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Ryan JD, Ryan E, Fabre A, Lawless MW, Crowe J. Defective bone morphogenic protein signaling underlies hepcidin deficiency in HFE hereditary hemochromatosis. Hepatology 2010; 52:1266-73. [PMID: 20658468 DOI: 10.1002/hep.23814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Hereditary hemochromatosis (HH) is a common inherited iron overload disorder. The vast majority of patients carry the missense Cys282Tyr mutation of the HFE gene. Hepcidin, the central regulator of iron homeostasis, is deficient in HH, leading to unchecked iron absorption and subsequent iron overload. The bone morphogenic protein (BMP)/small mothers against decapentaplegic (Smad) signaling cascade is central to the regulation of hepcidin. Recent data from HH mice models indicate that this pathway may be defective in the absence of the HFE protein. Hepatic BMP/Smad signaling has not been characterized in a human HFE-HH cohort to date. Hepatic expression of BMP/Smad-related genes was examined in 20 HFE-HH males with significant iron overload, and compared to seven male HFE wild-type controls using quantitative real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. Hepatic expression of BMP6 was appropriately elevated in HFE-HH compared to controls (P = 0.02), likely related to iron overload. Despite this, no increased expression of the BMP target genes hepcidin and Id1 was observed, and diminished phosphorylation of Smad1/Smad5/Smad8 protein relative to iron burden was found upon immunohistochemical analysis, suggesting that impaired BMP signaling occurs in HFE-HH. Furthermore, Smad6 and Smad7, inhibitors of BMP signaling, were up-regulated in HFE-HH compared to controls (P = 0.001 and P = 0.018, respectively). CONCLUSION New data arising from this study suggest that impaired BMP signaling underlies the hepcidin deficiency of HFE-HH. Moreover, the inhibitory Smads, Smad6, and Smad7 are identified as potential disruptors of this signal and, hence, contributors to the pathogenesis of this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- John D Ryan
- Centre for Liver Disease, Mater Misericordiae University Hospital, Dublin, Ireland.
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52
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Iron and the immune system. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2010; 118:315-28. [PMID: 20878427 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-010-0479-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2010] [Accepted: 08/26/2010] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Iron and immunity are closely linked: firstly by the fact that many of the genes/proteins involved in iron homoeostasis play a vital role in controlling iron fluxes such that bacteria are prevented from utilising iron for growth; secondly, cells of the innate immune system, monocytes, macrophages, microglia and lymphocytes, are able to combat bacterial insults by carefully controlling their iron fluxes, which are mediated by hepcidin and ferroportin. In addition, lymphocytes play an important role in adaptive immunity. Thirdly, a variety of effector molecules, e.g. toll-like receptors, NF-κB, hypoxia factor-1, haem oxygenase, will orchestrate the inflammatory response by mobilising a variety of cytokines, neurotrophic factors, chemokines, and reactive oxygen and nitrogen species. Pathologies, where iron loading and depletion occur, may adversely affect the ability of the cell to respond to the bacterial insult.
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53
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Moriya K, Miyoshi H, Shinzawa S, Tsutsumi T, Fujie H, Goto K, Shintani Y, Yotsuyanagi H, Koike K. Hepatitis C virus core protein compromises iron-induced activation of antioxidants in mice and HepG2 cells. J Med Virol 2010; 82:776-92. [PMID: 20336713 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.21661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
One of the characteristics of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is the unusual augmentation of oxidative stress, which is exacerbated by iron accumulation in the liver, as observed frequently in hepatitis C patients. Using a transgenic mouse model, the core protein of HCV was shown previously to induce the overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the liver. In the present study, the impact of iron overloading on the oxidant/antioxidant system was examined using this mouse model and cultured cells. Iron overloading caused the induction of ROS as well as antioxidants. However, the augmentation of some antioxidants, including heme oxygenase-1 and NADH dehydrogenase, quinone 1, was compromised by the presence of the core protein. The attenuation of iron-induced augmentation of heme oxygenase-1 was also confirmed in HepG2 cells expressing the core protein. This attenuation was not dependent on the Nrf2 transcription factor. Thus, HCV infection not only induces oxidative stress but also hampers the iron-induced antioxidant activation in the liver, thereby exacerbating oxidative stress that would facilitate hepatocarcinogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyoji Moriya
- Department of Internal Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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54
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Kim BE, Turski ML, Nose Y, Casad M, Rockman HA, Thiele DJ. Cardiac copper deficiency activates a systemic signaling mechanism that communicates with the copper acquisition and storage organs. Cell Metab 2010; 11:353-63. [PMID: 20444417 PMCID: PMC2901851 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmet.2010.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2009] [Revised: 02/05/2010] [Accepted: 04/05/2010] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Copper (Cu) is an essential cofactor for a variety of metabolic functions, and the regulation of systemic Cu metabolism is critical to human health. Dietary Cu is absorbed through the intestine, stored in the liver, and mobilized into the circulation; however, systemic Cu homeostasis is poorly understood. We generated mice with a cardiac-specific knockout of the Ctr1 Cu transporter (Ctr1(hrt/hrt)), resulting in cardiac Cu deficiency and severe cardiomyopathy. Unexpectedly, Ctr1(hrt/hrt) mice exhibited increased serum Cu levels and a concomitant decrease in hepatic Cu stores. Expression of the ATP7A Cu exporter, thought to function predominantly in intestinal Cu acquisition, was strongly increased in liver and intestine of Ctr1(hrt/hrt) mice. These studies identify ATP7A as a candidate for hepatic Cu mobilization in response to peripheral tissue demand, and illuminate a systemic regulation in which the Cu status of the heart is signaled to organs that take up and store Cu.
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Affiliation(s)
- Byung-Eun Kim
- Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina 27710
| | - Michelle L. Turski
- Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina 27710
| | - Yasuhiro Nose
- Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina 27710
| | - Michelle Casad
- Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina 27710
- Cell Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina 27710
| | - Howard A. Rockman
- Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina 27710
- Cell Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina 27710
| | - Dennis J. Thiele
- Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina 27710
- correspondence should be addressed to D.J. Thiele ()
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55
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WU WS, ZHENG X, DUAN XL, CHANG YZ. Transmenbrance Serine Proteases 6: A Newly Discovered Hepcidin Regulator*. PROG BIOCHEM BIOPHYS 2010. [DOI: 10.3724/sp.j.1206.2009.00584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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56
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Marro S, Chiabrando D, Messana E, Stolte J, Turco E, Tolosano E, Muckenthaler MU. Heme controls ferroportin1 (FPN1) transcription involving Bach1, Nrf2 and a MARE/ARE sequence motif at position -7007 of the FPN1 promoter. Haematologica 2010; 95:1261-8. [PMID: 20179090 DOI: 10.3324/haematol.2009.020123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 216] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Macrophages of the reticuloendothelial system play a key role in recycling iron from hemoglobin of senescent or damaged erythrocytes. Heme oxygenase 1 degrades the heme moiety and releases inorganic iron that is stored in ferritin or exported to the plasma via the iron export protein ferroportin. In the plasma, iron binds to transferrin and is made available for de novo red cell synthesis. The aim of this study was to gain insight into the regulatory mechanisms that control the transcriptional response of iron export protein ferroportin to hemoglobin in macrophages. DESIGN AND METHODS Iron export protein ferroportin mRNA expression was analyzed in RAW264.7 mouse macrophages in response to hemoglobin, heme, ferric ammonium citrate or protoporphyrin treatment or to siRNA mediated knockdown or overexpression of Btb And Cnc Homology 1 or nuclear accumulation of Nuclear Factor Erythroid 2-like. Iron export protein ferroportin promoter activity was analyzed using reporter constructs that contain specific truncations of the iron export protein ferroportin promoter or mutations in a newly identified MARE/ARE element. RESULTS We show that iron export protein ferroportin is transcriptionally co-regulated with heme oxygenase 1 by heme, a degradation product of hemoglobin. The protoporphyrin ring of heme is sufficient to increase iron export protein ferroportin transcriptional activity while the iron released from the heme moiety controls iron export protein ferroportin translation involving the IRE in the 5'untranslated region. Transcription of iron export protein ferroportin is inhibited by Btb and Cnc Homology 1 and activated by Nuclear Factor Erythroid 2-like involving a MARE/ARE element located at position -7007/-7016 of the iron export protein ferroportin promoter. CONCLUSIONS This finding suggests that heme controls a macrophage iron recycling regulon involving Btb and Cnc Homology 1 and Nuclear Factor Erythroid 2-like to assure the coordinated degradation of heme by heme oxygenase 1, iron storage and detoxification by ferritin, and iron export by iron export protein ferroportin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuele Marro
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, University of Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 153, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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57
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Abstract
Iron, an essential element for life, is regulated primarily at the level of uptake, storage, and transport in order to maintain sufficient availability for normal physiology. The key protein in iron homeostasis is a 25-amino-acid peptide, hepcidin, which modulates the amount of iron in the circulation by binding and promoting the degradation of the iron exporter ferroportin. Given the central importance of hepcidin, recent studies have focused on how iron is sensed and how the iron signal is transmitted to hepcidin. Mutations in a type II serine protease, matriptase-2/TMPRSS6, were recently identified to be associated with severe iron deficiency caused by inappropriately high levels of hepcidin expression. A key biologically relevant substrate for the proteolytic activity of matriptase-2/TMPRSS6 was found to be hemojuvelin, a cell surface protein that regulates hepcidin expression through a BMP/SMAD pathway. In this review, we discuss the putative role of matriptase-2/TMPRSS6 in iron homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pauline Lee
- Department of Molecular and Experimental Medicine, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, USA.
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58
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Theurl I, Finkenstedt A, Schroll A, Nairz M, Sonnweber T, Bellmann-Weiler R, Theurl M, Seifert M, Wroblewski VJ, Murphy AT, Witcher D, Zoller H, Weiss G. Growth differentiation factor 15 in anaemia of chronic disease, iron deficiency anaemia and mixed type anaemia. Br J Haematol 2009; 148:449-55. [PMID: 19863534 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2141.2009.07961.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Recently, the iron and erythropoiesis-controlled growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF15) has been shown to inhibit the expression of hepcidin in beta-thalassaemia patients, thereby increasing iron absorption despite iron overload. To access the diagnostic and pathogenic impact of GDF15 in inflammatory anaemia the association of GDF15 expression with serum iron parameters and hepcidin was studied in patients suffering from iron deficiency anaemia (IDA), anaemia of chronic disease (ACD) and ACD subjects with true iron deficiency (ACD/IDA). GDF15 was significantly increased in both ACD and ACD/IDA, but not in IDA subjects as compared to controls. In contrast, hepcidin levels were significantly lower in IDA and ACD/IDA subjects than in ACD patients. IDA and ACD/IDA, but not ACD, showed an association between GDF15 and soluble transferrin receptor, an indicator of iron requirement for erythropoiesis. However, GDF15 did not correlate to hepcidin in either patient group. While GDF15 levels were linked to the needs for erythropoiesis and iron homeostasis in IDA, the immunity-driven increase of GDF15 may not primarily affect iron homeostasis and hepcidin expression. This indicates that other ACD-related factors may overcome the regulatory effects of GDF15 on hepcidin expression during inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Igor Theurl
- Deparment of Medicine I, Medical University Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
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59
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Benyamin B, Ferreira MAR, Willemsen G, Gordon S, Middelberg RPS, McEvoy BP, Hottenga JJ, Henders AK, Campbell MJ, Wallace L, Frazer IH, Heath AC, de Geus EJC, Nyholt DR, Visscher PM, Penninx BW, Boomsma DI, Martin NG, Montgomery GW, Whitfield JB. Common variants in TMPRSS6 are associated with iron status and erythrocyte volume. Nat Genet 2009; 41:1173-5. [PMID: 19820699 PMCID: PMC3135421 DOI: 10.1038/ng.456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 190] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2009] [Accepted: 08/03/2009] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
We report a genome-wide association study to iron status. We identify an association of SNPs in TPMRSS6 to serum iron (rs855791, combined P = 1.5×10−20), transferrin saturation (combined P = 2.2×10−23), and erythrocyte mean cell volume (MCV, combined P = 1.1×10−10). We also find suggestive evidence of association with blood haemoglobin levels (combined P = 5.3×10−7). These findings demonstrate the involvement of TMPRSS6 in control of iron homeostasis and in normal erythropoiesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beben Benyamin
- Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
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60
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Castagna A, Campostrini N, Zaninotto F, Girelli D. Hepcidin assay in serum by SELDI-TOF-MS and other approaches. J Proteomics 2009; 73:527-36. [PMID: 19683083 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2009.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2009] [Accepted: 08/05/2009] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Hepcidin, a liver peptide hormone, is the central regulator of iron homeostasis. Hepcidin synthesis is modulated by iron stores, so that iron repletion increases its levels to prevent pathological overload, while iron deficiency strongly inhibits hepcidin to allow an increase in iron absorption from duodenal cells. The emerging pivotal role of hepcidin in iron homeostasis, along with its important links with basic pathways like inflammation, makes the availability of an accurate hepcidin assay as a potentially powerful investigative tool to improve our understanding as well as our diagnostic/prognostic capabilities in many human diseases. There has been a great interest worldwide in developing a reliable and widely applicable assay of the hormone in biological fluids. Being optimal for low-molecular-weight biomarkers, SELDI-TOF-MS has emerged as a valid tool for hepcidin assay. Here we review recent results obtained with this technique, as well as with other Mass Spectrometry-based and immunological methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annalisa Castagna
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Verona, Verona, Italy.
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61
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Ramsay AJ, Hooper JD, Folgueras AR, Velasco G, López-Otín C. Matriptase-2 (TMPRSS6): a proteolytic regulator of iron homeostasis. Haematologica 2009; 94:840-9. [PMID: 19377077 DOI: 10.3324/haematol.2008.001867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Maintaining the body's levels of iron within precise boundaries is essential for normal physiological function. Alterations of these levels below or above the healthy limit lead to a systemic deficiency or overload in iron. The type-two transmembrane serine protease (TTSP), matriptase-2 (also known as TMPRSS6), is attracting significant amounts of interest due to its recently described role in iron homeostasis. The finding of this regulatory role for matriptase-2 was originally derived from the observation that mice deficient in this protease present with anemia due to elevated levels of hepcidin and impaired intestinal iron absorption. Further in vitro analysis has demonstrated that matriptase-2 functions to suppress bone morphogenetic protein stimulation of hepcidin transcription through cell surface proteolytic processing of the bone morphogenetic protein co-receptor hemojuvelin. Consistently, the anemic phenotype of matriptase-2 knockout mice is mirrored in humans with matripase-2 mutations. Currently, 14 patients with iron-refractory iron deficiency anemia (IRIDA) have been reported to harbor various genetic mutations that abrogate matriptase-2 proteolytic activity. In this review, after overviewing the membrane anchored serine proteases, in particular the TTSP family, we summarize the identification and characterization of matriptase-2 and describe its functional relevance in iron metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Ramsay
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
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62
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Wang L, Cherayil BJ. Ironing out the wrinkles in host defense: interactions between iron homeostasis and innate immunity. J Innate Immun 2009; 1:455-64. [PMID: 20375603 DOI: 10.1159/000210016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2008] [Accepted: 01/16/2009] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Iron is an essential micronutrient for both microbial pathogens and their mammalian hosts. Changes in iron availability and distribution have significant effects on pathogen virulence and on the immune response to infection. Recent advances in our understanding of the molecular regulation of iron metabolism have shed new light on how alterations in iron homeostasis both contribute to and influence innate immunity. In this article, we review what is currently known about the role of iron in the response to infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lijian Wang
- Mucosal Immunology Laboratory, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, USA
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63
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Alterations of systemic and muscle iron metabolism in human subjects treated with low-dose recombinant erythropoietin. Blood 2009; 113:6707-15. [PMID: 19264680 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2008-09-178095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The high iron demand associated with enhanced erythropoiesis during high-altitude hypoxia leads to skeletal muscle iron mobilization and decrease in myoglobin protein levels. To investigate the effect of enhanced erythropoiesis on systemic and muscle iron metabolism under nonhypoxic conditions, 8 healthy volunteers were treated with recombinant erythropoietin (rhEpo) for 1 month. As expected, the treatment efficiently increased erythropoiesis and stimulated bone marrow iron use. It was also associated with a prompt and considerable decrease in urinary hepcidin and a slight transient increase in GDF-15. The increased iron use and reduced hepcidin levels suggested increased iron mobilization, but the treatment was associated with increased muscle iron and L ferritin levels. The muscle expression of transferrin receptor and ferroportin was up-regulated by rhEpo administration, whereas no appreciable change in myoglobin levels was observed, which suggests unaltered muscle oxygen homeostasis. In conclusion, under rhEpo stimulation, the changes in the expression of muscle iron proteins indicate the occurrence of skeletal muscle iron accumulation despite the remarkable hepcidin suppression that may be mediated by several factors, such as rhEpo or decreased transferrin saturation or both.
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64
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Piperno A, Mariani R, Trombini P, Girelli D. Hepcidin modulation in human diseases: From research to clinic. World J Gastroenterol 2009; 15:538-51. [PMID: 19195055 PMCID: PMC2653344 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.15.538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
By modulating hepcidin production, an organism controls intestinal iron absorption, iron uptake and mobilization from stores to meet body iron need. In recent years there has been important advancement in our knowledge of hepcidin regulation that also has implications for understanding the physiopathology of some human disorders. Since the discovery of hepcidin and the demonstration of its pivotal role in iron homeostasis, there has been a substantial interest in developing a reliable assay of the hormone in biological fluids. Measurement of hepcidin in biological fluids can improve our understanding of iron diseases and be a useful tool for diagnosis and clinical management of these disorders. We reviewed the literature and our own research on hepcidin to give an updated status of the situation in this rapidly evolving field.
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65
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Pelucchi S, Mariani R, Trombini P, Coletti S, Pozzi M, Paolini V, Barisani D, Piperno A. Expression of hepcidin and other iron-related genes in type 3 hemochromatosis due to a novel mutation in transferrin receptor-2. Haematologica 2009; 94:276-9. [PMID: 19144662 DOI: 10.3324/haematol.13576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Transferrin receptor-2 (TFR2) regulates hepatic hepcidin secretion and when mutated causes type-3 hemochromatosis. No functional study is available in humans. We studied a 47 year-old woman with hemochromatosis. TFR2 DNA and its hepatic transcript were directly sequenced. Hepatic expression of hepcidin and other iron-related genes were measured by qRT-PCR. Urinary hepcidin was measured at baseline and after an oral iron challenge (ferrous sulfate, 65 mg) by SELDI-TOF-MS. A novel homozygous TFR2 mutation was identified in the splicing donor site of intron 4 (c.614+4 A>G) causing exon 4 skipping. Hepcidin and hemojuvelin expression were markedly reduced. Urinary hepcidin was lower than normal and further decreased after iron challenge. This is the first description of iron-related gene expression profiles in a TFR2 mutated patient. The decreased hepatic and urinary expression of hepcidin and lack of acute response to iron challenge confirms the primary role of TFR2 in iron homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Pelucchi
- Consortium for Human Molecular Genetics, Monza, Milan
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