Adaptation of light-harvesting systems of Arthrospira platensis to light conditions, probed by time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy

Energy transfer in Anabaena variabilis filaments adapted to nitrogen-depleted and nitrogen-enriched conditions studied by time-resolved fluorescence

Nitrogen is among the most important nutritious elements for photosynthetic organisms such as plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. Therefore, nitrogen depletion severely compromises the growth, development, and photosynthesis of these organisms. To preserve their integrity under nitrogen-depleted conditions, filamentous nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria reduce atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia, and self-adapt by regulating their light-harvesting and excitation energy-transfer processes. To investigate the changes in the primary processes of photosynthesis, we measured the steady-state absorption and fluorescence spectra and time-resolved fluorescence spectra (TRFS) of whole filaments of the nitrogen-fixing cyanobacterium Anabaena variabilis at 77 K. The filaments were grown in standard and nitrogen-free media for 6 months. The TRFS were measured with a picosecond time-correlated single photon counting system. Despite the phycobilisome degradation, the energy-transfer paths within phycobilisome and from phycobilisome to both photosystems were maintained. However, the energy transfer from photosystem II to photosystem I was suppressed and a specific red chlorophyll band appeared under the nitrogen-depleted condition.

Energy Transfer in Cyanobacteria and Red Algae: Confirmation of Spillover in Intact Megacomplexes of Phycobilisome and Both Photosystems

Cyanobacteria and red algae control the energy distributions of two photosystems (PSI and PSII) by changing the energy transfer among phycobilisome (PBS), PSI, and PSII. However, whether PSII → PSI energy transfer (spillover) occurs in the intact megacomplexes composed of PBS, PSI, and PSII (PBS-PSII-PSI megacomplexes) in vivo remains controversial. In this study, we measured the delayed fluorescence spectra of PBS-selective excitation in cyanobacterial and red algal cells. In the absence of spillover, 7% of the PBS (at most) would combine with PSII, inconsistent with the PBSs' function as the antenna pigment-protein complexes of PSII. Therefore, we conclude that spillover occurs in vivo in PBS-PSII-PSI megacomplexes of both cyanobacteria and red algae.

Cyanobacterial Light-Harvesting Phycobilisomes Uncouple From Photosystem I During Dark-To-Light Transitions

Photosynthetic organisms cope with changes in light quality by balancing the excitation energy flow between photosystems I (PSI) and II (PSII) through a process called state transitions. Energy redistribution has been suggested to be achieved by movement of the light-harvesting phycobilisome between PSI and PSII, or by nanometre scale rearrangements of the recently discovered PBS-PSII-PSI megacomplexes. The alternative ‘spillover’ model, on the other hand, states that energy redistribution is achieved by mutual association/dissociation of PSI and PSII. State transitions have always been studied by changing the redox state of the electron carriers using electron transfer inhibitors, or by applying illumination conditions with different colours. However, the molecular events during natural dark-to-light transitions in cyanobacteria have largely been overlooked and still remain elusive. Here we investigated changes in excitation energy transfer from phycobilisomes to the photosystems upon dark-light transitions, using picosecond fluorescence spectroscopy. It appears that megacomplexes are not involved in these changes, and neither does spillover play a role. Instead, the phycobilisomes partly energetically uncouple from PSI in the light but hardly couple to PSII.

Differences in energy transfer of a cyanobacterium, Synechococcus sp. PCC 7002, grown in different cultivation media

Currently, cyanobacteria are regarded as potential biofuel sources. Large-scale cultivation of cyanobacteria in seawater is of particular interest because seawater is a low-cost medium. In the present study, we examined differences in light-harvesting and energy transfer processes in the cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. PCC 7002 grown in different cultivation media, namely modified A medium (the optimal growth medium for Synechococcus sp. PCC 7002) and f/2 (a seawater medium). The concentrations of nitrate and phosphate ions were varied in both media. Higher nitrate ion and/or phosphate ion concentrations yielded high relative content of phycobilisome. The cultivation medium influenced the energy transfers within phycobilisome, from phycobilisome to photosystems, within photosystem II, and from photosystem II to photosystem I. We suggest that the medium also affects charge recombination at the photosystem II reaction center and formation of a chlorophyll-containing complex.

Light adaptation of the unicellular red alga, Cyanidioschyzon merolae, probed by time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy

Photosynthetic organisms change the quantity and/or quality of their pigment-protein complexes and the interactions among these complexes in response to light conditions. In the present study, we analyzed light adaptation of the unicellular red alga Cyanidioschyzon merolae, whose pigment composition is similar to that of cyanobacteria because its phycobilisomes (PBS) lack phycoerythrin. C. merolae were grown under different light qualities, and their responses were measured by steady-state absorption, steady-state fluorescence, and picosecond time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopies. Cells were cultivated under four monochromatic light-emitting diodes (blue, green, yellow, and red), and changes in pigment composition and energy transfer were observed. Cells grown under blue and green light increased their relative phycocyanin levels compared with cells cultured under white light. Energy-transfer processes to photosystem I (PSI) were sensitive to yellow and red light. The contribution of direct energy transfer from PBS to PSI increased only under yellow light, while red light induced a reduction in energy transfer from photosystem II to PSI and an increase in energy transfer from light-harvesting chlorophyll protein complex I to PSI. Differences in pigment composition, growth, and energy transfer under different light qualities are discussed.

Energy transfer in Anabaena variabilis filaments under nitrogen depletion, studied by time-resolved fluorescence

Some filamentous cyanobacteria (including Anabaena) differentiate into heterocysts under nitrogen-depleted conditions. During differentiation, the phycobiliproteins and photosystem II in the heterocysts are gradually degraded. Nitrogen depletion induces changes in the pigment composition of both vegetative cells and heterocysts, which affect the excitation energy transfer processes. To investigate the changes in excitation energy transfer processes of Anabaena variabilis filaments grown in standard medium (BG11) and a nitrogen-free medium (BG110), we measured their steady-state absorption spectra, steady-state fluorescence spectra, and time-resolved fluorescence spectra (TRFS) at 77 K. TRFS were measured with a picosecond time-correlated single photon counting system. The pigment compositions of the filaments grown in BG110 changed throughout the growth period; the relative phycocyanin levels monotonically decreased, whereas the relative carotenoid (Car) levels decreased and then recovered to their initial value (at day 0), with formation of lower-energy Cars. Nitrogen starvation also altered the fluorescence kinetics of PSI; the fluorescence maximum of TRFS immediately after excitation occurred at 735, 740, and 730 nm after 4, 8, and 15 days growth in BG110, respectively. Based on these results, we discuss the excitation energy transfer dynamics of A. variabilis filaments under the nitrogen-depleted condition throughout the growth period.

Energy transfer in the chlorophyll f-containing cyanobacterium, Halomicronema hongdechloris, analyzed by time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopies

We prepared thylakoid membranes from Halomicronema hongdechloris cells grown under white fluorescent light or light from far-red (740 nm) light-emitting diodes, and observed their energy-transfer processes shortly after light excitation. Excitation-relaxation processes were examined by steady-state and time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopies. Two time-resolved fluorescence techniques were used: time-correlated single photon counting and fluorescence up-conversion methods. The thylakoids from the cells grown under white light contained chlorophyll (Chl) a of different energies, but were devoid of Chl f. At room temperature, the excitation energy was equilibrated among the Chl a pools with a time constant of 6.6 ps. Conversely, the thylakoids from the cells grown under far-red light possessed both Chl a and Chl f. Two energy-transfer pathways from Chl a to Chl f were identified with time constants of 1.3 and 5.0 ps, and the excitation energy was equilibrated between the Chl a and Chl f pools at room temperature. We also examined the energy-transfer pathways from phycobilisome to the two photosystems under white-light cultivation.

Short-term light adaptation of a cyanobacterium, Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803, probed by time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy

In photosynthetic organisms, the interactions among pigment-protein complexes change in response to light conditions. In the present study, we analyzed the transfer of excitation energy from the phycobilisome (PBS) and photosystem (PS) II to PSI in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. After 20 min of dark adaptation, Synechocystis cells were illuminated for 5 min with strong light with different spectral profiles, blue, green, two kinds of red, and white light. After illumination, the energy-transfer characteristics were evaluated using steady-state fluorescence and picosecond time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy techniques. The fluorescence rise and decay curves were analyzed by global analysis to obtain fluorescence decay-associated spectra, followed by spectral component analysis. Under illumination with strong light, the contribution of the energy transfer from the PSII to PSI (spillover) became greater, and that of the energy transfer from the PBS to PSI decreased; the former change was larger than the latter. The energy transfer pathway to PSI was sensitive to red light. We discuss the short-term adaptation of energy-transfer processes in Synechocystis under strong-light conditions.

Energy transfer processes in chlorophyll f-containing cyanobacteria using time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy on intact cells

We examined energy transfer dynamics in the unique chlorophyll (Chl) f-containing cyanobacterium Halomicronema hongdechloris. The absorption band of Chl f appeared during cultivation of this organism under far-red light. The absorption maximum of Chl f in organic solvents occurs at a wavelength of approximately 40 nm longer than that of Chl a. In vivo, the cells display a new absorption band at approximately 730 nm at 298 K, which is at a significantly longer wavelength than that of Chl a. We primarily assigned this band to a long wavelength form of Chl a. The function of Chl f is currently unknown. We measured the fluorescence of cells using time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy in the picosecond-to-nanosecond time range and found clear differences in fluorescence properties between the cells that contained Chl f and the cells that did not. After excitation, the fluorescence peaks of photosystem I and photosystem II appeared quickly but diminished immediately. A unique fluorescence peak located at 748 nm subsequently appeared in cells containing Chl f. This finding strongly suggests that the Chl f in this alga exists in photosystem I and II complexes and is located close to each molecule of Chl a. This article is part of a special issue entitled: photosynthesis research for sustainability: keys to produce clean energy.

Excitation relaxation dynamics and energy transfer in fucoxanthin-chlorophyll a/c-protein complexes, probed by time-resolved fluorescence

In algae, light-harvesting complexes contain specific chlorophylls (Chls) and keto-carotenoids; Chl a, Chl c, and fucoxanthin (Fx) in diatoms and brown algae; Chl a, Chl c, and peridinin in photosynthetic dinoflagellates; and Chl a, Chl b, and siphonaxanthin in green algae. The Fx-Chl a/c-protein (FCP) complex from the diatom Chaetoceros gracilis contains Chl c1, Chl c2, and the keto-carotenoid, Fx, as antenna pigments, in addition to Chl a. In the present study, we investigated energy transfer in the FCP complex associated with photosystem II (FCPII) of C. gracilis. For these investigations, we analyzed time-resolved fluorescence spectra, fluorescence rise and decay curves, and time-resolved fluorescence anisotropy data. Chl a exhibited different energy forms with fluorescence peaks ranging from 677 nm to 688 nm. Fx transferred excitation energy to lower-energy Chl a with a time constant of 300fs. Chl c transferred excitation energy to Chl a with time constants of 500-600fs (intra-complex transfer), 600-700fs (intra-complex transfer), and 4-6ps (inter-complex transfer). The latter process made a greater contribution to total Chl c-to-Chl a transfer in intact cells of C. gracilis than in the isolated FCPII complexes. The lower-energy Chl a received excitation energy from Fx and transferred the energy to higher-energy Chl a. This article is part of a special issue entitled: photosynthesis research for sustainability: keys to produce clean energy.

Modification of energy-transfer processes in the cyanobacterium, Arthrospira platensis, to adapt to light conditions, probed by time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy

In cyanobacteria, the interactions among pigment-protein complexes are modified in response to changes in light conditions. In the present study, we analyzed excitation energy transfer from the phycobilisome and photosystem II to photosystem I in the cyanobacterium Arthrospira (Spirulina) platensis. The cells were grown under lights with different spectral profiles and under different light intensities, and the energy-transfer characteristics were evaluated using steady-state absorption, steady-state fluorescence, and picosecond time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy techniques. The fluorescence rise and decay curves were analyzed by global analysis to obtain fluorescence decay-associated spectra. The direct energy transfer from the phycobilisome to photosystem I and energy transfer from photosystem II to photosystem I were modified depending on the light quality, light quantity, and cultivation period. However, the total amount of energy transferred to photosystem I remained constant under the different growth conditions. We discuss the differences in energy-transfer processes under different cultivation and light conditions.

Dynamic metabolic profiling of cyanobacterial glycogen biosynthesis under conditions of nitrate depletion

Cyanobacteria represent a globally important biomass because they are responsible for a substantial proportion of primary production in the hydrosphere. Arthrospira platensis is a fast-growing halophilic cyanobacterium capable of accumulating glycogen and has the potential to serve as a feedstock in the fermentative production of third-generation biofuels. Accordingly, enhancing cyanobacterial glycogen production is a promising biofuel production strategy. However, the regulatory mechanism of glycogen metabolism in cyanobacteria is poorly understood. The aim of the present study was to determine the metabolic flux of glycogen biosynthesis using a dynamic metabolomic approach. Time-course profiling of widely targeted cyanobacterial metabolic intermediates demonstrated a global metabolic reprogramming that involves transient increases in the levels of some amino acids during the glycogen production phase induced by nitrate depletion. Also, in vivo labelling with NaH(13)CO3 enabled direct measurement of metabolic intermediate turnover in A. platensis, revealing that under conditions of nitrate depletion glycogen is biosynthesized with carbon derived from amino acids released from proteins via gluconeogenesis. This dynamic metabolic profiling approach provided conclusive evidence of temporal alterations in the metabolic profile in cyanobacterial cells.