51
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Missirlis D, Khant H, Tirrell M. Mechanisms of peptide amphiphile internalization by SJSA-1 cells in vitro. Biochemistry 2009; 48:3304-14. [PMID: 19245247 DOI: 10.1021/bi802356k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Self-assembly of peptide amphiphiles into nanostructures makes them attractive for a variety of applications in drug and peptide delivery. We here report on the interactions of micelles composed of a palmitoylated, pro-apoptotic peptide derived from p53 tumor suppressor protein with a human cancer cell line. Characterization of self-assembly in aqueous buffered solutions revealed formation of elongated rod-like micelles above a critical micelle concentration. Our results however demonstrate that monomers instead of micelles are internalized, a finding that correlates with the dynamic nature of the assemblies and the noncovalent interactions that hold them together. Internalization is shown to occur via adsorption-mediated, energy-dependent pathways, resulting in accumulation of the material in endocytic vesicles. We conclude that palmitoylation of peptides is an efficient way to increase peptide permeability inside SJSA-1 cells and that increased micelle stability would be required for intact micelle internalization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimitris Missirlis
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, USA.
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52
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Takayama K, Nakase I, Michiue H, Takeuchi T, Tomizawa K, Matsui H, Futaki S. Enhanced intracellular delivery using arginine-rich peptides by the addition of penetration accelerating sequences (Pas). J Control Release 2009; 138:128-33. [PMID: 19465072 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2009.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2009] [Revised: 05/09/2009] [Accepted: 05/16/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Cell penetrating peptides (CPPs), including arginine-rich peptides, are attractive tools for the intracellular delivery of various bioactive molecules with a low membrane permeability. We showed that the accelerated intracellular delivery of arginine-rich peptides was achieved by the addition of a short peptide segment (penetration accelerating sequence, Pas) to arginine-rich CPPs. The cytosolic release of the Pas-attached arginine-rich CPPs was observed within 5 min after the treatment of the cells with the peptides even in the presence of serum. Effectiveness of the Pas segment in the intracellular delivery of bioactive peptides using arginine-rich CPPs was exemplified through the enhanced growth inhibition activity of the malignant glioma cells by a retro-inverso peptide derived from the p53 C-terminal 22-amino-acid segment (positions 361-382).
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Affiliation(s)
- Kentaro Takayama
- Institute for Chemical Research, Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan
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53
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El-Sayed A, Futaki S, Harashima H. Delivery of macromolecules using arginine-rich cell-penetrating peptides: ways to overcome endosomal entrapment. AAPS JOURNAL 2009; 11:13-22. [PMID: 19125334 DOI: 10.1208/s12248-008-9071-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 374] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2008] [Accepted: 12/07/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Arginine-rich cell-penetrating peptides (AR-CPPs) are very promising tools for the delivery of therapeutic macromolecules such as peptides, proteins, and nucleic acids. These peptides allow efficient internalization of the linked cargos intracellularly through the endocytic pathway. However, when linked to bulky cargos, entrapment in the endocytic vesicles is a major limitation to the application of these peptides in cytosolic delivery. Attachment of a compatible endosomal escape device is, therefore, necessary to allow cytosolic delivery of the peptide-attached cargo. This review presents different endosomal escape devices currently in application in combination with AR-CPPs. Applications of fusogenic lipids, membrane-disruptive peptides, membrane-disruptive polymers, lysosomotropic agents, and photochemical internalization to enhance the cytosolic delivery of AR-CPPs-attached cargos are presented. The properties of each system and its mechanism of action for the enhancement of endosomal escape are discussed, together with its applications for the delivery of different macromolecules in vitro and, if applicable, in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayman El-Sayed
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita 12 Nishi 6, Kita-Ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 060-0812, Japan
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54
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Xavier J, Singh S, Dean DA, Rao NM, Gopal V. Designed multi-domain protein as a carrier of nucleic acids into cells. J Control Release 2008; 133:154-60. [PMID: 18940210 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2008.09.090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2008] [Revised: 09/30/2008] [Accepted: 09/30/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Protein-based nucleic acid carriers offer attractive possibilities to enhance in vitro and in vivo gene delivery to combat diseases. A multi-domain fusion protein, namely TAT-NLS-Mu, designated as TNM, has been designed, cloned, heterologously expressed in E. coli and purified to homogeneity by affinity chromatography. The recombinant chimera TNM harbors three epitopes, a cell-penetrating (TAT) domain, a nuclear localization domain comprising of three nuclear localization sequence (NLS) motifs in tandem and a DNA-binding (Mu) domain. Complexes prepared by combining plasmid DNA with TNM (DP) transfect MCF-7, COS, CHO and HepG2 cells. Ternary complexes prepared with DNA, protein and cationic lipid (DPL) resulted in ~5-7 fold enhancement in reporter gene expression over the DP alone. Treatment of cells with chloroquine during transfection, with DP complexes, resulted in remarkable increases in reporter gene expression suggesting the involvement of endosomal compartments in the uptake process. Interestingly, DPL prepared with Lipofectin or 1, 2-Dioleoyl-3-Trimethylammonium-Propane (DOTAP) exhibited enhanced transfection in the presence of serum in MCF-7 and HepG2 cells. Microinjection of DP complexes, with and without NLS sequence, into the cytoplasm and nucleus of smooth muscle cells (SMC) indicated that the presence of NLS sequence in protein carrier significantly enhanced transgene expression. Together the data suggest that modular design of proteins is a promising method to develop gene delivery carriers and also the role of NLS epitopes in mediating nuclear transfer of DNA complexes into various cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Xavier
- Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Hyderabad, India
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55
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El-Sayed A, Khalil IA, Kogure K, Futaki S, Harashima H. Octaarginine- and Octalysine-modified Nanoparticles Have Different Modes of Endosomal Escape. J Biol Chem 2008; 283:23450-61. [DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m709387200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
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56
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Murata H, Futami J, Kitazoe M, Yonehara T, Nakanishi H, Kosaka M, Tada H, Sakaguchi M, Yagi Y, Seno M, Huh NH, Yamada H. Intracellular delivery of glutathione S-transferase-fused proteins into mammalian cells by polyethylenimine-glutathione conjugates. J Biochem 2008; 144:447-55. [PMID: 18603589 DOI: 10.1093/jb/mvn087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The glutathione S-transferase (GST)-fused protein expression system has been extensively used to generate a large quantity of proteins and has served for functional analysis in vitro. In this study, we developed a novel approach for the efficient intracellular delivery of GST-fused proteins into living cells to expand their usefulness up to in vivo use. Since protein cationization techniques are powerful strategies for efficient intracellular uptake by adsorptive-mediated endocytosis, GST-fused proteins were cationized by forming a complex with a polycationic polyethylenimine (PEI)-glutathione conjugate. On screening of protein transduction, optimized PEI-glutathione conjugate for protein transduction was characterized by a partly oligomerized mixture of PEI with average molecular masses of 600 (PEI600) modified with multiple glutathiones, which could have sufficient avidity for GST. Furthermore, enhanced endosomal escape of transduced GST-fused proteins was observed when they were delivered with a glutathione-conjugated PEI600 derivative possessing a hydroxybutenyl moiety. These results were confirmed by both intracellular confocal imaging of GST-fused green fluorescent protein and activation of an endogenous growth signal transduction pathway by a GST-fused constitutively active mutant of a kinase protein. These PEI-glutathione conjugates seem to be convenient molecular tools for protein transduction of widely used GST-fused proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hitoshi Murata
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Faculty of Engineering, Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan
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57
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Organelle-Targeted Delivery of Biological Macromolecules Using the Protein Transduction Domain: Potential Applications for Peptide Aptamer Delivery into the Nucleus. J Mol Biol 2008; 380:777-82. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2008.05.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2008] [Revised: 05/16/2008] [Accepted: 05/21/2008] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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58
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Tacken PJ, Joosten B, Reddy A, Wu D, Eek A, Laverman P, Kretz-Rommel A, Adema GJ, Torensma R, Figdor CG. No Advantage of Cell-Penetrating Peptides over Receptor-Specific Antibodies in Targeting Antigen to Human Dendritic Cells for Cross-Presentation. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 180:7687-96. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.180.11.7687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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59
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Vivès E, Schmidt J, Pèlegrin A. Cell-penetrating and cell-targeting peptides in drug delivery. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2008; 1786:126-38. [PMID: 18440319 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2008.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 194] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2007] [Revised: 03/21/2008] [Accepted: 03/26/2008] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
During the last decade, the potential of peptides for drug delivery into cells has been highlighted by the discovery of several cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs). CPPs are very efficient in delivering various molecules into cells. However, except in some specific cases, their lack of cell specificity remains the major drawback for their clinical development. At the same time, various peptides with specific binding activity for a given cell line (cell-targeting peptides) have also been reported in the literature. One of the goals of the next years will be to optimize the tissue and cell delivery of therapeutic molecules by means of peptides which combine both targeting and internalization advantages. In this review, we describe the main strategies that are currently in use or likely to be employed in the near future to associate both targeting and delivery properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Vivès
- IRCM, Institut de Recherche en Cancérologie de Montpellier, Montpellier, F-34298, France.
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60
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Fischer PM. Cellular uptake mechanisms and potential therapeutic utility of peptidic cell delivery vectors: progress 2001-2006. Med Res Rev 2008; 27:755-95. [PMID: 17019680 DOI: 10.1002/med.20093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Cell delivery vectors (CDVs) are short amphipathic and cationic peptides and peptide derivatives, usually containing multiple lysine and arginine residues. They possess inherent membrane activity and can be conjugated or complexed with large impermeable macromolecules and even microscopic particles to facilitate cell entry. Various mechanisms have been proposed but it is now becoming clear that the main port of entry into cells of such CDV constructs involves adsorptive-mediated endocytosis rather than direct penetration of the plasma membrane. It is still unclear, however, how and to what extent CDV constructs are capable of exiting endosomal compartments and reaching their intended cellular site of action, usually the cytosol or the nucleus. Furthermore, although many CDVs can mediate cellular uptake of their cargo and appear comparatively non-toxic to cells in tissue culture, the utility of CDVs for in vivo applications remains poorly understood. Whatever the mechanisms of cell entry and disposition, the overriding question as far as potential pharmacological application of CDV conjugates is concerned is whether or not a therapeutic margin can be achieved by their administration. Such a margin will only result if the intracellular concentration in the target tissues necessary to elicit the biological effect of the CDV cargo can be achieved at systemic CDV exposure levels that are non-toxic to both target and bystander cells. It is proposed that the focus of CDV research now be shifted from mechanistic in vitro studies with labeled but otherwise unconjugated CDVs to in vivo pharmacological and toxicological studies using CDV-derivatized and other cationized forms of inherently non-permeable macromolecules of true therapeutic interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter M Fischer
- Centre for Biomolecular Sciences and School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD, United Kingdom.
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61
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Khalil IA, Kogure K, Futaki S, Harashima H. Octaarginine-modified liposomes: Enhanced cellular uptake and controlled intracellular trafficking. Int J Pharm 2008; 354:39-48. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2007.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2007] [Revised: 11/29/2007] [Accepted: 12/03/2007] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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62
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Gump JM, Dowdy SF. TAT transduction: the molecular mechanism and therapeutic prospects. Trends Mol Med 2008; 13:443-8. [PMID: 17913584 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2007.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 262] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2007] [Revised: 08/01/2007] [Accepted: 08/13/2007] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Research into the mechanism of protein transduction has undergone a renaissance in the past five years as many groups have sought to understand the behavior of transducing peptides to harness their enormous therapeutic and diagnostic potential. The field has benefited greatly from rigorous cell biological and biophysical studies of the mechanism used by cell penetrating peptides to enter cells and deliver their cargo. The recent identification of fluid phase endocytosis as the mode of cellular entry for TAT and other protein transduction domains has enhanced our understanding of how transduction facilitates intracellular delivery. Many outstanding questions and contradictions still remain to be resolved in the field. Nevertheless, the current body of work regarding the mechanism of uptake gives a much clearer picture of how these macromolecules enter cells and how we might enhance the bioavailability to take advantage of them clinically.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob M Gump
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0686, USA
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63
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Shaw PA, Catchpole IR, Goddard CA, Colledge WH. Comparison of protein transduction domains in mediating cell delivery of a secreted CRE protein. Biochemistry 2008; 47:1157-66. [PMID: 18179254 DOI: 10.1021/bi701542p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Protein transduction domains (PTDs) are versatile peptide sequences that facilitate cell delivery of several cargo molecules including proteins. PTDs usually consist of short stretches of basic amino acids that can cross the plasma membrane and gain entry into cells. Traditionally, to assess PTD mediated protein delivery, PTD-fusion proteins have been used as purified proteins. To overcome the requirement for a protein purification step, we used a secretory signal peptide to allow PTD-CRE fusion proteins to be exported from transfected mammalian cells. PTD induced protein transduction into cells was assessed by a CRE-mediated recombination event that resulted in beta-galactosidase expression. Several PTDs were tested including the prototypic TAT, different TAT variants, Antp, MTS and polyarginine. A negative correlation was observed between the cationic charge on the PTD and the extent of secretion. Poor secretion was found when the PTD charge was greater than +5. One TAT-CRE protein variant had a 14-fold enhancement above CRE alone when added to cells in the presence of chloroquine. This PTD domain also enhanced gene expression after plasmid delivery. These data illustrate that some secreted PTD proteins may be useful reagents to improve protein delivery in mammalian systems and a novel approach to enhancing the response to DNA transfections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul A Shaw
- Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EG, UK
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64
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Ruan G, Agrawal A, Marcus AI, Nie S. Imaging and Tracking of Tat Peptide-Conjugated Quantum Dots in Living Cells: New Insights into Nanoparticle Uptake, Intracellular Transport, and Vesicle Shedding. J Am Chem Soc 2007; 129:14759-66. [DOI: 10.1021/ja074936k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 416] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gang Ruan
- Contribution from the Department of Biomedical Engineering, Emory University and Georgia Institute of Technology, 101 Woodruff Circle, Suite 2001, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, 30322, and Department of Chemistry, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, 30322
| | - Amit Agrawal
- Contribution from the Department of Biomedical Engineering, Emory University and Georgia Institute of Technology, 101 Woodruff Circle, Suite 2001, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, 30322, and Department of Chemistry, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, 30322
| | - Adam I. Marcus
- Contribution from the Department of Biomedical Engineering, Emory University and Georgia Institute of Technology, 101 Woodruff Circle, Suite 2001, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, 30322, and Department of Chemistry, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, 30322
| | - Shuming Nie
- Contribution from the Department of Biomedical Engineering, Emory University and Georgia Institute of Technology, 101 Woodruff Circle, Suite 2001, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, 30322, and Department of Chemistry, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, 30322
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65
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Wong AW, Scales SJ, Reilly DE. DNA Internalized via Caveolae Requires Microtubule-dependent, Rab7-independent Transport to the Late Endocytic Pathway for Delivery to the Nucleus. J Biol Chem 2007; 282:22953-63. [PMID: 17562704 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m611015200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Using cationic liposomes to mediate gene delivery by transfection has the advantages of improved safety and simplicity of use over viral gene therapy. Understanding the mechanism by which cationic liposome:DNA complexes are internalized and delivered to the nucleus should help identify which transport steps might be manipulated in order to improve transfection efficiencies. We therefore examined the endocytosis and trafficking of two cationic liposomes, DMRIE-C and Lipofectamine LTX, in CHO cells. We found that DMRIE-C-transfected DNA is internalized via caveolae, while LTX-transfected DNA is internalized by clathrin-mediated endocytosis, with both pathways converging at the late endosome or lysosome. Inhibition of microtubule-dependent transport with nocodazole revealed that DMRIE-C:DNA complexes cannot enter the cytosol directly from caveosomes. Lysosomal degradation of transfected DNA has been proposed to be a major reason for poor transfection efficiency. However, in our system dominant negatives of both Rab7 and its effector RILP inhibited late endosome to lysosome transport of DNA complexes and LDL, but did not affect DNA delivery to the nucleus. This suggests that DNA is able to escape from late endosomes without traversing lysosomes and that caveosome to late endosome transport does not require Rab7 function. Lysosomal inhibition with chloroquine likewise had no effect on transfection product titers. These data suggest that DMRIE-C and LTX transfection complexes are endocytosed by separate pathways that converge at the late endosome or lysosome, but that blocking lysosomal traffic does not improve transfection product yields, identifying late endosome/lysosome to nuclear delivery as a step for future study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Athena W Wong
- Department of Early Stage Cell Culture, Genentech Inc., South San Francisco, California 94080, USA.
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66
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Shen D, Liang K, Ye Y, Tetteh E, Achilefu S. Modulation of nuclear internalization of Tat peptides by fluorescent dyes and receptor-avid peptides. FEBS Lett 2007; 581:1793-9. [PMID: 17416362 PMCID: PMC1934384 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2007.03.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2006] [Accepted: 03/23/2007] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The nuclear internalization of biomolecules by Tat peptide provides a mechanism to deliver drugs to cells. However, translocation of molecular imaging probes to the nucleus may induce undesirable mutagenesis. To assess the feasibility of retaining its cell permeating effect without nuclear translocation, Tat-peptide was conjugated with a somatostatin receptor (STR)-avid ligand (Oct) and labeled with fluorescent dyes. The results show that Tat-Oct-5-FAM (fluorescein 5'-carboxylic acid) remained in the cytoplasm of STR-positive AR42J cells. Co-incubation of Tat-Oct-5-FAM with ATP induced nuclear translocation. These data suggest that both dye and Oct-STR endocytosis complex could modulate nuclear internalization of Tat peptides.
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MESH Headings
- Active Transport, Cell Nucleus
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Animals
- Carbocyanines/chemical synthesis
- Carbocyanines/pharmacokinetics
- Cell Nucleus/metabolism
- Endocytosis
- Fluorescent Dyes/pharmacokinetics
- Gene Products, tat/chemical synthesis
- Gene Products, tat/chemistry
- Gene Products, tat/pharmacokinetics
- Humans
- Models, Biological
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Peptide Fragments/chemical synthesis
- Peptide Fragments/chemistry
- Peptide Fragments/pharmacokinetics
- Peptides, Cyclic/chemistry
- Peptides, Cyclic/pharmacokinetics
- Rats
- Receptors, Somatostatin/metabolism
- Tumor Cells, Cultured
- Xanthenes/chemical synthesis
- Xanthenes/pharmacokinetics
- tat Gene Products, Human Immunodeficiency Virus
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Samuel Achilefu
- * Corresponding author, Phone: +1 314 362 8599. Fax: +1 314 747 5191. E-mail address:
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67
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El-Andaloussi S, Johansson HJ, Lundberg P, Langel U. Induction of splice correction by cell-penetrating peptide nucleic acids. J Gene Med 2007; 8:1262-73. [PMID: 16900561 DOI: 10.1002/jgm.950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Directing splicing using oligonucleotides constitutes a promising therapeutic tool for a variety of diseases such as beta-thalassemia, cystic fibrosis, and certain cancers. The rationale is to block aberrant splice sites, thus directing the splicing of the pre-mRNA towards the desired protein product. One of the difficulties in this setup is the poor bioavailability of oligonucleotides, as the most frequently used transfection agents are unsuitable for in vivo use. Here we present splice-correcting peptide nucleic acids (PNAs), tethered to a variety of cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs), evaluating their mechanism of uptake and ability to correct aberrant splicing. METHODS HeLa cells stably expressing luciferase containing an aberrant splice site were used. A previously described PNA sequence, capable of correcting the aberrant splicing, was conjugated to the CPPs, Tat, penetratin and transportan, via a disulfide bridge. The ability of the CPP-PNA conjugates to correct splicing was measured, and membrane disturbance and cell viability were evaluated using LDH leakage and WST-1 assays. Lysosomotropic agents, inhibition of endocytosis at 4 degrees C and confocal microscopy were used to investigate the importance of endocytosis in the uptake of the cell-penetrating PNAs. RESULTS All the three CPPs were able to promote PNA translocation across the plasma membrane and induce splice correction. Transportan (TP) was the most potent vector and significantly restored splicing in a concentration-dependent manner. Interestingly, TP also rendered a concentration-dependent splice correction in serum, in contrast to Tat and penetratin. Addition of the lysosomotrophic agent chloroquine increases the splice correction efficacy of the CPP-PNA conjugates up to 4-fold, which together with experiments at 4 degrees C and the visual information from confocal microscopy, indicate that the mechanism of uptake responsible for internalization of CPP-PNA conjugates is mainly endocytic. Finally, co-localization studies with dextran further indicate that conjugates, at least in the case of TP, internalize via endocytosis and in particular macropinocytosis. CONCLUSIONS These data demonstrate that CPPs can be used for the delivery of splice-correcting PNAs, with potential to be used as a therapeutic approach for regulating splicing in a variety of diseases. Transportan presents itself as the overall most suitable vector in this study, generating the most efficient conjugates for splice correction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samir El-Andaloussi
- Department of Neurochemistry, Stockholm University, S. Arrheniusv 21A, SE-10691 Stockholm, Sweden
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68
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Patsch C, Edenhofer F. Conditional mutagenesis by cell-permeable proteins: potential, limitations and prospects. Handb Exp Pharmacol 2007:203-32. [PMID: 17203657 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-35109-2_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
The combination of two powerful technologies, the Cre/loxP recombination system and the protein transduction technique, holds great promise for the advancement of biomedical and genome research by enabling precise and rapid control over mutation events. Protein transduction is a recently developed technology to deliver biologically active proteins directly into mammalian cells. It involves the generation of fusion proteins consisting of the cargo molecule to be delivered and a so-called protein transduction domain. Recently, the derivation of cell permeable variants of the DNA recombinase Cre has been reported. Cre is a site-specific recombinase that recognizes 34 base pair loxP sites and has been widely used to genetically engineer mammalian cells in vitro and in vivo. Recombinant cell-permeable Cre recombinase was found to efficiently induce recombination of loxP-modified alleles in various mammalian cell lines. Here we review recent advances in conditional expression and mutagenesis employing cell-permeable Cre proteins. Moreover, this review summarizes recent findings of studies aimed at deciphering the molecular mechanism of the cellular uptake of cell-permeable fusion proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Patsch
- Stem Cell Engineering Group, Institute of Reconstructive Neurobiology, University of Bonn, Life and Brain Center and Hertie Foundation, Sigmund-Freud Strasse 25, 53105 Bonn, Germany
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69
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Abstract
Intracellular delivery of various drugs, including DNA, and drug carriers can sharply increase the efficiency of various treatment protocols. However, the receptor-mediated endocytosis of drugs, drug carriers, and DNA results in their lysosomal delivery and significant degradation. The problem can be solved and therapy efficacy still further increased if the approaches for direct intracytoplasmic delivery that bypass the endocytic pathway are developed. This is especially important for many anticancer drugs (proapoptotic drugs whose primary action site is the mitochondrial membrane) and gene therapy (nuclear or mitochondrial genomes should be targeted). This review considers several current approaches for intracellular drug delivery: the use of pH-sensitive liposomes, the use of cell-penetrating proteins and peptides, and the use of immunoliposomes targeting intracellular antigens. Among intracellular targets, nuclei (gene therapy), mitochondria (proapoptotic cancer therapy and targeting of the mitochondrial genome), and lysosomes (lysosomal targeting of enzymes for the therapy of the lysosomal storage diseases) are considered. Examples of successful intracellular and organelle-specific delivery of biologically active molecules, including DNA, are presented; unanswered questions, challenges, and future trends are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir P Torchilin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA.
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70
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Tünnemann G, Martin RM, Haupt S, Patsch C, Edenhofer F, Cardoso MC. Cargo‐dependent mode of uptake and bioavailability of TAT‐containing proteins and peptides in living cells. FASEB J 2006; 20:1775-84. [PMID: 16940149 DOI: 10.1096/fj.05-5523com] [Citation(s) in RCA: 311] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are capable of introducing a wide range of cargoes into living cells. Descriptions of the internalization process vary from energy-independent cell penetration of membranes to endocytic uptake. To elucidate whether the mechanism of entry of CPP constructs might be influenced by the properties of the cargo, we used time lapse confocal microscopy analysis of living mammalian cells to directly compare the uptake of the well-studied CPP TAT fused to a protein (>50 amino acids) or peptide (<50 amino acids) cargo. We also analyzed various constructs for their subcellular distribution and mobility after the internalization event. TAT fusion proteins were taken up largely into cytoplasmic vesicles whereas peptides fused to TAT entered the cell in a rapid manner that was dependent on membrane potential. Despite their accumulation in the nucleolus, photobleaching of TAT fusion peptides revealed their mobility. The bioavailability of internalized TAT peptides was tested and confirmed by the strong inhibitory effect on cell cycle progression of two TAT fusion peptides derived from the tumor suppressor p21(WAF/Cip) and DNA Ligase I measured in living cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gisela Tünnemann
- Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine, Robert-Rössle-Str. 10, Berlin 13125, Germany
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71
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Vaysse L, Gregory LG, Harbottle RP, Perouzel E, Tolmachov O, Coutelle C. Nuclear-targeted minicircle to enhance gene transfer with non-viral vectors in vitro and in vivo. J Gene Med 2006; 8:754-63. [PMID: 16532508 DOI: 10.1002/jgm.883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND To develop more efficient non-viral vectors, we have previously described a novel approach to attach a nuclear localisation signal (NLS) to plasmid DNA, by generating a fusion protein between the tetracycline repressor protein TetR and an SV40 NLS peptide (TetR-NLS). The high affinity of TetR for the DNA sequence tetO is used to bind the NLS to DNA. We have now investigated the ability of this system displaying the SV40 NLS or HIV-1 TAT peptide to enhance nuclear import of a minimised DNA construct more suitable for in vivo gene delivery: a minicircle. METHODS We have produced a new LacZ minicircle compatible with the TetR system. After transfection of the minicircle in combination with TetR-NLS or TetR-TAT using different transfection agents, we first measured beta-galactosidase activity in vitro. We then used a special delivery technique, in which DOTAP/cholesterol liposomes and DNA/protein complexes are sequentially injected intravenously, to evaluate the activity of this system in vivo. RESULTS In vitro results showed a 30-fold increase in transfection efficiency of the nuclear-targeted minicircle compared to normal plasmid lipofection. Results on cell cycle arrested cells seem to indicate a different mechanism between the TetR-NLS and TetR-TAT. Finally, we demonstrate a more than 6-fold increase in beta-galactosidase expression in the mouse lung using the minicircle and the TetR-TAT protein. This increase is specific for the peptide sequence and is not observed with the control protein TetR. CONCLUSIONS Our results indicate that the combination of a minicircle DNA construct with a TetR nuclear-targeting system is able to potentiate gene expression of non-viral vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurence Vaysse
- Gene Therapy Research Group, Division of Biomedical Science, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
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72
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Bian J, Kiedrowski M, Mal N, Forudi F, Penn MS. Engineered cell therapy for sustained local myocardial delivery of nonsecreted proteins. Cell Transplant 2006; 15:67-74. [PMID: 16700331 DOI: 10.3727/000000006783982197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Novel strategies for the treatment of congestive heart failure have taken the form of gene and cell therapy to induce angiogenesis, optimize calcium handling by cardiac myocytes, or regenerate damaged myocardial tissue. Arguably both gene- and cell-based therapies would be benefited by having the ability to locally deliver specific transcription factors and other usually nonsecreted proteins to cells in the surrounding myocardial tissue. The herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) tegument protein VP22 has been shown to mediate protein intercellular trafficking to mammalian cells and finally localize into the nucleus, which makes it a useful cargo-carrying functional protein in cell-based gene therapy. While VP22 has been studied as a means to modulate tumor growth, little is known about the distribution and transport kinetics of VP22 in the heart and its potential application in combination with autologous cell transplantation for the delivery of proteins to myocardial tissue. The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of VP22 fusion protein intercellular trafficking combined with autologous cell transplantation in the heart. In an in vitro study untransfected rat heart cells were cocultured with stably transfected rat cardiac fibroblasts (RCF) with fusion constructs of VP22. The control experiment was untransfected rat heart cells co-plated with RCF stably transfected with enhanced green fluorescence protein (eGFP). The Lewis rat model was selected for in vivo study. In the in vitro studies there was a 14-fold increase in the number of GFP-positive cells 48 h after initiating coculture with VP22-eGFP RCF compared to eGFP RCF. In the rat model, transplantation of VP22-eGFP expressing RCF led to VP22-eGFP fusion protein delivery to an area of myocardial tissue that was 20-fold greater than that observed when eGFP RCF were transplanted. This area appeared to reach a steady state between 7 and 10 days after transplantation. The VP22-eGFP area consisted of eGFP-positive endothelium, smooth muscle cells, and cardiac myocytes with delivery to an area of approximately 1 mm2 of myocardial tissue. Our data suggest a viable strategy for the delivery of proteins that are not naturally secreted or internalized, and provide the first insight into the feasibility and effectiveness of cell-penetrating proteins combined with cell transplantation in the heart.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Bian
- Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Cleveland State University,Cleveland, OH 44115-2425, USA
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73
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Gupta B, Torchilin VP. Transactivating transcriptional activator-mediated drug delivery. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2006; 3:177-90. [PMID: 16506946 DOI: 10.1517/17425247.3.2.177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are peptide vectors that can traverse through the plasma membrane barrier without breaching the integrity of the cell, and deliver various cargoes inside cell. The range of cargoes that can be delivered intracellularly by CPPs encompasses a broad variety of hydrophilic molecules, such as peptides, proteins, antibodies, imaging agents, DNA and even nanosized entities, including polymer-based systems, solid nanoparticles and liposomes. Multiple studies have focused on CPPs such as transactivating transcriptional activator peptide (TATp), penetratin, VP22, transportan and synthetic oligoarginines because of their high inherent potential as intracellular delivery vectors. However, the TATp remains the most popular CPP used for a variety of purposes. This review article attempts to bring together the available data on TAT-mediated intracellular uptake of a broad range of molecules and nanoparticles. It also considers potential practical applications of this approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhawna Gupta
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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74
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Mano M, Teodósio C, Paiva A, Simões S, Pedroso de Lima M. On the mechanisms of the internalization of S4(13)-PV cell-penetrating peptide. Biochem J 2006; 390:603-12. [PMID: 15907190 PMCID: PMC1198940 DOI: 10.1042/bj20050577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Cell-penetrating peptides have been shown to translocate across eukaryotic cell membranes through a temperature-insensitive and energy-independent mechanism that does not involve membrane receptors or transporters. Although cell-penetrating peptides have been successfully used to mediate the intracellular delivery of a wide variety of molecules of pharmacological interest both in vitro and in vivo, the mechanisms by which cellular uptake occurs remain unclear. In the face of recent reports demonstrating that uptake of cell-penetrating peptides occurs through previously described endocytic pathways, or is a consequence of fixation artifacts, we conducted a critical re-evaluation of the mechanism responsible for the cellular uptake of the S4(13)-PV karyophilic cell-penetrating peptide. We report that the S4(13)-PV peptide is able to accumulate inside live cells very efficiently through a rapid, dose-dependent and non-toxic process, providing clear evidence that the cellular uptake of this peptide cannot be attributed to fixation artifacts. Comparative analysis of peptide uptake into mutant cells lacking heparan sulphate proteoglycans demonstrates that their presence at the cell surface facilitates the cellular uptake of the S4(13)-PV peptide, particularly at low peptide concentrations. Most importantly, our results clearly demonstrate that, in addition to endocytosis, which is only evident at low peptide concentrations, the efficient cellular uptake of the S4(13)-PV cell-penetrating peptide occurs mainly through an alternative, non-endocytic mechanism, most likely involving direct penetration across cell membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Mano
- *Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology of Coimbra, University of Coimbra, 3004-517 Coimbra, Portugal
- †Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Coimbra, 3001-401 Coimbra, Portugal
| | | | - Artur Paiva
- ‡Histocompatibility Center of Coimbra, 3000-075 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Sérgio Simões
- *Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology of Coimbra, University of Coimbra, 3004-517 Coimbra, Portugal
- §Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, 3000-295 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Maria C. Pedroso de Lima
- *Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology of Coimbra, University of Coimbra, 3004-517 Coimbra, Portugal
- †Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Coimbra, 3001-401 Coimbra, Portugal
- To whom correspondence should be addressed (email )
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75
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Borghouts C, Kunz C, Groner B. Current strategies for the development of peptide-based anti-cancer therapeutics. J Pept Sci 2006; 11:713-26. [PMID: 16138387 DOI: 10.1002/psc.717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The completion of the human genome sequence and the development of new techniques, which allow the visualisation of comprehensive gene expression patterns, has led to the identification of a large number of gene products differentially expressed in tumours and corresponding normal tissues. The task at hand is the sorting of these genes into correlative and causative ones. Correlative genes are merely changed as a consequence of transformation and have no decisive effects upon transformation. In contrast, causative genes play a direct role in the process of cellular transformation and the maintenance of the transformed state, which can be exploited for therapeutic purposes. Oncogenes and tumour suppressor genes are prime targets for the development of new inhibitors and gene therapeutic strategies. However, many target oncogene products do not exhibit enzymatic activity that can be inhibited by conventional small molecular weight compounds. They exert their functions through regulated protein-protein or protein-DNA interactions and might require other compounds for efficient interference with such functions. Peptides are emerging as a novel class of drugs for cancer therapy, which could fulfil these tasks. Peptide therapy aims at the specific inhibition of inappropriately activated oncogenes. This review will focus on the selection procedures, which can be employed to identify useful peptides for the treatment of cancer. Before peptide-based therapeutics can become useful, it will be necessary to increase their stability by modifications or the use of scaffolds. Additionally, various delivery methods including liposomes and particularly the use of protein transduction domains (PTDs) have to be explored. These strategies will yield highly specific and more effective peptides and improve the potential of peptide-based anti-cancer therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corina Borghouts
- Georg-Speyer-Haus, Institute for Biomedical Research, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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76
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Abes S, Williams D, Prevot P, Thierry A, Gait MJ, Lebleu B. Endosome trapping limits the efficiency of splicing correction by PNA-oligolysine conjugates. J Control Release 2005; 110:595-604. [PMID: 16377019 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2005.10.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2005] [Accepted: 10/17/2005] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Splicing correction by steric-blocking oligonucleotides (ON) might lead to important clinical applications but requires efficient delivery to cell nuclei. The conjugation of short oligolysine tails has been used to deliver a correcting peptide nucleic acid (PNA) sequence in a positive readout assay in which ON hybridization to the cryptic splice site is strictly required for the expression of a luciferase reporter gene. We have investigated the mechanism of cellular uptake and the efficiency of a (Lys)(8)-PNA-Lys construction in this model system. Cell uptake is temperature-dependent and leads to sequestration of the conjugate in cytoplasmic vesicles in keeping with an endocytic mechanism of internalization. Accordingly a significant and sequence-specific splicing correction is achieved only in the presence of endosome-disrupting agents as chloroquine or 0.5 M sucrose. These endosome-disrupting agents do not affect the activity of free PNA, and do not increase (Lys)(8)-PNA-Lys uptake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saïd Abes
- UMR 5124 CNRS, CC 086, Université Montpellier 2, Montpellier, France
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77
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Abstract
During the past two decades, our understanding of oncogenesis has advanced considerably and many new signalling pathways have been identified. Differences in signalling events that distinguish normal cells from tumour cells provide new targets for the development of anticancer agents. Peptide aptamers are small peptide sequences that have been selected to recognise a predetermined target protein domain and are potentially able to interfere with its function. They represent useful molecules for manipulating protein function in vivo. The isolation and use of specific peptide aptamers as inhibitors of individual signalling components, essential in cancer development and progression, provides a new challenge for drug development. Although peptides make up only a small fraction of current therapeutics, their potential is being enhanced by new developments affecting their modification, stability, delivery and their successful application in preclinical settings. This review summarises the methods that can be used for the isolation and delivery of peptide aptamers, as well as the important achievements that have been made using such peptide aptamers in different systems. The applicability of peptide aptamers as novel cancer therapeutics will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corina Borghouts
- Georg-Speyer-Haus Institute for Biomedical Research, Paul-Ehrlich-Strasse 42-44, D-60596 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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78
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Thierry AR, Abes S, Resina S, Travo A, Richard JP, Prevot P, Lebleu B. Comparison of basic peptides- and lipid-based strategies for the delivery of splice correcting oligonucleotides. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2005; 1758:364-74. [PMID: 16360115 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2005.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2005] [Revised: 10/24/2005] [Accepted: 10/24/2005] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Expression of alternatively spliced mRNA variants at specific stages of development or in specific cells and tissues contributes to the functional diversity of the human genome. Aberrations in alternative splicing were found as a cause or a contributing factor to the development, progression, or maintenance of numerous diseases. The use of antisense oligonucleotides (ON) to modify aberrant expression patterns of alternatively spliced mRNAs is a novel means of potentially controlling such diseases. Oligonucleotides can be designed to repair genetic mutations, to modify genomic sequences in order to compensate for gene deletions, or to modify RNA processing in order to improve the effects of the underlying gene mutation. Steric block ON approach have proven to be effective in experimental model for various diseases. Here, we describe our experience in investigating two strategies for ON delivery: ON conjugation with basic peptides and lipid-based particulate system (lipoplex). Basic peptides or Cell Penetrating Peptides (CPP) such as the TAT-derived peptide appear to circumvent many problems associated with ON and drug delivery. This strategy may represent the next paradigm in our ability to modulate cell function and offers a unique avenue for the treatment of disease. Lipoplexes result from the intimate interaction of ON with cationic lipids leading to ON carrying particles able to be taken up by cells and to release ON in the cytoplasm. We have used as an experimental model the correction of a splicing alteration of the mutated beta-globin intron causing thalassemia. Data on cell penetration and efficacy of correction of specific steric block ON delivered either by basic peptides or lipoplex are described. A comparison of the properties of both delivery systems is made respective to the use of this new class of therapeutic molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alain R Thierry
- UMR 5124 CNRS, CC 086, Université Montpellier 2, Place Eugène Bataillon, 34095 Montpellier, France
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79
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Fischer R, Fotin-Mleczek M, Hufnagel H, Brock R. Break on through to the Other Side-Biophysics and Cell Biology Shed Light on Cell-Penetrating Peptides. Chembiochem 2005; 6:2126-42. [PMID: 16254940 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.200500044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 212] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) have become widely used vectors for the cellular import of molecules in basic and applied biomedical research. Despite the broad acceptance of these molecules as molecular carriers, the details of the mode of cellular internalization and membrane permeation remain elusive. Within the last two years endocytosis has been demonstrated to be a route of uptake shared by several CPPs. These findings had a significant impact on CPP research. State-of-the-art cell biology is now required to advance the understanding of the intracellular fate of the CPP and cargo molecules. Owing to their presumed ability to cross lipid bilayers, CPPs also represent highly interesting objects of biophysical research. Numerous studies have investigated structure-activity relationships of CPPs with respect to their ability to bind to a lipid bilayer or to cross this barrier. Endocytosis route only relocates the membrane permeation from the cell surface to endocytic compartments. Therefore, biophysical experiments are key to a mechanistic molecular understanding of the cellular uptake of CPPs. However, biophysical investigations have to consider the molecular environment encountered by a peptide inside and outside a cell. In this contribution we will review biophysical and cell-biology data obtained for several prominent CPPs. Furthermore, we will summarize recent findings on the cell-penetrating characteristics of antimicrobial peptides and the antimicrobial properties of CPPs. Peptides of both groups have overlapping characteristics. Therefore, both fields may greatly benefit from each other. The review will conclude with a perspective of how biophysics and cell biology may synergize even more efficiently in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rainer Fischer
- Institute for Cell Biology, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 15, 72076 Tübingen,, Germany
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80
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Abstract
Over the last 15 years, many publications described the use of peptide sequences that have been dubbed cell penetrating peptides (CPP), Trojan Horse peptides, protein transduction domains, or membrane-translocating sequences. These mostly positively charged domains bring attached cargo across biological membranes. One of the reasons for the interest in CPP is their potential as delivery tools to enhance the pharmacodynamics of drugs otherwise poorly bioavailable. In particular, the neuroscientist aiming to deliver a protein or other compound into the brain for analytical or therapeutic reasons is faced with the challenge that few drugs cross the blood-brain barrier. CPP are valuable tools to overcome the plasma membrane or the blood-brain barrier in basic research, and in relevant models of neural disease, and will hopefully help to increase the precious few treatments or even cures for people with diseases of the brain and nervous system. Here, we review applications in neuroscience and recent insights into the mechanism of CPP-mediated trafficking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gunnar P H Dietz
- Neurologische Universitätsklinik, Waldweg 33, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.
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81
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Fotin-Mleczek M, Welte S, Mader O, Duchardt F, Fischer R, Hufnagel H, Scheurich P, Brock R. Cationic cell-penetrating peptides interfere with TNF signalling by induction of TNF receptor internalization. J Cell Sci 2005; 118:3339-51. [PMID: 16079278 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.02460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Cationic cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) have been used widely as delivery vectors for the import of molecules that otherwise do not cross the plasma membrane of eukaryotic cells. In this work, we demonstrate that the three cationic CPPs, Antennapedia homeodomain-derived peptide (Antp), nona-arginine and Tat-derived peptide, inhibit tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-mediated signal transduction. This inhibition is based on the downregulation of TNF receptors at the cell surface by induction of internalization. In contrast to TNF-dependent receptor internalization, no receptor activation occurs. The receptor downregulation is not restricted to the CPPs. Remarkably, the HIV-1 Tat protein itself also induces the internalization of TNF receptors. The dynamin dependence of the internalization, as well as the fact that epidermal growth factor receptors are also internalized, suggest a general induction of clathrin-dependent endocytosis as the mechanism of action. The significance of these findings for the use of cationic CPPs in the import of bioactive peptides is demonstrated here using a conjugate consisting of Antp and a Smac protein-derived cargo peptide. The cargo alone, when introduced into cells by electroporation, enhanced TNF-induced apoptosis by inhibiting the anti-apoptotic action of IAPs (inhibitor of apoptosis proteins). For the Antp-Smac conjugate at concentrations below 40 μM the inhibitory effect of the Antp peptide compensated for the pro-apoptotic activity of the cargo, and led to the protection of cells against TNF-mediated apoptosis. These data provide important new information for the use of cationic CPPs for the cellular delivery of bioactive molecules.
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MESH Headings
- Apoptosis/drug effects
- Caspase 3
- Caspase Inhibitors
- Caspases/metabolism
- Cations/metabolism
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Cell Proliferation/drug effects
- Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay
- Gene Products, tat/pharmacology
- HeLa Cells
- Humans
- Peptide Fragments/chemical synthesis
- Peptide Fragments/metabolism
- Peptide Fragments/pharmacology
- Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor/drug effects
- Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor/metabolism
- Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor, Type I/drug effects
- Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor, Type I/metabolism
- Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor, Type II/drug effects
- Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor, Type II/metabolism
- Signal Transduction/drug effects
- Signal Transduction/physiology
- Transcription Factor RelA/antagonists & inhibitors
- Transcription Factor RelA/metabolism
- Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha/antagonists & inhibitors
- Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha/metabolism
- Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha/pharmacology
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariola Fotin-Mleczek
- Department of Molecular Biology, Institute for Cell Biology, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 15, Tübingen, 72076, Germany
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82
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Won J, Kim M, Yi YW, Kim YH, Jung N, Kim TK. A magnetic nanoprobe technology for detecting molecular interactions in live cells. Science 2005; 309:121-5. [PMID: 15994554 DOI: 10.1126/science.1112869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Technologies to assess the molecular targets of biomolecules in living cells are lacking. We have developed a technology called magnetism-based interaction capture (MAGIC) that identifies molecular targets on the basis of induced movement of superparamagnetic nanoparticles inside living cells. Efficient intracellular uptake of superparamagnetic nanoparticles (coated with a small molecule of interest) was mediated by a transducible fusogenic peptide. These nanoprobes captured the small molecule's labeled target protein and were translocated in a direction specified by the magnetic field. Use of MAGIC in genome-wide expression screening identified multiple protein targets of a drug. MAGIC was also used to monitor signal-dependent modification and multiple interactions of proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaejoon Won
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon 305-701, Korea
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83
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Awedikian R, François A, Guilbaud M, Moullier P, Salvetti A. Intracellular route and biological activity of exogenously delivered Rep proteins from the adeno-associated virus type 2. Virology 2005; 335:252-63. [PMID: 15840524 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2005.02.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2005] [Revised: 02/15/2005] [Accepted: 02/28/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The two large Rep proteins, Rep78 and Rep68, from the adeno-associated virus type 2 (AAV-2) are required for AAV-2 DNA replication, site-specific integration, and for the regulation of viral gene expression. The study of their activities is dependent on the ability to deliver these proteins to the cells in a time and dose-dependent manner. We evaluated the ability of a protein transduction domain (PTD) derived from the human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) TAT protein to drive the cellular internalization of exogenously delivered PTD-fused Rep68 proteins. This analysis unexpectedly revealed that recombinant Rep68 alone, in the absence of any PTD, could be endocytosed by the cells. Rep68 as the chimeric TAT-Rep68 proteins were internalized through endocytosis in clathrin-coated vesicles and retained in late endosomes/lysosomes with no detectable nuclear localization. In the presence of adenovirus, the Rep proteins could translocate into the nucleus where they displayed a biological activity. These findings support recent reports on the mechanism of entry of TAT-fused proteins and also revealed a new property of Rep68.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafi Awedikian
- Laboratoire de Thérapie Génique, INSERM U649, CHU Hôtel-Dieu, Bâtiment Jean Monnet, 30 Bd Jean Monnet, 44035 Nantes Cedex 1, France
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84
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Soane L, Fiskum G. Inhibition of mitochondrial neural cell death pathways by protein transduction of Bcl-2 family proteins. J Bioenerg Biomembr 2005; 37:179-90. [PMID: 16167175 PMCID: PMC2570496 DOI: 10.1007/s10863-005-6590-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Bcl-2 and other closely related members of the Bcl-2 family of proteins inhibit the death of neurons and many other cells in response to a wide variety of pathogenic stimuli. Bcl-2 inhibition of apoptosis is mediated by its binding to pro-apoptotic proteins, e.g., Bax and tBid, inhibition of their oligomerization, and thus inhibition of mitochondrial outer membrane pore formation, through which other pro-apoptotic proteins, e.g., cytochrome c, are released to the cytosol. Bcl-2 also exhibits an indirect antioxidant activity caused by a sub-toxic elevation of mitochondrial production of reactive oxygen species and a compensatory increase in expression of antioxidant gene products. While classic approaches to cytoprotection based on Bcl-2 family gene delivery have significant limitations, cellular protein transduction represents a new and exciting approach utilizing peptides and proteins as drugs with intracellular targets. The mechanism by which proteins with transduction domains are taken up by cells and delivered to their targets is controversial but usually involves endocytosis. The effectiveness of transduced proteins may therefore be limited by their release from endosomes into the cytosol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucian Soane
- Department of Anesthesiology, School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Gary Fiskum
- Department of Anesthesiology, School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Maryland
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85
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Potocky TB, Menon AK, Gellman SH. Effects of conformational stability and geometry of guanidinium display on cell entry by beta-peptides. J Am Chem Soc 2005; 127:3686-7. [PMID: 15771489 DOI: 10.1021/ja042566j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
We have used our ability to control beta-peptide secondary structure in order to explore the effects of conformational stability and geometry of guanidinium display on cell entry. Both of these factors affect the rate and relative amount of beta-peptide accumulation in the cytoplasm and nucleus of live HeLa cells. These beta-peptides do not show significant differences in cell surface binding, implying that structure and guanidinium display are important in a later step in cell entry than initial surface binding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terra B Potocky
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA
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Nakase I, Niwa M, Takeuchi T, Sonomura K, Kawabata N, Koike Y, Takehashi M, Tanaka S, Ueda K, Simpson JC, Jones AT, Sugiura Y, Futaki S. Cellular uptake of arginine-rich peptides: roles for macropinocytosis and actin rearrangement. Mol Ther 2005; 10:1011-22. [PMID: 15564133 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2004.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 596] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2004] [Accepted: 08/19/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of membrane-permeable peptides as carrier vectors for the intracellular delivery of various proteins and macromolecules for modifying cellular function is well documented. Arginine-rich peptides, including those derived from human immunodeficiency virus 1 Tat protein, are among the representative classes of these vectors. The internalization mechanism of these vector peptides and their protein conjugates was previously regarded as separate from endocytosis, but more recent reevaluations have concluded that endocytosis is involved in their internalization. In this report, we show that the uptake of octa-arginine (R8) peptide by HeLa cells was significantly suppressed by the macropinocytosis inhibitor ethylisopropylamiloride (EIPA) and the F-actin polymerization inhibitor cytochalasin D, suggesting a role for macropinocytosis in the uptake of the peptide. In agreement with this we observed that treatment of the cells with R8 peptide induced significant rearrangement of the actin cytoskeleton. The internalization efficiency and contribution of macropinocytosis were also observed to have a dependency on the chain length of the oligoarginine peptides. Uptake of penetratin, another representative peptide carrier, was less sensitive to EIPA and penetratin did not have such distinct effects on actin localization. The above observations suggest that penetratin and R8 peptides have distinct internalization mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ikuhiko Nakase
- Institute for Chemical Research, Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan
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