The Impact of Lameness on Welfare of the Dairy Cow

Lying and stepping behaviors around corrective or therapeutic claw trimming

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Claw and limb disorders are highly prevalent in dairy cows and represent a significant welfare and economic concern.

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Control strategies typically include regular claw trimming and monitoring and treatment of locomotion dysfunctions.

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Changes in lying and stepping behaviors detected by sensor systems could assist in the early detection of cows requiring intervention.

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The magnitude of the behavioral changes of affected cows submitted for claw trimming depended on specific conditions.

The objectives of this study were to test differences in lying and stepping behaviors in lactating cows with altered gait or other signs of pain in the day preceding either corrective claw trimming (CCT) or therapeutic claw trimming (TCT; d −1), including healthy controls (HC) as a reference group, and to analyze the associations between categories of lying and stepping behaviors at d −1 and subsequent submission to CCT or TCT (d 0). In addition, we characterized variations in lying and stepping behaviors within 7 d relative to CCT or treatment for a specific foot condition (TCT). A total of 310 Holstein cows in a USDA-certified organic dairy herd in northern Colorado were enrolled. Cows were affixed with an accelerometer (IceQube, IceRobotics) below the fetlock of one hind leg at 12 ± 8 d in milk and monitored for 6 mo for daily activity [lying time (LY; min/d), lying bouts (LB; no./d), and steps (ST; no./d)]. Cows with altered gait or other signs of pain were submitted to claw trimming (CT; d 0) and differentiated as receiving only corrective interventions (CCT) or as being treated for a lameness disorder (TCT). Concurrent activity from cows not submitted to CT was considered a reference from HC. Daily averages for each activity within ±7 d relative to CT were compared among the 3 groups using linear mixed models (PROC MIXED of SAS; SAS Institute Inc.). Logistic regression analyses with a logit link function (PROC GLIMMIX of SAS) were used to test the associations between categories (lower quartile or less, interquartile range, and higher quartile or greater) of lying and stepping behaviors (LY, LB, and ST) preceding CT (d −1) and subsequent submission to CCT or TCT (d 0). On d −1, average (± standard error) LY was greater in TCT (631 ± 34 min/d) than in CCT (568 ± 22 min/d) and HC (581 ± 13 min/d). Overall, LB were not statistically different among groups (CCT = 18.7 ± 0.02 bouts/d; TCT = 19.6 ± 1.17 bouts/d; and HC = 19.1 ± 0.43 bouts/d). Daily ST were lower in TCT (1,810 ± 126 steps/d) than in CCT (2,803 ± 63 steps/d) and HC (2,542 ± 103 steps/d). The odds (confidence interval in parentheses) of TCT were greater in cows in the high LY [3.27 (2.47–4.33)] and high LB [2.31 (1.77–3.02)] categories at d −1. The low ST category was associated with increased odds of CCT [3.32 (1.96–5.65)] and TCT [8.48 (6.49–11.1)]. We concluded that, under the current experimental conditions, cows requiring TCT evidenced greater overall LY and lower daily ST the day before CT. However, these differences were not consistent throughout days in milk categories within the lactation. Type of CT was partially associated with category of activity the day preceding CT, and the associations were more evident for TCT. The magnitude of the behavioral changes before and after CT and the recovery times posttreatment to approach HC behavioral levels varied depending on specific conditions.

Exploring the attitudes of Bavarian farmers towards pain in cattle and how they differ from the attitudes of bovine veterinarians

BACKGROUND

Assessment of pain in cattle depends on the observer's experience and evaluation. Only a few studies compare veterinarians' and farmers' attitudes towards pain in cattle.

METHODS

A questionnaire was sent to 1097 cattle practitioners and 3750 farmers. Return rate was 26.2% for veterinarians and 15.4% for farmers, respectively. Respondents were asked to score the painfulness of procedures and diseases in cattle on a numerical rating scale from 0 (no pain) to 10 (worst pain imaginable), to give their opinion about the use of analgesics during and after procedures, and to agree or disagree with given statements.

RESULTS

There were no significant differences between pain scores awarded by veterinarians and farmers, but significant differences in parameters both groups relied on for pain assessment. Farmers were less willing than veterinarians to use analgesia during and after procedures. There was no significant difference in the amount of money veterinarians thought farmers would spent on analgesia and farmers' actual statements.

CONCLUSION

The results of this study indicate that farmers and veterinarians assess pain severity similarly, but recognise pain differently and disagree in their opinion regarding the use of analgesics. The communication between both groups needs to be improved to ensure proper pain management.

[Curative claw trimming for mechanical relief of sole ulcers - an ex-vivo study]

OBJECTIVE

Overloading or excessive mechanical stress to the claws may damage the sensitive claw tissues and subsequently lead to sole ulcers. Corrective treatment can prevent complications of these sole ulcers. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of a wedge-shaped relief incision from the bulb to the tip of the outer claw of the pelvic limb on the pressure distribution beneath the pertaining claw. Furthermore, it aimed to clarify whether a change in the pressure distribution would lead to dermal pressure relief in the area of a horn defect.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Nineteen isolated bovine limbs from an abattoir were gradually trimmed resulting in following stages. A: initial condition; B: functional claw trimming, steps 1-3; C: extension of the model and drill of a circular lesion at the Rusterholz site (outer claw ulcer simulation); D: wedge shaped, weight-relieving incision from the bulb halfway towards the sole tip; E: further extension of the wedge-shaped incision towards the sole tip. The limbs were loaded with 200 kg following each of the procedures. A pressure sensor system was used in order to analyze the pressure distribution beneath the claws. Furthermore, positioning of the claws on a glass plate allowed for an evaluation of corium resp. fat cushion protrusion through the artificial lesion.

RESULTS

In the untrimmed claws, an average of 63 % of the total force applied rested on the outer claw area. This value decreased to 30 % following step E. Maximum pressure values shifted from the bulb area towards the sole tip with increasing degree of claw trimming. The relative loading area of the inner claw increased to up to 18.4 % following the procedures. The described incision technique (step E) resulted in a significant reduction of corium protrusion through the artificial horn defect in comparison to the claw situation in step C.

CONCLUSION

The wedge-shaped, weight-relieving incision (step E) led to pressure reduction in the area of the outer claw and the bulb region in this ex-vivo-study. Therefore, this trimming method may serve to relieve pressure from the vulnerable Rusterholz site as well as providing means for reducing corium compression.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

The described trimming method facilitates pressure relief on the outer claw area in live animals. In this, it may exert a positive effect on disease progression in Rusterholz sole ulcers.

Prediction of lameness using automatically recorded activity, behavior and production data in post-parturient Irish dairy cows

BACKGROUND

Although visual locomotion scoring is inexpensive and simplistic, it is also time consuming and subjective. Automated lameness detection methods have been developed to replace the visual locomotion scoring and aid in early and accurate detection. Several types of sensors are measuring traits such as activity, lying behavior or temperature. Previous studies on automatic lameness detection have been unable to achieve high accuracy in combination with practical implementation in a on farm commercial setting. The objective of our research was to develop a prediction model for lameness in dairy cattle using a combination of remote sensor technology and other animal records that will translate sensor data into easy to interpret classified locomotion information for the farmer. During an 11-month period, data from 164 Holstein-Friesian dairy cows were gathered, housed at an Irish research farm. A neck-mounted accelerometer was used to gather behavioral metrics, additional automatically recorded data consisted of milk production and live weight. Locomotion scoring data were manually recorded, using a one-to-five scale (1 = non-lame, 5 = severely lame). Locomotion scores where then used to label the cows as sound (locomotion score 1) or unsound (locomotion score ≥ 2). Four supervised classification models, using a gradient boosted decision tree machine learning algorithm, were constructed to investigate whether cows could be classified as sound or unsound. Data available for model building included behavioral metrics, milk production and animal characteristics.

RESULTS

The resulting models were constructed using various combinations of the data sources. The accuracy of the models was then compared using confusion matrices, receiver-operator characteristic curves and calibration plots. The model which achieved the highest performance according to the accuracy measures, was the model combining all the available data, resulting in an area under the curve of 85% and a sensitivity and specificity of 78%.

CONCLUSION

These results show that 85% of this model's predictions were correct in identifying cows as sound or unsound, showing that the use of a neck-mounted accelerometer, in combination with production and other animal data, has potential to replace visual locomotion scoring as lameness detection method in dairy cows.

The Equipment Used in the SF6 Technique to Estimate Methane Emissions Has No Major Effect on Dairy Cow Behavior

The natural behavior of animals can be disrupted by the techniques and materials of research methodologies. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of the equipment used in the SF₆ tracer technique to estimate enteric methane emissions on the behavior of lactating dairy cows. The cows (n = 24) were allocated to one of two diets: CONTROL and experimental diet (MIX). Behavior was assessed through video recordings between milking times during four phases: 3 days before fitting the cows with the SF₆ equipment (PRE), first 2 days after the cows were fitted with the SF₆ equipment (ADAP), 3 days during methane emission measurements (MEAS), and 2 days after the SF₆ equipment removal (POST). The behaviors recorded included eating, ruminating or idling, resting, and others. Affiliative or agonistic and discomfort behaviors (scratching or pushing the equipment) were also recorded. Lying time was recorded over 14 days using dataloggers fitted to the cows' leg. Milk production and feed intake were recorded daily. MIX cows ruminated more than CONTROL cows (P = 0.05). The cows ruminated more at MEAS than in any other phase (P < 0.01). Time spent idling gradually decreased from PRE to MEAS for MIX cows (P < 0.01). The cows were lying down longer in MEAS than in ADAP and POST (P < 0.01). The time spent lying with the head down was shorter during PRE and ADAP than during POST (P < 0.05). No difference was observed in the occurrence of discomfort or agonistic behaviors (P > 0.05). Affiliative behaviors occurred more often in ADAP than in MEAS (P < 0.05). There was no difference between phases in daily lying time, number of lying bouts per day, or mean bout duration (P > 0.05). Milk production was not influenced by the SF₆ equipment (P > 0.05). Dry matter intake was higher for CONTROL cows (P < 0.01), and it decreased from PRE to MEAS (P < 0.01). However, milk yield did not differ between cows wearing the SF₆ equipment and those without it (P > 0.05). We conclude that the SF₆ equipment had a minimal effect on dairy cow behavior.

A Review: Development of Computer Vision-Based Lameness Detection for Dairy Cows and Discussion of the Practical Applications

The computer vision technique has been rapidly adopted in cow lameness detection research due to its noncontact characteristic and moderate price. This paper attempted to summarize the research progress of computer vision in the detection of lameness. Computer vision lameness detection systems are not popular on farms, and the accuracy and applicability still need to be improved. This paper discusses the problems and development prospects of this technique from three aspects: detection methods, verification methods and application implementation. The paper aims to provide the reader with a summary of the literature and the latest advances in the field of computer vision detection of lameness in dairy cows.

Short communication: Claw block application improves locomotion and weight-bearing characteristics in cattle with foot diseases

In cattle with foot diseases, application of a block on the healthy partner claw is a common method of pain relief. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of wooden claw blocks on locomotion characteristics and weight distribution in healthy (group C; n = 17) versus lame (group L; n = 17) cattle. Group L was further subdivided into group L1 (lameness score ≤3; n = 7) and group L2 (lameness score >3; n = 10). We performed lameness scoring using a numeric rating system and measured locomotion characteristics using 2 accelerometers (400 Hz; kinematic outcome = stance phase duration; kinetic outcomes = foot load and toe-off) and a 4-scale weighing platform (difference of mean weight distribution across the limbs; ∆_weight) before and after application of a claw block. We applied claw blocks to a randomly assigned lateral or medial claw of the fore or hindlimb in group C cows, and on the healthy partner claw in group L cows. Variables were expressed as differences across limbs. We used 1-way ANOVA to determine the differences between groups C and L and between groups L1 and L2 for ∆_weight after application of the claw block. We performed paired t tests to compare variables before and after application of the claw block in groups C and L. Group L scored higher on the numeric rating system than group C (mean ± SD, 3.40 ± 0.62 vs. 1.87 ± 0.28) and showed greater differences in relative stance phase duration (16.34 ± 10.78% vs. 2.13 ± 1.94%), foot load (9.68 ± 8.06 g vs. 3.26 ± 3.69 g), toe-off (3.91 ± 3.14 g vs. 0.78 ± 0.66 g), and ∆_weight (53.62 ± 28.85% vs. 8.52 ± 6.19%). In group C, we observed an increase of 12.17 percentage points in ∆_weight after block application, from 8.52 ± 6.19% to 20.69 ± 17.01%. Compared with the baseline, group L showed a decrease in numeric rating system score (2.88 ± 0.49 vs. 3.40 ± 0.62) and a decrease in differences between the limbs in relative stance phase duration (7.66 ± 9.96% vs. 16.34 ± 10.78%) and foot load (4.26 ± 4.14 g vs. 9.68 ± 8.06 g) after application of a claw block. Group L2 showed smaller ∆_weight after application of a claw block than group L1 (-7.8 ± 8.7% vs. 10.4 ± 7.6%). After block application in group L, we observed smaller differences across the limbs in variables measured to describe gait-cycle characteristics while walking, but no significant improvement while standing. We concluded that application of a claw block must be combined with other methods of pain relief, such as analgesic medication.

Slightly and Moderately Lame Cows in Tie Stalls Behave Differently From Non-lame Controls. A Matched Case-Control Study

Lameness affects dairy cows worldwide and is usually associated with pain. Behavioral differences in lame compared to non-lame tie-stall-housed dairy cows might be less pronounced than in free-stall-housed, since the principle demands to a cow's locomotor system and thus the impact of lameness on behavior seem to be lower in tie stalls. Behavioral differences between lame and non-lame cows might be used to estimate the impact of lameness on the well-being of tied dairy cows. In the current study, lame cows were categorized as locomotion scoring between 2.25 and 3.25 on a 1–5 scale. The aim was to compare the eating, rumination and lying behavior of lame cows against non-lame tied dairy cows, in order to draw conclusions on the association of lameness, behavior and well-being in tied dairy cows. The eating and rumination behavior of 26, the lying behavior of 30, and the relative upright and lying activities of 25 matched case-control pairs were analyzed, considering the matching criteria farm, breed-type, and parity-group. Lame cows had fewer [mean of the pairwise differences (case–control) (mean_diff) = −2.6 bouts, CI_95% (−3.8–−1.4) bouts, p = 0.001], but longer lying bouts [mean_diff = 26.7 min per bout, CI_95% (10.1–43.4) min per bout, p = 0.006]. The lying time was shorter [mean_diff = −64.7 min, CI_95% (−104.4–−24.9) min, p = 0.006] in lame cows compared to their non-lame controls. Lame cows had a shorter eating time [mean_diff = −27.7 min, CI_95% (−51.5–−4.0) min, p = 0.042] and spent a larger proportion of their upright time ruminating [mean_diff = 7.2%, CI_95% (3.2–11.1)%, p = 0.001] instead of eating. The results of the current study indicate that the eating, rumination, and lying behavior of lame tied dairy cows is altered. These findings indicate that slight and moderate lameness (locomotion score between 2.25 and 3.25 on a 1–5 scale) are likely to be associated with an impaired well-being in affected tied dairy cows. This underlines the need to continuously reduce the lameness prevalence and severity in tied dairy herds.

Randomized controlled trial comparison of analgesic drugs for control of pain associated with induced lameness in lactating dairy cattle

Both the economic loss and welfare implications of lameness affect the dairy industry. Currently no analgesic drugs are approved to alleviate lameness-associated pain in lactating dairy cattle in the United States. In this randomized controlled trial, 48 lactating Holsteins were enrolled to evaluate the effect of oral meloxicam and i.v. flunixin meglumine on induced lameness. Cows were allocated to 1 of 4 treatment groups (n = 12 per group): lameness and flunixin meglumine (LAME + FLU); lameness and meloxicam (LAME + MEL); lameness and placebo (LAME + PLBO); or sham induction and placebo (SHAM + PLBO). Six hours before treatment, arthritis-synovitis was induced in the distal interphalangeal joint with 20 mg of amphotericin B, whereas SHAM cows were given an intra-articular injection of an equal volume (4 mL) of isotonic saline. Cows in LAME + FLU received 2.2 mg/kg flunixin meglumine i.v. and whey protein placebo orally; LAME + MEL were administered 1 mg/kg meloxicam orally and 2 mL/45 kg sterile saline placebo i.v.; LAME + PLBO were administered 2 mL/45 kg sterile saline placebo i.v. and whey protein placebo orally; and SHAM + PLBO received 2 mL/45 kg sterile saline placebo i.v. and whey protein placebo orally. The initial treatment of MEL, FLU, or PLBO was identified as time 0 h and followed by a second dose 24 h later with data collection for 120 h. The methods used to assess analgesic efficacy were electronic pressure mat, visual lameness assessment, visual analog score, plasma cortisol concentration, plasma substance P concentration, mechanical nociception threshold, and infrared thermography imaging. Linear mixed effect modeling was the primary method of statistical analysis. Visual lameness scoring indicated a lower proportion of the FLU + LAME group was lame at the T2 h and T8 h time points in comparison to the positive controls, whereas MEL therapy resulted in a lower proportion of lame cows at the T8 h time point. Cortisol area under the effect curve was lower following FLU therapy compared with LAME + PBLO for the 0-2 h (LSM difference = 35.1 ng·h/mL, 95% CI: 6.8, 63.3 ng·h/mL), 2-8 h (LSM difference = 120.6 ng·h/mL, 95% CI: 77.2, 164.0 ng·h/mL), and 0-24 h (LSM difference = 226.0 ng·h/mL, 95% CI: 103.3, 348.8 ng·h/mL) time intervals. Following MEL therapy, cortisol area under the effect curve was lower than LAME + PLBO for both the 2 to 8 h (LSM difference = 93.6 ng·h/mL, 95% CI: 50.2, 137.0 ng·h/mL) and 0 to 24 h time intervals (LSM difference = 187.6 ng·h/mL, 95% CI: 64.9, 310.4 ng·h/mL). Analysis of data from other assessment modalities failed to discern biologically relevant differences between treatment groups. We conclude that meaningful differences were evident for visual lameness assessment and cortisol from MEL and FLU treatment versus the positive control. Further clinical research is needed toward development of a model that will create reproducible events that are more pronounced in severity and duration of lameness which can be validated as a substitute for naturally occurring lameness cases.

Relationships between type of hoof lesion and behavioral signs of lameness in Holstein cows housed in Canadian tiestall facilities

Although foot pain can affect gait, the presence of a hoof lesion may or may not cause the cow to show visible changes in their gait. This can be dependent on the type and severity of the lesion; for example, the presence of a sole ulcer (SU) has been associated with increased gait scores, whereas digital dermatitis (DD) and sole hemorrhage (SH) have not. In tiestall facilities, gait scoring can be difficult to perform. An alternative method, known as stall lameness scoring (SLS), allows observers to assess cattle for lameness while they remain in their stall. Lameness is determined based on behavioral changes in weight bearing and foot positioning, which include: shifting weight, resting a foot, standing on the edge of the stall, and uneven weight bearing when stepping side to side. The aim of this study was to examine relationships between hoof lesions and these behavioral indicators. A total of 557 observations of SLS and corresponding hoof trimming records, collected during routine trimming events on 7 tiestall herds, were obtained. Trimming was performed by 2 trained hoof trimmers with good agreement on lesion identification, based on quizzes taken at the beginning and mid-way through the study. To ensure trimming had no effect on the behavioral indicators observed, SLS was always performed by a trained observer before trimming. Behavioral indicators focused on the hind limbs only; therefore, the analysis was confined to hind limb lesions using logistic regression to detect the presence of hoof lesion based on observations made during SLS. Seventy-five percent of observed cows had no SLS behavioral indicators, whereas, 11, 12, and 1% had 1, 2, and 3 behavioral indicators, respectively. At least one hind limb lesion was noted during trimming in 19% of cows, with the most common lesions being DD (7%), SU (6%), and SH (4%). A cow that was observed resting one foot and bearing weight unevenly when moving side to side had higher odds of having a hind limb hoof lesion than a cow not displaying these behaviors. When looking at specific hoof lesions, a cow observed resting one limb and bearing weight unevenly had higher odds of having a SU compared with those not displaying these behaviors. A cow observed shifting their weight from one foot to another had higher odds of having SH, and a cow observed bearing weight unevenly had higher odds of DD. Behavioral indicators in weight bearing and foot positioning can help identify cows in tiestalls with hind limb hoof lesions. Producers could routinely observe their cattle for these indicators to assist in the identification of cows that may require treatment. This could help reduce the duration of clinical lameness through earlier intervention.

Microclimate modeling in naturally ventilated dairy barns during the hot season: Checking the accuracy of forecasts

Monitoring and predicting the microclimate in naturally ventilated barns (NVB) is important given the adverse effects of high summer temperatures on dairy cows in the context of global climate change. The aim of the work was to verify the accuracy of the microclimate forecast in a NVB using linear regression (LR). Our working hypothesis suggested that multiple periodic measurements of air temperature and relative humidity outside and inside the barns at the same time will allow us to build LR models for predicting the temperature-humidity index (THI). This was done not only for a specific dairy barn based on this indicator outside, but also in other dairy barns with a similar design, located in similar weather conditions. The results of the research indicate that the use of LR had a high accuracy of forecasting (93-96%) the THI in NVB of various designs during the summer heat. At the same time, differences were found between traits (air temperature, relative humidity as well as resulting THI) provided by meteorological weather stations and these data measured simultaneously next to the dairy barns. The proposed LR models can be used to predict THI in NVBs of different designs.

Prevalence of foot lesions in Québec dairy herds from 2015 to 2018

Our first objective was to estimate the prevalence of foot lesions by type of milking system in dairy cows examined during regular hoof-trimming sessions between 2015 and 2018 in Québec dairy herds. A secondary objective was to describe the effect of day-to-day variation, cow, and herd characteristics on the prevalence of foot lesions. Data included 52,427 observations (on a cow during a specific trimming session) performed on 28,470 cows (≥2 yr old) from 355 herds. Only observations from trimming sessions in which ≥90% of the lactating herd was trimmed were considered. Lesions were recorded at the hoof level by 17 trained hoof trimmers between March 23, 2015, and July 10, 2018, using a computerized recording system. Hoof-level information was then matched with cow information and centralized at the Eastern Canada Dairy Herd Improvement. Foot lesions were classified into 6 categories: infectious, white line disease, heel erosion, ulcers, hemorrhages, and any type of foot lesions. Prevalence of each outcome was quantified using the marginal predicted mean probability estimated from a null generalized linear mixed model with a logit link, and accounted for clustering of observations by cow and by herd. Variance was partitioned to assess the variation in the probability of the outcomes attributable to each level of the data structure (day of exam, cow, and herd). Prevalence of a given foot lesion as function of milking system and of various explanatory variables (mean herd size, herd average daily production, breed of the cow, age of the cow at trimming, and year of the visit) was then estimated using a generalized linear mixed model. At least 1 foot lesion was observed in 29% of cows examined during regular trimming sessions in Québec from 2015 to 2018. Prevalence for any type of lesion was 27% for pipeline, 38% for robotic milking, and 41% for milking parlors. The highest prevalence of infectious lesions (mainly digital dermatitis) was observed in milking parlors and robotic systems, while the most prevalent lesions in pipeline were hemorrhages. Herd-level factors explained most of the disease probability for infectious diseases, heel erosion, and hemorrhages. Therefore, control of these diseases should be based on applying best herd-management practices. On the other hand, probabilities of white line disease and sole ulcers were mainly determined by cow-level characteristics.

Organic Dairy Cattle: Do European Union Regulations Promote Animal Welfare?

Animal welfare is an emerging concept in EU law; with the advent of specific regulations intending to protect animals. The approach taken by European lawmakers is to provide "minimum standards" for conventional farming; argued by some as failing to adequately protect animals. In contrast, the EU organic farming regulations aim to "establish a sustainable management system for agriculture" and promote "high animal welfare standards". The first aim of this review was to identify key areas where there are clear improvements in quality of life for dairy cattle housed under the EU organic regulations when compared to the conventional EU regulations. Using the available scientific evidence, our second aim was to identify areas where the organic regulations fail to provide clear guidance in their pursuit to promote high standards of dairy cattle welfare. The greater emphasis placed on natural living conditions, the ban of some (but unfortunately not all) physical mutilations combined with clearer recommendations regarding housing conditions potentially position the organic dairy industry to achieve high standards of welfare. However, improvements in some sections are needed given that the regulations are often conveyed using vague language, provide exceptions or remain silent on some aspects. This review provides a critical reflection of some of these key areas related to on-farm aspects. To a lesser extent, post farm gate aspects are also discussed.

Association between lameness risk assessment and lameness and foot lesion prevalence on dairy farms in Alberta, Canada

Lameness is a detrimental health and welfare concern of dairy cattle with high prevalence in North American herds. As a practical and farm-specific approach toward its mitigation in Alberta, Canada, a score-based lameness risk assessment questionnaire (RAQ) was developed for veterinarians to conduct with their clients; however, its accuracy in identifying risk for lameness and hoof lesions has not been evaluated. Our objectives were to (1) provide an update on prevalence of lameness and hoof lesions in Alberta freestall herds, (2) validate the RAQ by determining the association between RAQ scores and the prevalence of herd lameness and herd lesions, and (3) determine the association between presence of common hoof lesions and lameness. For the first 2 objectives, 65 Alberta dairy farms were visited between March and October 2018 to collect a completed RAQ, hoof trimming records from their hoof trimmer, and video footage of the entire lactating herd. For the third objective, 10 participant herds were visited twice between November 2013 and June 2014 to take video footage of the entire lactating herd and collect hoof trimming records from their hoof trimmer within 48 h after video footage collection. Median herd-level lameness prevalence was 20% (range = 2-56%), infectious lesion prevalence was 10% (range = 0-49%), and noninfectious lesion prevalence was 15% (range = 2-39%). Of cows that were lame, 93% had a lesion, whereas 21% of cows with a lesion were lame. Cows with an infectious and noninfectious lesion were, respectively, 1.5 and 3.1 times more likely to be lame than cows with no lesion. Total RAQ score and herd lameness prevalence were correlated (r = 0.26) and noninfectious RAQ score and noninfectious lesion prevalence were correlated (r = 0.45), whereas infectious RAQ score and infectious lesion prevalence were not. Cow-level mixed logistic regression models indicated no associations between any of the RAQ scores and presence of lameness or a hoof lesion. Lameness prevalence in Alberta remains high, indicative of a low adoption rate of mitigation strategies by producers. Improvement of the RAQ could allow for better reflection of lameness and lesions on farm and can be achieved through further risk factor analysis within the RAQ, which may result in removal or addition of questions as well as the adjustment of scores based on risk factors' strength of association with lameness and lesions.

Claw Trimming as a Lameness Management Practice and the Association with Welfare and Production in Dairy Cows

Lameness resulting from claw lesions remains a pressing welfare issue in dairy cows. Claw trimming (CT) is a common practice for prevention and management of clinically lame cows. This review summarizes the results of studies that have investigated various claw trimming (CT) methods, their application in lameness management, and associations with the welfare and production of dairy cows. The papers included in this review fulfilled the following inclusion criteria: published in peer review journal or book chapter within the last 20 years (1999-2019), written in English, and focused on the application of CT for lameness management and the association with either welfare or production variables. Databases used included Google scholar, Web of Science and PubMed. A total of 748 records were assessed and 61 papers were eligible for inclusion and the main objectives and results were used to categorize the results under six topics: CT techniques, association between CT and claw overgrowth/specific claw lesions, timing and frequency of CT, association between CT and behavioral variables, association between CT and physiological parameters, and association between CT and production. The literature findings showed the existence of various CT methods with the common types including the Dutch Five-step, White Line, White Line Atlas, and Kansas techniques. There is data paucity on the efficacy of these techniques in lameness management; however, the slight procedural difference yields varying sole thicknesses and presentations which may influence their prophylactic use. Results regarding the impact of CT on welfare and production were discussed in relation to potential short and long-term benefits. Depending on the lesion type and severity level, CT may induce immediate painful sensation, stress, changes in lying down activities and reduction in milk yield, but the positive impacts were more evident at later stages of lactation following improvement in locomotion score. The majority of the reviewed studies were lacking a detailed description of CT techniques and claw health of the studied animals; thus, reducing the strength of demonstrating CT-related benefits. However, electronic recording of claw health data during every CT visit provides the basis for monitoring hoof health and could assist in curtailing some of these challenges. To elucidate CT-related benefits, certain areas requiring further research were highlighted such as ascertaining the appropriate timing for preventive CT and identifying cows that will benefit more from such intervention during lactation.

Profiling Detection and Classification of Lameness Methods in British Dairy Cattle Research: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Lameness is a serious concern in the dairy sector, reflecting its high incidence and impact on animal welfare and productivity. Research has provided figures on its frequency using different methodologies, making it difficult to compare results and hindering farm-level decision-making. The study's objectives were to determine the frequency levels of lameness in British dairy cattle through a meta-analysis approach, and to understand the chronological patterns of how lameness cases are detected and classified in scientific research. A systematic review was conducted using PRISMA-P guidelines for article selection. Random-effects models estimated the pooled frequency measure of lameness with heterogeneity managed through subgroup analysis and meta-regression. Sixty-eight papers were identified, 50 included prevalence and 36 incidence data. The pooled prevalence of lameness in British dairy cattle was estimated at 29.5% (95% CI 26.7-32.4%) whilst all-cause lameness incidence rate indicated 30.9 cases of lameness per 100 cow-years (95% CI 24.5-37.9). The pooled cause-specific lameness incidence rate per 100 cow-years was 66.1 (95% CI 24.1-128.8) for white line disease, 53.2 (95% CI 20.5-101.2) for sole ulcer, 53.6 (95% CI 19.2-105.34) for digital dermatitis, with 51.9 (95% CI 9.3-129.2) attributable to other lameness-related lesions. Heterogeneity levels remained high. Sixty-nine papers contributed to a chronological overview of lameness data source. Although the AHDB Dairy mobility scoring system (MSS) was launched in the UK in 2008 and adopted shortly after by the British Dairy sector as the standard tool for assessing lameness, other methods are used depending on the investigator. Automated lameness detection systems may offer a solution for the subjective nature of MSSs, yet it was utilized in one study only. Despite the recognition of under-reporting of lameness from farm records 22 (31.9%) studies used this data source. The diversity of lameness data collection methods and sources was a key finding. It limits the understanding of lameness burden and the refinement of policy making for lameness. Standardizing case definition and research methods would improve knowledge of and ability to manage lameness. Regardless of the measurement method lameness in British dairy cattle is high.

A Review of Welfare Indicators of Indoor-Housed Dairy Cow as a Basis for Integrated Automatic Welfare Assessment Systems

Simple Summary

Many techniques have been developed to measure single indicators of reduced welfare in farm animals, such as changes in the walking pattern to detect lameness in dairy cows. However, there is still a need to combine these single measurements to get a more complete picture of the wellbeing of an animal. Based on a literature review on dairy cow welfare, this review provides a basis for the development of an integrated automatic system to assess the welfare of dairy cows on the farm. It provides an overview of the main welfare issues for dairy cows, such as lameness, heat stress, or pain and of the most established indicators that could help to detect these welfare issues on the farm. We found that there are several indicators, such as reduced feed intake, that are common to most welfare issues and that are therefore suitable to detect reduced welfare in general, while other indicators mainly identify one welfare issue, such as increased respiratory rate, as an indicator of heat stress. Combining these different types of indicators would provide a good basis to develop an integrated automatic system that could assist farmers in the detection of reduced welfare on their farms.

Abstract

For on-farm welfare assessment many automatic methods have been developed to detect indicators of reduced welfare. However, there is still a need to integrate data from single sources to obtain a complete picture of the welfare of an animal. This review offers a basis for developing integrated automatic systems to assess dairy cow welfare by providing an overview of the main issues that challenge cow welfare (e.g., lameness) and of well-established indicators that could detect these issues on the farm. Based on a literature review of 4 reviews on cow welfare in general and 48 reviews on single welfare issues, we identified 18 different major welfare issues and 76 matching indicators that could be detected automatically on the farm. Several indicators, e.g., feed intake, showed a consistent association with welfare across many different issues. Although some of these indicators are discussed critically, this means there are many indicators that potentially could detect reduced welfare in general. Other types of indicators could detect one specific welfare issue, e.g., increased respiratory rate for heat stress. These different types of indicators combined provide a basis to develop integrated automatic systems that ultimately would help farmers to detect welfare problems at an early stage.

Influence of Lameness on the Lying Behaviour of Zero-Grazed Lactating Jersey Dairy Cattle Housed in Straw Yards

Thirty-five lactating Jersey cows were recruited to the study. They were grouped according to locomotion score (LS), where low scores indicate normal gait. LS-1 (n = 12), LS-2 (n = 12) and LS-3 (n = 11) were used. Locomotion scores were balanced for parity and stage of lactation. Lying behaviour was recorded using IceTag™ data loggers attached to the cows for four consecutive days. The study animals remained in the straw based yards with grooved concrete flooring throughout the duration of the study. All data were normally distributed and assessed using a one-way ANOVA with a post hoc Tukey test. There were no statistically significant differences between locomotion score and the time spent lying, active and standing of zero-grazed lactating Jersey dairy cattle housed on straw yards. Lame cows (LS-3) had significantly shorter lying bouts than sound cows (LS-1) (34 min vs. 42 min, respectively). There has been limited research to date measuring the lying behaviour of cattle on straw and into the Jersey breed. The cows had longer than expected standing times and an increased frequency of lying bouts. This may have been attributed to the stocking density in which the cows were kept. We also reported a prevalence of lameness within the herd of 38%.

Use of validated objective methods of locomotion characteristics and weight distribution for evaluating the efficacy of ketoprofen for alleviating pain in cows with limb pathologies

In veterinary practice pain alleviation plays a part in managing lameness. The aim of this randomized and placebo-controlled clinical study was to evaluate the effect of a single administration of ketoprofen on locomotion characteristics and weight distribution in cattle with foot (located up to and including the fetlock; n = 31) and (proximal to the fetlock; n = 10) pathologies. Cattle were randomly allocated to either the ketoprofen (group K; intravenous 3 mg/kg of body weight; n = 21) or an equivalent volume of isotonic sterile saline solution (group P; n = 20). Two accelerometers (400 Hz; kinematic outcome = stance phase duration; kinetic outcome = foot load and toe-off), a 4-scale weighing platform (weight distribution and SD of the weight) and a subjective locomotion score were measured before (baseline) and after 1 h and 18 h of treatment. All variables were expressed as differences across contralateral limbs, and the measurements at 1 h and 18 h were compared to the baseline. A repeated measures ANOVA was used to determine the differences between groups K and P. A logistic regression model with a binary outcome (0 = no improvement and 1 = improvement of the differences across the contralateral limbs over time) was calculated. Mean (± SD) of locomotion scores at baseline were not significantly different (P = 0.102) in group K (3.10 ± 0.80) as compared to group P (3.48 ± 0.64). Cattle of group K showed significantly lower differences across contralateral limbs at 1 h as compared to group P for the relative stance phase and the weight distribution. Only the treatment (P versus K) remained a significant factor in the model for relative stance phase (odds ratio (OR) = 6.5; 95% CI = 1.38–30.68) and weight distribution (OR = 6.36; 95% CI = 1.30–31.07). The effects of ketoprofen were evident in improving the differences across contralateral limbs—both for stance phase during walking and weight bearing during standing—after 1 h but not after 18 h of administration.

Dairy Farmers' Perceptions of and Actions in Relation to Lameness Management

Simple Summary

Lameness is a pressing issue in dairy production. Dairy farmers are primarily responsible for the welfare of their cows and decision-making regarding lameness management. However, there are concerns regarding the communication of the importance of lameness to farmers and their motivation towards proper management. A review of the literature indicates that various factors influence farmers’ perceptions about lameness, their adoption of recommended measures and whether or not they end up treating a lame cow. This review summarizes these related issues in consideration of the welfare and economic implications of farmers’ decisions. The information herein is vital to the identification of measures on how to motivate dairy farmers towards appropriate lameness management.

Abstract

Lameness continues to be a welfare and economic issue for dairy cows. However, the consequences of lameness seem to be better understood by veterinarians and related personnel in comparison to dairy farmers. Prompt detection and treatment of lame cows is essential in reducing its negative impact on milk processing systems. To that end, understanding farmers’ perceptions regarding the significance of lameness to dairy cows is vital. One fundamental aspect is the underestimation of lameness prevalence by dairy farmers, which is as a result of different understanding of the problem. The same applies to their decision to treat lame cows and to adopt various detection and management practices. All of these shortcomings contribute to poor cattle welfare and economic losses in dairy production. This review summarizes the results of studies that have investigated dairy farmers’ perceptions of lameness and the associated implications on the wellbeing and productivity of dairy cows. Factors associated with farmers’ attitudes toward claw health and lameness management are also presented. Additionally, economic observations relating to lameness prevention, treatment and the adoption of lameness detection systems are also highlighted. To strengthen these points, interventional programmes requiring farmers’ participation are discussed as a promising approach in answering some of these challenges. A review of the literature indicates both the opportunities and barriers inherent in the tackling the lameness issue from the farmers’ perspectives. Such knowledge is crucial in identifying measures on how to motivate dairy farmers towards proper lameness management.

Effects of transdermal flunixin meglumine on experimentally induced lameness in adult dairy cattle

Lameness is a common animal health condition with significant production and welfare implications. The transdermal formulation of flunixin meglumine is the only approved drug for pain control in cattle in the United States. Thirty adult dairy cows were enrolled in a study to determine the effect of transdermal flunixin on cattle with induced lameness. Cows were allocated to 1 of 3 treatment groups, with 10 cows per group: lameness and flunixin (L+F), lameness and placebo (L+P), or sham induction and placebo (S+P). An arthritis-synovitis was induced in the distal interphalangeal joint of the left hind lateral digit, using 20 mg of amphotericin B, 6 h before the application of treatment. Cows enrolled into the sham induction group had 4 mL of isotonic saline injected into the joint. Cows were dosed with transdermal flunixin at 3.33 mg/kg (1 mL/15 kg), or a placebo at 1 mL/15 kg, every 24 h for 3 d. The first treatment of flunixin or placebo was considered the start of the study, identified as time 0 h. Data were collected from all cows for 120 h following the initial treatment application. Outcome measures included plasma cortisol; substance P; visual lameness assessment; mechanical nociception threshold (MNT), presented as difference between left and right feet; infrared thermography (IRT), presented as difference between left and right feet; and gait analysis using a pressure mat. Cortisol concentrations were lower for the L+F group starting at 1.5 h after drug administration. Substance P levels showed no evidence for treatment differences among groups. Differences between the left hind MNT and right hind MNT were detected, with S+P having the lowest difference at -0.04 kilograms-force (kgf; 95% CI: -1.86 to 1.78 kgf), and L+P having the highest at -2.96 kgf (95% CI: 1.55 to 4.36 kgf). The L+F group was intermediate at -2.08 kgf (95% CI: 0.89 to 3.27 kgf). Similarly, when the difference between the maximum temperatures of the coronary band were examined via IRT, the L+P group had the highest difference at 1.64°C (95% CI: 1.02 to 2.26°C), with the L+F and S+P groups measuring 0.57°C (95% CI: 0.06 to 1.08°C) and 0.53°C (95% CI: -0.2 to 1.25°C) respectively. We found no evidence for differences among treatment groups when analyzing force, contact pressure, step impulse, or stride length. Based on differences in MNT, IRT, and cortisol, transdermal flunixin is an effective analgesic agent for induced lameness. Multiple doses of transdermal flunixin may be required to be clinically effective, based on MNT and IRT data. Further investigation of transdermal flunixin and its analgesic effects is warranted in naturally occurring lameness.

Use of topical local anesthetics to control pain during treatment of hoof lesions in dairy cows

Hoof pathologies in dairy cows have a major effect on both production and animal welfare. Trimming of excess or diseased hoof tissue is essential for the treatment of many of these conditions. Trimming hoof lesions can cause severe pain, resulting in adverse behavioral responses with risk for animal and human safety. Interventions are usually carried out by nonveterinary technicians in the absence of pain management training. Pain control during trimming is not only an ethical obligation but also allows for better manipulation and more meticulous treatment. The aim of this study was to test the efficacy of Tri-Solfen (Bayer Australia Ltd., Pymble, NSW, Australia), a combination of local anesthetics in a topical gel form, containing lidocaine, bupivacaine, adrenaline, and cetrimide, for the treatment of pain associated with trimming of hoof lesions. Sixty-two Holstein-Frisian cows were selected for trimming at the drying-off period and were visually scored for lameness before entering the chute. After diagnosis of the hoof lesion but before deep trimming was initiated, each animal was randomly distributed to 2 groups: C, usual trimming with no pain control, and T, trimming with a local anesthetic formulation being applied immediately after live corium was exposed. During curative trimming, behavior observation was conducted by 2 observers blind to treatment. In 27 cows, algometry measurements were performed before and after the procedure to assess animal reaction to pressure. Lameness scoring was again performed as the cow left the chute. Nonparametric tests and ANOVA were performed. Results showed that use of the topical anesthetic formulation significantly reduced reaction to trimming and lameness score after trimming when compared with nontreated animals. Algometry values showed increased pressure threshold after application of topical anesthetics. This study suggests that the use of topical local anesthesia with lidocaine and bupivacaine helps reduce pain associated with corrective trimming of severe hoof lesions, enhancing animal welfare and potentially ensuring safety of trimmers.

Aspects of lameness in pasture based dairy systems

Pasture-based dairy systems are implemented all over the world. Access to pasture is perceived to be advantageous for animal welfare in western societies. However, the benefits of grazing on lameness are not uniformly verifiable. This is related to the challenges that grazing cows face which are different from zero-grazing systems to some extent, but may nevertheless be deleterious. The distribution of lesion types comparing housed and pastured cattle differs between studies. This may be caused by differences in how strongly certain risk factors apply in these studies. Major risk factors for lameness in grazing cattle are related to the risk of trauma, for example from long walking distances and lack of track maintenance, and cow factors such as the adaptability of certain breeds to the grazing lifestyle. The consequences of lameness are similar to zero-grazing cattle and negatively affect animal welfare and productivity.

Short communication: Detection of lameness in dairy cows using a grooming device

Lameness in dairy cattle is a common welfare problem with significant economic implications. All too often, appropriate treatment is delayed or neglected due to insufficient detection of lame cows. Brush usage is considered a low-resilience activity; that is, one that typically decreases when energy resources are limited or when the cost involved in the activity increases, such as during sickness and stress. The aim of this study was to determine the association between brush usage and different degrees of lameness. Locomotion scores of 209 lactating Holstein dairy cows were collected individually once a week for 14 consecutive weeks, using a 5-point visual assessment scoring system (1 = nonlame, 2 = uneven gait, 3 = mild lameness, 4 = lameness, 5 = severe lameness). Daily brush usage was collected automatically from 3 cowsheds of similar size and structure located on a commercial dairy farm. In each of the 3 cowsheds, 2 brushes were installed, one next to the feed bunk, and the other away from the feed bunk (on the opposite side of the cowshed). Linear and generalized linear mixed-effects models were used to evaluate the association between locomotion scores and daily measures of brush usage. We found a significant interaction between locomotion score and brush location (near to/distant from feed bunk) on the daily proportion of cows using the brush at least once and on daily duration of brush usage. Specifically, we showed that lame and severely lame cows did not use brushes that were installed away from the feed bunk but continued to use brushes that were installed next to the feed bunk. Brush usage by cows with uneven gait (locomotion score 2) or with mild lameness (locomotion score 3) did not differ from that of nonlame cows (locomotion score 1). The results of this study suggest that monitoring of daily usage of brushes located away from the feed bunk could be a useful method for detecting lameness and severe lameness in dairy cows. However, the use of this method to detect mild lameness or cases of abnormal gait is, at this stage, less promising.

Prevalence of lameness, claw lesions, and associated risk factors in dairy farms in Selangor, Malaysia

The objectives of this cross-sectional study were to estimate the prevalence of lameness, claw lesions, and associated risk factors in dairy farms in Selangor, Malaysia. The sample population was 251 lactating cows from 8 farms assessed for lameness and claw lesions by locomotion scoring and claw assessment respectively while specific animal-based measures were hypothesized as cow-level risk factors. The Wilcoxon rank test and logistic regression were applied to assess the prevalence of lameness, claw lesions, and association with potential risk factors, respectively. The prevalence of lameness was 19.1% ranging from 10.0 to 33.3% while 31.1% of cows had claw lesions and ranged from 16.3–40%. Claw lesions were recorded in 87.5% of the lame cows with highest being those affected with sole lesions (54.2%) and white line disease (61.2%). Overall, the occurrence of overgrown claws, sole lesions, white line disease, and digital dermatitis were 37, 18.2, 10.9, and 8.3%, respectively. More than one claw lesion per cow was present in 71.8% of the affected cows. Lameness was associated with early lactation (OR = 3.3; 95% CI 2–7), injured hocks (OR = 4.8; 95% CI 5-17), and dirty legs hygiene (OR = 2.6; 95% CI 1.3-6.2), whereas presence of claw lesions was associated with dirty legs hygiene (OR = 4.7; 95% CI 4-11) and overgrown claw (OR = 2.7; 95% CI 1.4-5.3). To reduce the prevalence of lameness, farmers need to improve the management of cows with overgrown claw, injured hocks, and cleanliness by establishing routine claw trimming and efficient stall design.