerebellar, GABA(A) receptor pharmacology lies within the granule cell layer, research groups have focused on this area of the cerebellum to study the developmental changes in GABA(A) receptor subunit expression and the neurodifferentiating factors involved in regulating this expression. Thus, it is important to note that developmental changes in GABA(A) receptor composition and its corresponding pharmacology will be essential for determining the type of GABA-mediated transmission that occurs between neuronal contacts in the neonatal and subsequently in the mature cerebellum.

Molecular composition of GABAC receptors

In the central nervous system inhibitory neurotransmission is primarily achieved through activation of receptors for gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Three types of GABA receptors have been identified on the basis of their pharmacology and electrophysiology. The predominant type, termed GABAA and a recently identified type, GABAC, have integral chloride channels, whereas GABAB receptors couple to separate K+ or Ca2+ channels via G-proteins. By analogy to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, native GABAA receptors are believed to be heterooligomers of five subunits, drawn from five classes (alpha, beta, gamma, delta, epsilon/chi). An additional class, called rho, is often categorized with GABAA receptor subunits due to a high degree of sequence similarity. However, rho subunits are capable of forming functional homooligomeric and heterooligomeric receptors, whereas GABAA receptors only express efficiently as heterooligomers. Intriguingly, the pharmacological properties of receptors formed from rho subunits are very similar to those exhibited by GABAC receptors and rho subunits and GABAC responses have been colocalized to the same retina cells, indicating that rho subunits are the sole components of GABAC receptors. In contrast, the propensity of GABAA receptor and rho subunits to form multimeric structures and their coexistence in retinal cells suggests that GABAC receptors might be heterooligomers of rho and GABAA receptor subunits. This review will summarize our current understanding of the molecular composition of GABAC receptors based upon studies of rho subunit assembly.

Glycine and GABA receptors in the mammalian retina

Molecular cloning has introduced an unexpected diversity of neurotransmitter receptors. In this study we review the types, the localization and possible synaptic function of the inhibitory neurotransmitter receptors in the mammalian retina. Glycine receptors (GlyRs) and their localization in the mammalian retina were analyzed immunocytochemically. Specific antibodies against the alpha 1 subunit of the GlyR (mAb2b) and against all subunits of the GlyR (mAb4a) were used. Both antibodies produced a punctate immunofluorescence, which was shown by electron microscopy to represent clustering of GlyRs at synaptic sites. Synapses expressing the alpha 1 subunit of the GlyR were found on ganglion cell dendrites and on bipolar cell axons. GlyRs were also investigated in the oscillator mutant mouse. The complete loss of the alpha 1 subunit was compensated for by an apparent upregulation of the other subunits of the GlyR. GABAA receptors (GABAARs) and their retinal distribution were studied with specific antibodies that recognize the alpha 1, alpha 2, alpha 3, beta 1, beta 2, beta 3, gamma 2 and delta subunits. Most antibodies produced a punctate immunofluorescence in the inner plexiform layer (IPL) which was shown by electron microscopy to represent synaptic clustering of GABAARs. The density of puncta varied across the IPL and different subunits were found in characteristic strata. This stratification pattern was analyzed with respect to the ramification of cholinergic amacrine cells. Using intracellular injection with Lucifer yellow followed by immunofluorescence, we found that GABAARs composed of different subunits were expressed by the same ganglion cell, however, they were clustered at different synaptic sites. The distribution of GABAC receptors was studied in the mouse and in the rabbit retina using an antiserum that recognizes the rho 1, rho 2 and rho 3 subunits. GABAC receptors were found to be clustered at postsynaptic sites. Most, if not all of the synapses were found on rod and cone bipolar axon terminals. In conclusion we find a great diversity of glycine and GABA receptors in the mammalian retina, which might match the plethora of morphological types of amacrine cells. This may also point to subtle differences in synaptic function still to be elucidated.

Subunit composition and quantitative importance of hetero-oligomeric receptors: GABAA receptors containing alpha6 subunits

In cerebellum, GABAA receptors containing alpha6 subunits are expressed exclusively in granule cells. The number of alpha6 receptor subtypes formed in these cells and their subunit composition presently are not known. Immunoaffinity chromatography on alpha6 subunit-specific antibodies indicated that 45% of GABAA receptors in cerebellar extracts contained alpha6 subunits. Western blot analysis demonstrated that alpha1, beta1, beta2, beta3, gamma2, and delta subunits co-purified with alpha6 subunits, suggesting the existence of multiple alpha6 receptor subtypes. These subtypes were identified using a new method based on the one-by-one immunochromatographic elimination of receptors containing the co-purifying subunits in parallel or subsequent experiments. By quantification and Western blot analysis of alpha6 receptors remaining in the extract, the proportion of alpha6 receptors containing the eliminated subunit could be calculated and the subunit composition of the remaining receptors could be determined. Results obtained indicated that alpha6 receptors in cerebellum are composed predominantly of alpha6betaxgamma2 (32%), alpha1alpha6betaxgamma2 (37%), alpha6betaxdelta (14%), or alpha1alpha6betaxdelta (15%) subunits. Other experiments indicated that 10%, 51%, or 21% of alpha6 receptors contained homogeneous beta1, beta2, or beta3 subunits, respectively, whereas two different beta subunits were present in 18% of all alpha6 receptors. The method presented can be used to resolve the total number, subunit composition, and abundancy of GABAA receptor subtypes in the brain and can also be applied to the investigation of other hetero-oligomeric receptors.

Cloning and functional expression of alternative spliced variants of the rho1 gamma-aminobutyrate receptor

The rho1 gamma-aminobutyrate receptor (GABArho1) is expressed predominantly in the retina and forms homomeric GABA-gated Cl- channels that are clearly different from the multisubunit GABAA receptors. In contrast to these, GABArho1 receptors desensitize very little and are not blocked by bicuculline. In addition to GABArho1, two new variants were identified in human retina cDNA libraries. Cloning and sequence analysis showed that both variants contain large deletions in the putative extracellular domain of the receptor. These deletions extend from a common 5' site to different 3' sites. The cDNA with the largest deletion, named GABArho1Delta450, contains a complete ORF identical to that of GABArho1 but missing 450 nt. This cDNA encodes a protein of 323 aa, identical to the GABArho1, but has a deletion of 150 aa in the amino-terminal extracellular domain. GABArho1Delta450 mRNA injected into Xenopus oocytes did not produce functional GABA receptors. The second GABArho1 variant (GABArho1Delta51) contains a 51-nt deletion. In Xenopus oocytes, GABArho1Delta51 led to the expression of GABA receptors that had the essential GABArho1 characteristics of low desensitization and bicuculline resistance. Therefore, alternative splicing increases the coding potential of this gene family expressed in the human retina, but the functional diversity created by the alternative spliced forms is still not understood.

GABA-gated Cl- channels in the rat retina

gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) is a major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the mammalian retina, and its physiological action is well established. GABA receptors have been localized immunocytochemically in the retina of different mammalian species, and all major retinal cell types have been found to express GABAA receptor subunits. Recently, a new type of GABA receptor with pharmacological and electrophysiological properties different from the known GABAA and GABAB receptors, has been described. These GABAC receptors are found predominantly in the vertebrate retina. This review concentrates on the electrophysiological characterization of GABA receptors expressed by amacrine and bipolar cells of the rat retina. We recorded GABA-induced currents from cultured neonatal amacrine and bipolar cells as well as from isolated bipolar cells of adult animals. While amacrine cells contain a homogeneous population of GABAA receptors, bipolar cells exhibit both GABAA and GABAC responses. Although both receptors gate chloride-selective ion channels, their biophysical and pharmacological properties differ markedly. These functional differences and the cellular distribution of GABAA and GABAC receptors suggest that they have different inhibitory functions in the rat retina.

Distribution of GABA receptor rho subunit transcripts in the rat brain

The gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptor rho subunits recently cloned from rat and human retina are thought to form GABA receptor channels belonging to a pharmacologically distinct receptor class, termed GABA(C). In this work we have examined the distribution of rho1, rho2 and rho3 subunits, and found expression of all three transcripts in several regions of the rat nervous system. In situ hybridization revealed expression of rho2 in the adult rat retina and some other parts of the visual pathways. A high local rho2 expression was seen in the superficial grey layer of the superior colliculus, and in the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus. Expression was also detected in the 6th layer of visual cortex and in the CA1 pyramidal cell layer of hippocampus. With reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction, expression of rho1 was mainly seen in the adult rat retina and dorsal root ganglia, as well as, at a significantly lower level, in the superior colliculus, hippocampus, brain stem, thalamus, postnatal day 8 (P8) superior colliculus and P8 hippocampus. Expression pattern of rho3 mRNA was clearly different from that of rho1 and rho2, being strongest in the hippocampus, and significantly lower in the retina, dorsal root ganglia and cortex. No rho3 expression was observed in adult or P8 superior colliculus or in P8 hippocampus. The present results clearly demonstrate that expression of GABA receptor rho subunits is not restricted to the retina, but significant expression can also be detected in many other brain regions, especially in those belonging to the visual pathways. The expression pattern of the rho subunits may be helpful in solving the functional significance of the receptors formed from these subunits.

Expression of the GABA(A) receptor alpha6 subunit in cultured cerebellar granule cells is developmentally regulated by activation of GABA(A) receptors

Primary cultures of cerebellar granule cells, prepared from cerebella of 7-day-old rats and cultured for 4 or 8 days, were used to study the neurodifferentiative effect of a GABA(A) receptor agonist, 4,5,6,7-tetrahydroisoxazol[5,4-c]pyridin-3-ol (THIP), on the expression of the alpha6 GABA(A) receptor subunit. Membranes prepared from these cultures were photolabeled with the imidazobenzodiazepine [3H]Ro15-4513. In THIP-treated cultures at 4 days in vitro (DIV), photolabeled [3H]Ro15-4513 binding in membranes was significantly increased for both the 51 kilodalton, kDa, (alpha1 subunit) and 56-kDa (alpha6 subunit) radioactive peaks in sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). In contrast, THIP-treated granule cells at 8 DIV demonstrated a small but significant decrease from control cultures in the photoincorporation of [3H]Ro15-4513 in the 51-kDa peak; however, no significant change in [3H]Ro15-4513 binding was observed for the 56-kDa polypeptide. Immunolabeling of the alpha6 subunit using silver-enhanced, immuno-gold staining of granule cells showed a significant effect with THIP treatment only at 4 DIV and not at 8 DIV. Examination by light microscopy demonstrated that the major effect of THIP was to increase alpha6 subunit clustering on granule cell bodies as well as neurites, 15-fold and sixfold, respectively. Using in situ hybridization, a small THIP-induced increase in alpha6 mRNA was detected at 4 DIV; however, no effect was apparent at 8 DIV. These data suggest that THIP has a trophic effect on alpha6 subunit expression, and this effect occurs only at an early developmental stage. Moreover, this study presents further evidence for the role of GABA(A) agonists, and thus the neurotransmitter, GABA, in regulating the expression of GABA(A) receptor subunits in the developing cerebellum.

Analogues of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and trans-4-aminocrotonic acid (TACA) substituted in the 2 position as GABAC receptor antagonists

1. gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) and trans-4-aminocrotonic acid (TACA) have been shown to activate GABAC receptors. In this study, a range of C2, C3, C4 and N-substituted GABA and TACA analogues were examined for activity at GABAC receptors. 2. The effects of these compounds were examined by use of electrophysiological recording from Xenopus oocytes expressing the human rho 1 subunit of GABAC receptors with the two-electrode voltage-clamp method. 3. trans-4-Amino-2-fluorobut-2-enoic acid was found to be a potent agonist (KD = 2.43 microM). In contrast, trans-4-amino-2-methylbut-2-enoic acid was found to be a moderately potent antagonist (IC50 = 31.0 microM and KB = 45.5 microM). These observations highlight the possibility that subtle structural substitutions may change an agonist into an antagonist. 4. 4-Amino-2-methylbutanoic acid (KD = 189 microM), 4-amino-2-methylenebutanoic acid (KD = 182 microM) and 4-amino-2-chlorobutanoic acid (KD = 285 microM) were weak partial agonists. The intrinsic activities of these compounds were 12.1%, 4.4% and 5.2% of the maximal response of GABA, respectively. These compounds more effectively blocked the effects of the agonist, GABA, giving rise to KB values of 53 microM and 101 microM, respectively. 5. The sulphinic acid analogue of GABA, homohypotaurine, was found to be a potent partial agonist (KD = 4.59 microM, intrinsic activity 69%). 6. It was concluded that substitution of a methyl or a halo group in the C2 position of GABA or TACA is tolerated at GABAC receptors. However, there was dramatic loss of activity when these groups were substituted at the C3, C4 and nitrogen positions of GABA and TACA. 7. Molecular modelling studies on a range of active and inactive compounds indicated that the agonist/competitive antagonist binding site of the GABAC receptor may be smaller than that of the GABAA and GABAB receptors. It is suggested that only compounds that can attain relatively flat conformations may bind to the GABAC receptor agonist/competitive antagonist binding site.

In situ hybridization and reverse transcription--polymerase chain reaction studies on the expression of the GABA(C) receptor rho1- and rho2-subunit genes in avian and rat brain

The pharmacological properties of homo-oligomeric channels formed by the GABA type A receptor-like rho1 and rho2 polypeptides are very reminiscent of those of the GABA type C receptors that have been extensively characterized in the retina. Similar receptors have been reported to occur in certain brain regions of a variety of vertebrate species. We have used in situ hybridization to investigate the expression patterns of the rho1- and rho2-polypeptide genes in the brain of the 1-day-old chick (Gallus domesticus) and the adult rat (Rattus norvegicus). Our results show that in the chick both the rho1- and rho2-subunit transcripts are present in the cerebellum, the optic tectum, the epithalamus and the nucleus pretectalis. However, the two messenger RNAs are often found in different populations of cells. Thus, only the rho1-subunit gene is expressed in the deep cerebellar nuclei, the dorsal thalamus, the ectostriatum and the tractus vestibulomesencephalicus, while only the rho2-subunit gene is transcribed in the nucleus habenularis lateralis and the nucleus isthmo-opticus. In contrast, neither of the rho-polypeptide messenger RNAs can be detected by in situ hybridization in the rat central nervous system. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction amplification has been used to confirm the expression of the two rho-subunit genes in the chicken brain. Surprisingly, this highly sensitive technique also revealed transcription of these genes in the rat brain. We conclude that the rho1- and rho2-subunit genes are expressed at a much higher level in the avian brain than in the rat brain and that, at least in birds, subtypes of the GABA(C) receptor exist.

A gene in human chromosome band Xq28 (GABRE) defines a putative new subunit class of the GABAA neurotransmitter receptor

We have isolated and sequenced a novel human gene (GABRE) of the GABAA neurotransmitter receptor family. A cDNA sequence of the gene coding for a 506 amino acid protein was identified, representing a member of a putative new class (epsilon) of the GABAA receptor. The gene is transcribed at least at low level in several different tissues, with the highest levels being detected in adult heart and placenta. Alternative splicing of GABRE transcripts isolated from different tissues was observed at multiple positions of the gene, yielding an unusually complex variety of cDNA variants. The structure of the 5' region of most cDNAs is compatible with expression of protein sequence epsilon only in adult brain, whereas in other tissues, the majority of transcripts code for truncated protein sequences. The GABRE gene extends over 14 kb and is clustered together with the alpha 3 and the putative beta 4 GABAA receptor subunit genes in an approximately 0.8-Mb interval in chromosome band Xq28, located in the candidate regions of two different neurologic diseases. Based on features of conservation of protein sequences, gene structure, and genomic organization of GABAA receptor gene clusters, we propose that the epsilon and gamma subunit genes have a common ancestor and that GABAA receptor gene clusters in the human genome have diverged by multiple duplication events of an ancestral gene cluster containing one each alpha, beta, and gamma/epsilon precursor gene.

GABAC receptors on ferret retinal bipolar cells: a diversity of subtypes in mammals?

The GABAC receptor subtypes on bipolar cells of rats and cold-blooded vertebrates differ in their pharmacological properties and probably have different molecular compositions. With the exception of the rat, native GABAC receptors in mammals had not been studied. In ferret, whole-cell, voltage-clamp recordings were made from bipolar cells in the retinal slice preparation to determine which subtype of GABAC receptor predominated. Puff-evoked GABA currents in bipolar cells were partially reduced by the GABAA receptor antagonist bicuculline, indicating that both GABAA and GABAC receptors mediated the responses. By contrast, GABA currents of ganglion cells were always completely blocked by bicuculline, indicating that GABAA receptors predominated on these cells. Small-amplitude GABA currents of bipolar cells evoked by short-duration puffs were less sensitive to bicuculline than large-amplitude currents evoked by long-duration puffs. This indicates that GABAC receptors mediated proportionately more of the small-amplitude, puff-evoked responses and GABAA receptors mediated more of the large-amplitude, puff-evoked responses. In bipolar cells, the bicuculline-resistant component of the GABA current was entirely blocked by 3-APMPA (3-aminopropyl-(methyl)phosphonic acid), a GABAC receptor antagonist. Picrotoxin, which is relatively ineffective at rat GABAC receptors, completely blocked GABA currents in ferret bipolar cells, indicating that GABAC receptors on ferret bipolar cells resemble those in lower vertebrates rather than those in the rat retina. These results suggest that there may be a diversity of GABAC receptor subtypes on mammalian bipolar cells.

A comparison of GABAC and rho subunit receptors from the white perch retina

There is increasing evidence that GABAC receptors are composed of GABA rho subunits. In this study, we compared the properties of native GABAC receptors with those of receptors composed of a GABA rho subunit. A homologue of the GABA rho gene was cloned from a white perch (Roccus americana) retinal cDNA library. The clone (perch-s) has an open reading frame of 1422 nucleotide base pairs and encodes a predicted protein of 473 amino acids. It is highly homologous to GABA rho subunits cloned from human and rat retinas. The receptors (perch-s receptor) expressed by this gene in Xenopus oocytes show properties similar to those of the GABAC receptors present on white perch retinal neurons. GABA induced a sustained response that had a reversal potential of -27.1 +/- 3.6 mV. The EC50 for the response was 1.74 +/- 1.25 microM, a value similar to that reported for GABAC receptors. Pharmacologically, the responses were bicuculline insensitive and not modulated by either diazepam or pentobarbital as is the case for GABAC receptors. There were, however, some distinct differences between native GABAC and perch-s receptors. I4AA acts as a partial agonist on perch-s receptors whereas it is strictly an antagonist on native GABAC receptors. Picrotoxin inhibition is noncompetitive on perch-s receptors, but both competitive and noncompetitive on GABAC receptors. We conclude that GABAC receptors are formed by GABA rho subunits but that native GABAC receptors probably consist of a mixture of GABA rho subunits.

Agonist-induced closure of constitutively open gamma-aminobutyric acid channels with mutated M2 domains

Ligand-gated ion channels display a fundamental property-channels remain virtually closed at rest and open upon agonist binding. Here we show that substituting alanines for either of two amino acid residues (T314 or L317) in the M2 region of the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) rho1 subunit results in spontaneous channel opening in the absence of ligand. Surprisingly, for two single point mutants (T314A or L317A), application of very low concentrations of agonist partially suppressed this spontaneous current, while higher concentrations re-activated the receptors. When both of these sites were mutated (T314A/L317A), GABA nearly completely suppressed the constitutive current and did not re-activate the current even at very high concentrations. This study provides important new insights into the structure-function relationship of ligand-gated ion channels, where modification of the structure of the channel pore region not only alters the allosteric transition of the receptor protein but also reverses the polarity of agonist regulation of channel gating. Our results suggest that the sites where these two residues are located are structurally critical for channel gating.

The pharmacology of amino-acid responses in septal neurons

Septal cholinergic neurons are known to play an important role in cognitive processes including learning and memory through afferent innervation of the hippocampal formation and cerebral cortex. The septum contains not only cholinergic neurons but also various types of neurons including GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)-ergic neurons. Although synaptic transmission in the septum is mediated primarily by the activation of excitatory and inhibitory amino-acid receptors, it is possible that a distinct phenotype of neuron is endowed with a different type for each of the amino-acid receptors and thus they play different roles from each other, since it has been demonstrated within the septum that there is a regional distribution of various types of amino-acid receptor subunits, their expression as different combinations within a specific cell may produce receptor channels with disparate functional properties. As a first step towards knowing the various functions of septal cholinergic neurons, we characterized the functional properties of glutamate, GABA (type A; GABAA) and glycine receptor channels on cultured rat septal neurons which were histologically identified to be cholinergic. These were similar to those of receptor channels on other types of neurons, except for the actions of some neuromodulators. The septal N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor channel was distinct in being less sensitive to Mg2+ and in a voltage-dependent action of Zn2+. The septal GABAA receptor channel exhibited a lanthanide site whose activation resulted in a positive allosteric interaction with a binding site of pentobarbital. The septal glycine receptor channel was only positively modulated by Zn2+; this action of Zn2+ was not accompanied by an inhibitory effect. Our data suggest that the amino-acid receptors on septal cholinergic neurons may play a distinct role compared to other types of neurons; this difference depends on the actions of neuromodulators and metal cations. It would be interesting to compare these effects recorded in tissue culture to those observed with septal cholinergic neurons in slice preparations.

The N-terminal domain of human GABA receptor rho1 subunits contains signals for homooligomeric and heterooligomeric interaction

gamma-Aminobutyric acid type C (GABAC) receptors identified in retina appear to be composed of GABA rho subunits. The purpose of this study was to localize signals for homooligomeric assembly of rho1 subunits and to investigate whether the same region contained signals for heterooligomeric interaction with rho2 subunits. In vitro translated human rho1 was shown to be membrane-associated, and proteinase K susceptibility studies indicated that the N terminus was oriented in the lumen of ER-derived microsomal vesicles. This orientation suggested the involvement of the N terminus of rho1 in the initial steps of subunit assembly. To test this hypothesis, mutants were created containing only N-terminal sequences (N-rho1) or C-terminal sequences (C-rho1) of rho1. Co-immunoprecipitation studies revealed that N-rho1, but not C-rho1, interacted with rho1 in vitro. When coexpressed in Xenopus oocytes, N-rho1 interfered with rho1 receptor formation. Together, these data suggested that signals for rho1 homooligomeric assembly reside in the N-terminal half of the subunit. Sequential immunoprecipitations were then performed upon cotranslated rho1 and rho2 subunits which demonstrated that rho1 and rho2 interacted in vitro. Co-immunoprecipitation indicated that N-rho1 specifically associated with rho2. Therefore, the N-terminal regions of rho subunits contain the initial signals for both homooligomeric and heterooligomeric assembly into receptors with GABAC properties.

Immunocytochemical localization of the GABA(C) receptor rho subunits in the cat, goldfish, and chicken retina

Polyclonal antibodies against the N-terminus of the rat rho1 subunit were used to study the distribution of gamma-aminobutyric acid C (GABA(C)) receptors in the cat, goldfish, and chicken retina. Strong punctate immunoreactivity was present in the inner plexiform layer (IPL) of all three species. The punctate labelling suggests a clustering of the GABA(C) receptors at synaptic sites. Weak label was also found in the outer plexiform layer (OPL) and over the cell bodies of bipolar cells. Double immunostaining of vertical sections with an antibody against protein kinase C (PKC) showed the punctate immunofluorescence to colocalize with bipolar cell axon terminals. In the goldfish retina, the axon terminals of Mb1 bipolar cells were enclosed by rho-immunoreactive puncta. In the chicken retina, several distinct strata within the IPL showed a high density of rho-immunoreactive puncta. The results suggest a high degree of sequence homology between the rho subunits of different vertebrate species, and they show that the retinal localization of GABA(C) receptors is similar across different species.

Localization of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptor rho 3 subunit in rat retina

We used digoxigenin-labelled single strand DNA probes to examine the expression of the mRNA encoding gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor rho 3 subunit in sections of the adult rat retina. Transcript for the rho 3 subunit was found in cell somata of a portion of cells lying in the ganglion cell layer.

Functional expression of GABA rho 3 receptors in Xenopus oocytes

Homomeric rat GABA rho 3 receptors were expressed in Xenopus oocytes, and their pharmacological profile was investigated electrophysiologically. GABA activated the rho 3 receptors with an EC50 value of 7.5 microM and a Hill coefficient of 1.6. The GABA-induced current was not antagonized by bicuculline (100 microM), but was blocked by picrotoxin (IC50: 0.68 microM for 100 microM GABA). The current was almost insensitive to pentobarbital, diazepam and a neurosteroid, 3 alpha-OH-DHP. Many of the pharmacological properties of the rho 3 subunit were similar to those of the previously reported rat rho 1 and rho 2 subunits and GABAC receptors.

Immunocytochemical localization of the GABAc receptor rho subunits in the mammalian retina

Polyclonal antibodies against the N terminus of the rat rho 1 subunit were generated to study the distribution of GABAc receptors in the mammalian retina. The specificity of the antibodies was tested in Western blots and transfected HEK-293 cells. No cross-reactivity with the GABAA receptor subunits alpha 1-3, beta 1-3, gamma 2, delta or with the glycine receptor subunits alpha 1 and beta could be detected. In contrast, the rho 1, rho 2, and rho 3 subunits were all recognized by the antibodies. In vertical sections of rat, rabbit, cat, and macaque monkey retinae, strong punctate immunoreactivity was present in the inner plexiform layer. Weaker immunoreactivity was also present in the outer-plexiform layer, and cell bodies of bipolar cells were faintly labeled. Double immunostaining of vertical sections and immunostaining of dissociated rat retinae showed the punctate immunofluorescence to colocalize with bipolar cell axon terminals. The puncta possibly represent clustering of the rho subunits at postsynaptic sites.